Sec 2 Chemistry

Ionic bonding Atoms with octet configuration do not bind chemically with other atoms and are unreactive (grp 0 noble gases) Positive ions (cations, grp I, II, III metals) lose valence electron to achieve octet configuration Negative ions (anions, grp VII, VI, V, non-metals) gain valence electron to achieve octet configuration Ionic bonding occurs between metals and non-metals, which forms an ionic compound Ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between a positive ion and a negative ion Covalent bonding Sharing of electrons between non-metals and non-metals Each bond shares 2 electrons

Properties of ionic compounds Giant lattice structure, thus large amount of energy needed to overcome the strong ionic bonds Non-volatile (does not evaporate easily), high m.p & b.p Soluble in water, but not in organic solvents Conduct electricity in molten and aqueous form, as the ions become mobile Does not conduct electricity in solid form (giant lattice), as ions are in fixed position Properties of covalent compounds Simple molecular structure Held together by weak intermolecular forces: van der waals forces and hydrogen bonds (stronger)

Intermolecular forces in gas are negligible eg. ammonia NH3 Hydrogen bond: exists only when H-O, H-F, H-N Van der waals force: exists when no hydrogen bonds Volatile (evaporate easily), low m.p & b.p, as very little energy required to overcome the weak intermolecular forces

Many exist as liquids or gases at r.t.p. Insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvent, except: sugar, alcohol Do not conduct electricity as there is no free moving electrons to conduct electricity, except: acids

Giant macromolecular structure (solid in r.t.p.) Allotropes are different forms of the same element that differ in physical properties eg. diamond and graphite Diamond: each carbon atom is joined to 4 other atoms by very strong covalent bonds, and are arranged in a tetrahedral arrangement which repeats itself to form a giant molecule with a rigid structure Graphite: carbon atoms are arranged in layers of hexagonal rings with weak van der waals force in between each layer, which is easily broken and allows the layers to slip and slide over one another, can be used to make pencil lead Silicon dioxide: the atoms are arranged in a tetrahedral arrangement which repeats itself to form a giant molecule Does not conduct electricity except for graphite: carbon has 4 valence electrons, but only 3 are used to form covalent bonds. Hence, there is a free valence electron that can move along the layers to conduct electricity High m.p & b.p Insoluble in ALL solvents

Chemical formula

Ionic compound Cation named before anion Roman numeral to specify charge for transition metals A compound formed from only 2 elements always ends with ide

Covalent compound Element name for molecules formed by the same type of atom eg. hydrogen Acids When acids dissolve in water, they undergo ionization and produce H+ ions Strong acids are fully ionized when in water eg. H2SO4, HNO3 Weak acids are partially ionized when in water, producing less H+ ions, as some still exists as molecules eg. ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), citric acid (C6H8O7) Acids ONLY have acidic properties when dissolved in WATER Sour taste Turns blue litmus paper red pH below 7 Corrosive Conducts electricity due to H+ ions which are mobile ions Ethanoic acid and sulphur dioxide - preserve food Sulphuric acid detergents, paints, cat batteries, fertilizers Nitric acid fertilizers Hydrochloric acid dissolve rust on metals Acid + metal = salt + hydrogen Ends with ide for the second element Elements with smaller group number named first eg. H(grp I)2O(grp VI) Mono-1, di-2, tri-3, tetra-4 for indicating number of atoms in 2nd element Drop a and o before element names that begin with vowel

Acid + metal carbonate = salt + CO2 + H2O eg. eggshell (contains calcium carbonate) in vinegar (ethanoic acid), observation: gas bubbles form due to presence of CO2, product: calcium ethanoate + CO2 + H2O

Non-metal oxides are acidic

BASES (including alkali) Bases are usually metal oxides or hydroxides Used in cleaning agents eg. soaps and detergents

Alkalis Bases that dissolve in water are called alkalis eg. sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, aqueous ammonia When alkalis dissolve in water, they undergo ionization and produce OHions There is also strong (NAOH) and weak alkalis (NH3)aq Soapy Bitter Turn red litmus paper blue Alkali + ammonium salt = salt + NH3 + H2O Slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) cannot be added together with fertilizers which contains ammonium salts, as the nitrogen element which is required for protein making in plants will be lost to the atmosphere, and the fertilizer would be wasted *Grp I metals are also alkali metals, alkali metals + H2O = metal hydroxide + hydrogen Neutralization Acid + base = salt + H2O Toothpaste are made of bases, which would neutralize the acid produced by decaying food particle

Shampoos contains mild alkali while hair conditioner contains mild acid to neutralize it so that our hair is manageable

Factory waste are often acidic and would be neutralized by lime (calcium oxide) before discharging into streams

All salts are neutral, all ionic compounds other than acids and bases are salts

To increase pH: add bases OR eliminate acid eg. reaction with metals

Universal indicators Litmus papers Methyl orange - red at a pH under 4.4, yellow-orange at pH 4.4 and above Phenolphthalein colourless at pH under 8.2, red at pH 8.2 and above

Neutral non-metal oxides: water, NO, CO Amphoteric metal oxides: react with both acids and bases to form salts, Al2O3, PbO, ZnO