Lecture Notes: ME22001 (Fluid Mechanics) SOME COMMON APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLIS EQUATION (Flow Measuring Devices) Suman Chakraborty

Department of Mechanical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur-721302, INDIA e-mail: suman@mech.iitkgp.ernet.in VENTURIMETER:

Venturimeter is a device to measure flow rate in a pipeline. It consists of two conical parts with a short portion of uniform section (throat) in between. In course of a flow through the converging part, the velocity increases in direction of flow, according to the principle of continuity (since the cross sectional area decreases). Thus, the pressure decreases (according to Bernoullis equation), and reaches a minimum at the throat. The flow rate is measured by measuring the pressure differential across the converging cone using a manometer. Subsequent to the throat, an increase in pressure and decrease in velocity take place in a divergent section (diffuser). Hence, the functions of different parts of the venturimeter can be summarized as follows: (i) (ii) (iii) Converging cone Throat Diffuser To obtain accelerated flow To obtain high velocity and maintain it for a short length. To restore the pressure as nearly as possible to the original value.

From the above figure, applying Bernoullis equation across sections (1) & (2) along a streamline, we get :

p1 V1 p V + + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 2g 2g
2 2 p p V2 V1 = 1 + Z1 2 + Z 2 2g

(where

= g)

(1)

Also continuity equation Q = A1V1 = A 2 V2

2

V1 =

A2 V2 A1

(2)

V2 Using (2) in (1), 2g

V2 = 1 1 A2 A1
2 2

2 p A 2 p1 1 2 = + Z1 2 + Z 2 A1

p p 2g 1 + Z1 2 + Z 2

(3)

Now applying principle of manometry (pressure is same at the same vertical depth in a connected fluidsystem) at the section AB,

p1 + (Z1 h ) g = p 2 + (Z 2 h h ) g + h m g
p p 1 + Z1 2 + Z 2 = h m 1
Using (4) in (3), V2 = (4)

A1 A1 A 2
2 2

2g h m 1

(5)

Q theoretical = A 2 V2 =

A1 A 2 A1 A 2
2 2

2g h m 1

(6)

Practice Problem 1. A venturimeter with a 75 mm dia throat is placed in a 150 mm dia line carrying water at 25o C. The pressure drop between the upstream tap and venturi throat is 300 mm of Hg. Compute the rate of flow. Ans. : Q = 0.0404 m3/s. Note : 1. Bernoullis equation assumes frictionless flow. However, in practice, friction between (1) and (2) will result in a higher pressure drop than that predicted by Bernoullis equation. Thus, measured h is slightly greater than that corresponding to a frictionless fluid flow. Hence equation (6) overestimates Q. Moreover, we have assumed uniform velocity distribution over sections (1) and (2) (i.e., Vav = V), which is not the actual case. Both of these factors are taken into account by introducing a correction factor (Cd), called coefficient of discharge, such that, Qactual = Cd x Qtheoretical where Cd usually has behaveen 0.95 to 0.98. In the diverging portion, the flow tends to separate from the walls. This is so, because, as the flow area increases, the pressure increases and the flow is decelerated (such a pressure gradient 2

2.

is called adverse pressure gradient). Thus, friction at the pipe walls may lead to reversal of fluid flow direction in the vicinity of wall. This is called flow separation. The energy corresponding to the separated flow (not a part of the main flow) is totally wasted, and is finally dissipated in form of heat. The greater the angle of divergence more the adverse pressure gradient, and greater the energy loss due to flow separation. On the other hand, a smaller divergence angle results in a large length of the diverging portion (for the same end diameters), and hence a larger loss by ordinary friction at the walls. The best compromise has been found for a total angle of divergence about 6o. 3. A common ratio of diameters at sections (2) and (1) is 1:2. Although a still smaller throat area gives a greater pressure differential (i.e., larger h ), facilitating more accurate measurements, the subsequent dissipation of energy in the diverging section is greater (since now a greater length of diverging section is now required to achieve the pipe diameter back to same as the diameter at section (1) ). Moreover, an extremely low pressure at the throat may result in dissolved gases to be liberated from the liquid, or even for vaporization to occur.

FLOW NOZZLE: ellipse d1

1 2

d2 recirculating flow (eddies)

The flow nozzle is essentially similar to venturimeter, with the divergent part omitted. The dissipation of energy due to abrupt change in flow cross section is much more than the case of a venturimeter (on account of more flow separation). However, this disadvantage is often offset by the lower cost of the flow nozzle. The downstream connection of the manometer may not necessarily be at the throat of the nozzle (where losses occur because of the eddying motion). Also, the upstream of the manometer connection may not be sufficiently far from the nozzle, where a more-or-less uniform flow can be maintained. These deviations are, however, taken care of in the values of Cd , which depends on the shape of the nozzle, diameter ratio d2 / d1, and the Reynolds number.

ORIFICEMETER: It is a simple and cheap flow measuring device. An orificemeter is essentially a thin circular plate with a sharp edged concentric circular hole in it. The orifice plate creates an obstruction to the flow, by providing the flow with an area Ao much smaller than cross-sectional area of the pipe A1. The flow past the orifice contracts to the extend to the section C C, also called the section of formation of vena contracta. Now, applying Bernoullis equation, continuity equation and principle of manometry across 3

sections (1) (1) and venturimeter), we

(C)

(C)

(similar to obtain

1 A c 2 A12 theoretical one, on account of friction, and can be estimated as: Vc, actual = Vc, theoretica l C v (where Cv =co-efficient of velocity <1). A Again, continuity Q = A c V (where Cc = coefficient of = c A0V = CcA0V
c, actual

Vc,

theoretical

2g h m 1 . The actual velocity is, however, less then the

A0

c, actual

c, actual

contraction

A c ). A0

Cc

introduced,
1

since

Ac

can

be

measured

directly.

Hence,

Q = A c Vc, actual = C v C c A 0

1 A 0 2 C c 2 A1 2

2g h m 1

2g Q = C d A 0 1 C c 2 A 0 2 A1 2

m 1h

(where

Cd = Cc = C v )

Q = C m 1 h ,

the value of C depends on C 2 A 2 A 2 1 c o 1 the ratio of orifice to pipe area and Reynolds number of flow. Inherent in C is the fact that downstream manometer connection is at the vena contracta. However, if that is changed, value of C will also be changed.

Where C = C d A o

2g

Comparison of Various flowmeters Type of flowmeter Venturimeter Orificemeter Flow Nozzle Accuracy High Low Intermediate between Venturimeter and Orificemeter Cost High Low Loss of total head Low High Typical value of Cd 0.95 to 0.98 0.60 to 0.65 0.70 to 0.80

PITOT TUBE:

Some preliminary concepts: (a) Static pressure: It is the pressure caused by molecular collisions and can be felt at any point by an observer moving with the flow. It can be measured by making a hole at the pipe wall and connecting the hole to a pressure measuring device. Such a hole is called a wall tap. Stagnation pressure: It is the pressure that could result at a point in the flow, if the flow were brought to rest in a reversible adiabatic process (i.e. an isentropic process) at that point. The reversible process signifies no lost work and adiabatic process signifies no external heat transfer; thus the entire kinetic energy is utilized to increase the pressure of the liquid only. Thus, applying Bernoullis equation between two points, one just upstream of the stagnation point and the other, the stagnation point(s) itself, we get,

(b)

p v 2 ps vs 2 v2 ,where ps is the stagnation pressure. The term accounts for difference + = + 2g 2g 2g

between static and stagnation pressure, on account of the flow velocity.

Stagnation pressure Thus, v =

ps {

Static pressure

p {

1 v2 { 2

Dynamic pressure

2(p s p ) Hence, if (p s p ) is measured by a manometer, the flow velocity v can be determined. To account for non-idealities in the flow (due to friction), a factor c can be introduced so that

v actual = c x v. A device that operates on the above basic principle is called Pitot tube.
NOTCHES AND SHARP-CRESTED WEIRS:

A notch may be defined as a sharp-edge obstruction over which the flow of a liquid occurs. The flow rate (also called discharge) is related to the depth of flow above the base of the notch, and thus the notch forms a useful flow measuring device. A large rectangular notch is more often termed as a sharpcrested weir.

Some common terminology associated with the rectangular weir: Nappe: Sheet of liquid escaping over the notch. (1) Drawdown : Drop in liquid surface in the plane of the weir. (2)

For analyzing flow over the notch, following simplified assumptions are made: 1. Upstream of the notch, the velocities of particles in the stream are uniform and parallel; thus the pressure varies according to the hydrostatic equation p = gh (In practice, it is often necessary to install baffles to reasonably steady and uniform condition).

2.

The free surface remains horizontal as far as the plane of the notch, and all particles passing through the notch move horizontally and perpendicular to its plane.
6

3.

The pressure throughout the nappe is atmospheric. However, owing to the curvature of streamlines, a fluid element located between two consecutive streamlines will have a centripetal acceleration; and hence there must be a differential of pressure that exists across the opposite faces of the fluid element, which provides an unbalanced force. Thus, pressure does not remain the same for all streamlines constituting the nappe, in the actual case. The effects of viscosity and surface tension are negligible. For a streamline between (1) and (2), Bernoullis equation can be applied under the above simplified assumptions:

4.

p1 v12 p2 v22 + + z1 = + + z2 2g 2g
atmospheric as zero gauge pressure,

Now, at (1), pressure is atmospheric + hydrostatic pressure due to depth of liquid. Assuming 1

p1 = H. z1 . Also, according to assumption 3,

p1 = 0 (gauge pressure).
from 1 ,
V2 2 V12 = +h 2g 2g

v12 v 2 2 H+ = + z2 2g 2g

v12 v 2 2 H+ = + (H h ) 2g 2g

(refer to the fig : Z 2 = H h )

Now, we consider an elemental strip of depth dh at the exit location (section (2)) at the depth h. (Volume flow rate Elemental flow through the strip, dQ = (Bdh ) V2 = Velocity area of cross section) H Q th = dQ = (Bdh ) V12 + 2gh o 3 3 H 1 V12 2 V12 2 2 Q th = B V12 + 2gh 2 dh = B 2g H + 2g 3 2g o (Where Qth = theoretical discharge) The actual discharge, however, can be calculated by incorporating a coefficient of discharge (Cd) to account for the inadequacy of the assumptions made. Thus, Qactual = Cd Qth. Frequently
3 V12 2 is negligible compared to H Q = C d B 2g H 2 . 3 2g

THE TRIANGULAR WEIR OR V-NOTCH:

For measuring small discharges accurately and to avoid surface tension effects which are associated with flow at low heads and to obtain higher measurable heads (i.e., the height H), a triangular weir is preferred over a rectangular one.

2b Z2 2

h dh

For a V-notch,

V12 is truly negligible (since cross-sectional area of the approach channel is usually 2g

much greater than that of the notch). V2 = 2gh Now dQ = (2bdh ) 2gh,
where tan =

dQ = 2x (H h ) 2gh tan dh
3 1 = 2 2g Hh 2 h 2 tan dh

b Hh

H H 1 3 3 2 2 52 Q th = dQ = 2 2g tan Hh 2 h 2 dh = 2 2g tan Hh 2 h 5 3 0 0 5 2 2 5 8 2g tan H 2 Q th = 2 2g tan H 2 = 15 3 5 5 8 Q actual = C d Q th = C d tan 2g H 2 15 The angle 2 is commonly known as the angle of the weir. Note : 1. The weir can have openings of other shapes also, for example, a trapezoidal weir has a trapezoidal opening, and can be regarded as a combination of a triangular and rectangular weir. 2. It may so happen that fluid on the downstream side of the weir rises above the level of the crest. Such a weir is called a submerged weir (since the weir seems to be totally submerged in the fluid when observed from outside).