So You Want to Do a PhD:

A Guide for the Aspiring Doctoral Candidate

R (Chandra) Chandrasekhar
independent Scholar, Tinker, Author, Researcher (iSTAR)
chandra@swanlotus.com
http://chandra.swanlotus.com
o- Februarv io1o
.
.
Why do you want to do a PhD? Proceed further only if you are doing it for
yourself, out of your own interest, rather than because someone else wants
you to.
Before you select a research topic, university, and supervisor, explore thor-
oughly, reect and choose carefully, and having chosen, pursue your goal
steadfastly until the end.
The only way you can fail to get a PhD is if you give up yourself. Never lose
motivation. Take breaks when necessary.
Master your subject. Read seminal papers. Plan and execute your research
competently and honestly. Manage your time frugally. Keep meticulous re-
cords. Write up your work in instalments. Prepare and present conference
papers. Keep submitting and revising manuscripts to journals until they are
accepted.
Rehearse repeatedly for your oral defence. Submit your thesis for examination.
Make all corrections necessary for the nal submission. Get your doctorate.
Work to benet humankind.
.Summary
1 Introduction
Tose who are fortunate enough to go to universitv usuallv heave a sigh of relief when thev gradu-
ate, ofen afer feen to eighteen vears of continuous education. Tev join the work force and are

Tis is a chapter from mv forthcoming book Secrets of Academic Success to be published bv SwanLotus Cre-
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downloads/PhDGuide.pdf. If vou wish to share it, please do not make copies, but rather refer others to this site, so
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R (Chandra) Chandrasekhar, io1o.
1
SECRETS OF ACADEMIC SUCCESS So You Want to Do a PhD?
quite happv to put into practice what thev have studied, serving societv, and being rewarded in
return with a good salarv and social status.
With the rapid explosion and democratization of knowledge, however, merelv completing an
undergraduate degree does not alwavs ensure a good job or a comfortable life. Tis spurs manv
to pursue graduate degree programmes that award a masters degree or a doctorate. Tose who
take the latter path mav do so afer joining the workforce in the real world, or thev mav remain
solelv in academia afer their basic degree, to complete a doctorate, teach, and do research.
Whatever vour purpose, and at whatever stage in vour life vou decide to do postgraduate work,
there are certain issues that vou must consider before vou embark on a PhD.' Tis short guide is
intended to assist the aspiring doctoral candidate in thinking things through before taking the
PhD plunge. It will help vou clarifv for vourself, whv vou are doing what vou are doing, what lies
ahead, what pitfalls to avoid, and how to gain fullment in the process.
i Brief history of the PhD as a degree
Te title of the undergraduate degree usuallv has the word bachelor in it, and comes fromthe Latin
baccalaureus meaning apprentice or advanced student. Further studv ofen leads to a degree
with the word master in it, and this comes from the Latin magister meaning master, director,
or teacher, and denotes a higher qualication in that subject. Imagine an apprentice carpenter
who has worked his wav to become a master carpenter and the titles will fall into place.
Te tradition of the doctoral degree originated in Germanv. Te PhD degree and its siblings
all embodv the Latin word doctor which means teacher. Te PhD or Doctor of Philosophv degree
comes from the Latin Philosophi Doctor meaning teacher of philosophv. Historicallv, anv dis-
cipline of studv outside theologv, medicine, and the law was considered to be philosophv. Later
on, science was called natural philosophv. Todav, the PhD is an advanced academic degree con-
ferred bv manv universities in a varietv of subjects. But bear in mind that theologv, medicine, and
the law, given their historv, confer doctorates bearing other titles.
Some universities also confer a degree called a licentiate, from the Latin licentia doctorandi
meaning qualied to teach. Tis is sometimes equivalent to a masters degree. Some universities
call the PhD the DPhil degree. In the United States and most Commonwealth countries, a PhD
is sucient for the holder to be accorded teaching rights at a universitv. Some European univer-
sities, however, require a PhD holder to submit a postdoctoral thesis through a process known
as habilitation meaning to make able to, before being accorded venia legendi or permission for
lecturing.
.
.In sum, a PhD in any discipline is simply a licence to teach that subject at uni-
versity level.
.
: Pre-requisites and processes
Te aspiring doctoral candidate should have a verv good undergraduate degree, or a masters de-
gree, before she or he can enrol for a PhD. In manv universities, the candidate is required to sit
'Or other doctoral degree. Te term PhD is used genericallv here and also applies to other earned research doc-
torates, such as the MD, LLD, ID, etc.
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SECRETS OF ACADEMIC SUCCESS So You Want to Do a PhD?
for qualifying examinations before doctoral enrolment is approved.
Requirements for the PhD degree varv with discipline, universitv, and countrv. Generallv, it
entails the following:
1. Passing a number of qualifving examinationsusuallv at the nal-vear undergraduate levelin
subjects relevant to the chosen eld of research;
i. Enrolment in a number of advanced courses relevant to the eld of research, and satisfact-
orilv passing examinations in them;
:. Suitablv framing a topic for research and getting approval from the universitv to undertake
it;
a. Engaging in the actual research under the supervision of one or more qualied supervisors;
-. Documenting the research and its outcomes bv writing a dissertation or thesis and getting it
passed, with or without corrections, bv a panel of expert examiners; and
o. Successfullv defending the thesis orallv before a panel of expert examiners and all-comers.
.
.The primary requirement for a PhD is that the doctoral research should result
in a substantial and original contribution to knowledge in the eld.
.
In praxis-oriented disciplines, e.g., music or drama, the thesis mav form a small component
and, sav audio-visual documentation, a larger component of the research submission. In all cases,
though, the requirement for the research to contribute signicant, new knowledge remains un-
changed.
One of the criteria of good research is that it should be publishable in high qualitv research
journals in the eld. If a candidate has alreadv published such research, it is a good sign that the
degree is almost in the bag. If the candidate has not done so, the thesis examiners will comment
on whether the calibre of research is of sucient qualitv to merit publication in reputable journals.
Tis peer-reviewed research has been the gold standard that has kept knowledge untainted bv fraud
and plagiarism: no new knowledge is admitted into the fold unless those held to be the experts
deem it so worthv.
a Why do you want to do a PhD:
Te PhD is, as we have seen, a licence to teach at tertiarv level. If one asks oneself the question
Whv do I want to do a PhD degree: the answers could be one or more of the following:
1. I have won a scholarship to do a PhD;
i. I want to teach at universitv level;
:. I want to secure tenure at mv universitv;
a. I want to do research;
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SECRETS OF ACADEMIC SUCCESS So You Want to Do a PhD?
-. I want to earn more monev;
o. I want to full an ambition to do a PhD;
. I like the title Doctor before mv name;
8. I want to become a specialist working in a government agencv or in industrv;
o. I want to start mv own consulting rm; etc.
Needless to sav, the above list is not exhaustive, Te reasons for doing a PhD are as numerous
and varied as the human beings who enrol for the degree. But vou must be clear whv vou want to
do the degree before vou embark upon it. Tere will be times during vour candidature when vou
would doubt vour own sanitv for having enrolled for the degree. Or the sacrice of time or familv
relationships might induce vou to throw in the towel before vou get the degree.
.
.So, it is vital that you are clear in your own mind why you are enrolled for the
PhD. Those reasons are the bedrock upon which you build your work. If you
lack that bedrock of personal conviction, and are doing a PhDsimply to please
someone else, youmight want tore-consider your decisionbefore it is toolate.
.
= Selecting a research area
In manv cases, selecting a research area is an obvious and uncomplicated decision. You know the
eld in which vou earned vour bachelors and masters degrees. You wish to progress further in
the same eld bv enlarging upon the research that vou started in vour earlier degrees, and thats
that.
In other cases, it might be quite dierent. You might have started out as a pure mathematician
and now want to do a PhD in phvsics. Tat is not too great a leap, and preciselv one that manv
have made. To accommodate rare talent, some universities oer sandwich programmes in which
a candidate can enrol, for example, for a PhD in engineering and also an MD in medicine. Or a
combination of doctorates in law and engineering. Tere are some people who just love working
in trans-disciplinarv areas like these, and thev thrive on the challenge, and excel because there are
so few like them.
Other considerations could also come in. If vou are contemplating a PhD in economics and
plan on making a killing at the stock exchange from vour research, choosing vour eld would
be like taking a gamble. If vou are intending to studv marine biologv, but live in a land-locked
countrv, vou must factor in living in another countrv during vour PhD and afer vou complete it.
Location, prospective emplovers, the job market, availabilitv of scholarships, and a host of
factors all feedinto the decisionof choosing vour eldof doctoral research. Whatever vour specic
circumstances, if vou do not love the area in which vou wish to do research, vou will not succeed,
much less thrive.
.
.So above all, choose to research something you love, for that will keep you
going when all else tells you to stop.
.
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SECRETS OF ACADEMIC SUCCESS So You Want to Do a PhD?
o Choosing a university
Te choice of universitv is, for manv, a foregone conclusion. It could be a universitv that is in ones
hometown, or the one which oered the most attractive scholarship, or the one that boasts of a
world-famous researcher in the eld, etc. Or the choice of universitv might simplv be a Hobsons
choice.
Universities the world over are becoming more corporatized, more homogeneous in their out-
look, and more integrated with each other through the ubiquitv of the Internet. Research at manv
universities is conducted at Centres of Excellence of one sort or another. If the area in which
vou are contemplating research falls within the purview of such a centre at a particular univer-
sitv, and that centre has a good track record in research, that could help vou make vour choice
of institution. Remember that vour fellow PhD students contribute a great deal to the qualitv of
vour life at universitv. A good research centre will have a healthv diversitv of PhD students, doing
research on a varietv of topics, who could go a long wav toward enhancing vour experience as a
PhD candidate.
Te onlv thing to avoid is shadv universities which are not accredited, and which oer higher
degrees within a matter of weeks, usuallv on pavment of fees via the Internet. No serious doctoral
candidate would countenance participating in these laughable scams, but I mention them to alert
the unwarv.
Te PhD supervisor
Te PhD supervisor is vour friend, guide, and philosopher on vour vovage toward a PhD. It is
important that vou search thoroughlv, choose carefullv, and stick with vour choice steadfastlv
until vou complete vour PhD.
Te choice of supervisor is entwined with the choice of research topic and, of course, choice
of universitv. Take vour time to make an informed choice that vou are comfortable with, and
that vou do not regret later. Incidentallv, the supervisor is also called the guide, the advisor, etc.,
depending on the universitv and its tradition.
Manv universities currentlv mandate that everv doctoral student should have at least two su-
pervisors, one of whom will act as principal supervisor. Tere are also ofen rules of engagement
which dictate the minimumfrequencv of meetings, the documentation of meetings, the frequencv
of research progress reports, etc., during the candidature. While these are guidelines that prevent
vou from falling o the rails, thev do not impact on the personal nature of interaction between
supervisor and student.
.
. The choice of PhD supervisor can often make or break your PhD.
.
It is probablv the most visceral aspect of vour work: where vour personalitv, work ethic, at-
titude to the topic, meticulousness or lack of it, etc., confront vour supervisors counterparts. If
there is a happv harmonv, vou will most likelv sail smoothlv. While a svmpathetic supervisor mav
be a boon, an antagonistic supervisor could also be a blessing in disguise. He or she mav present
vou with the verv arguments vour examiners might, and it is better to encounter such opposition
earlv in the dav than to have vour thesis dashed to bits at vour oral defence, and have to return to
the grinding wheel for another vear or two.
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SECRETS OF ACADEMIC SUCCESS So You Want to Do a PhD?
Tere are several archetvpes for the supervisor. I shall enumerate three extreme cases: the
autocrat, the laissez faire character, and the mentor-friend.
.1 Te autocrat
Te autocrats wish vou to work as a gloried slave doing their bidding. It is almost as if such
supervisors would like to do the research themselves, but for the fact that thev do not have enough
pairs of hands and enough time. So, vou the poor PhD candidate, function as an extension of
themselves. You are not allowed to think for vourself or to oer an opposing viewpoint. You just
do as as vou are told. Such a relationship is obviouslv unequal and does little to develop self-
reliance and condence in the research student.
Autocrats are ofen intolerant of errors. Remember that it is bv making mistakes that the most
enduring lessons are learned. Anvone who is unwilling to allow vou to make mistakes is actu-
allv impeding vour own educational development. Some autocrats are verv busv people wielding
enormous inuence among their peers, the universitv administration, and among research fund-
ing agencies. Tev mav not have enough time to meet ofen or to allow a constructive two-wav
discussion. Moreover, their eminence might dissuade vou from asking fundamental questions
that are troubling vou; questions that you should never be afraid to ask. Would vou reallv like to
work with someone like that:
If in the end, vou decide for good reasons to do research under the supervision of an autocrat,
make a pact with vourself that vou will never give up vour PhD because of problems with vour
supervisor.
.i Te laissez faire or laid-back type
Te laissez faire character is the antithesis of the autocrat and practises the gentle art of non-
interference, and ofen the even gentler art of laziness. Sometimes this might go to the extreme
of meeting vou perhaps onlv once during vour entire candidature and of knowing vour research
topic onlv verv superciallv. If vou are self-motivated, condent, and have masterv of vour subject,
this tvpe of supervisor mav be ideal for vou. Tere are occasions, however, when it helps if vou
can bounce ideas o someone, be it an academic or a fellow student. If a laissez faire supervisor
cannot perform this role, make sure that someone who can is on vour panel of supervisors as a
co-supervisor.
.: Te mentor-friend
Te supervisor who functions as friend and mentor is ideallv suited to manv students. Tis person
is able to nurture the student without stiing his or her growth as a researcher. Tev have achieved
sucient eminence that thev are not concerned that their students will steal the limelight awav
fromthem. Such supervisors are generallv humble, approachable, aable, and disciplined enough
to meet regularlv, and to give truthful feedback, be it positive or negative. Tev do not punish vou
for making mistakes but rather emphasize the didactic nature of errors: what can vou learn from
them: If vou are fortunate enough in getting a mentor-friend tvpe as vour principal supervisor,
vou are generallv in safe hands, but that does not absolve vou from taking responsibilitv for vour
progress and timelv completion.
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.a Ask other PhD students
Other PhD students are ofen the most reliable source of information about how dierent aca-
demics stack up as PhD supervisors, especiallv from the students viewpoint. Enquire and seek
their counsel before vou make vour choice.
For example, how soon does a supervisor grant a request for a meeting: How soon before a
querv relating to the research is answered: If it takes half a semester before a supervisor responds
to an urgent question, perhaps vou should look elsewhere. Ask questions like these from which
vou can get objective answers untainted bv opinion.
Youshould also ask subjective questions. For example, does the student feel that the supervisor
is fair: How productive are meetings with the supervisor: Does the supervisor appear to be out
of his or her depth in the particular research topic: Is there anv aspect of the student-supervisor
relationship that arouses unease in the student: Answers to such subjective questions reect on
both the student and the supervisor, and must be taken with a grain of salt. However, if all students
under a particular supervisor give vou adverse comments, that is a red ag which vou should not
ignore.
If vou ask enough studentsspread across dierent research areas and supervisors in the de-
partmentvou will soon be able to form an overall picture from their answers that will help vou
select vour supervisor, or least warn vou about whom vou should stav awav from.
.= Grant applications
Research is criticallv dependant upon funding, and manv PhD students are expected to pitch in
when their supervisor writes a grant application. You might be pressed into service to provide
material for these. But take care that vou are not taken advantage of: for example, vou should
not be asked to shoulder the burden of writing the whole grant application. Your PhD scholarship
could have come from a previous successful grant application. So, do vour mite cheerfullv if vou
are asked to contribute an explanatorv paragraph or two, and perhaps a list of publications.
.o Detours
Beware of supervisors who constantlv keep changing the goalposts of the research problem, per-
haps to maintain continued research funding. Te student is then a gloried servant, much like
in the autocratic case, and the worst outcome is a hodge podge of unrelated research projects that
cannot satisfv the universitv that it is a single integrated bodv of work, suitable for the award of a
PhD.
Another danger fromsupervisors is that thev could lead vou down a track that takes vou awav
from vour main research topic and that could potentiallv be a dead end. It is criticallv important
that vou have a clearlv dened research proposal with denite milestones and a nal goal. If not,
vou could be doing much and achieving little.
Because vou are doing research and uncovering new knowledge, neither vour supervisor nor
vou can be expected to know what vour research outcomes would be, or where vour research
would ultimatelv lead. If vou did, it would not be research in the rst place. To avoid being
trapped bv this, it is important that vour supervisors have enough collective research supervision
experience to identifv potential cul de sacs into which vou should not strav.
If vou have a problem with vour principal supervisor, vou should be able to seek counsel,
comfortablv and condentiallv, fromvour other supervisor(s) and resolve the matter productivelv
and amicablv with all of them.
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. Beware the rolling stone
Some students start out on a project with a supervisor who has inspired themonlv to nd out that
the topic was not interesting enough, or that thev could not work fruitfullv with their supervisor.
Tis leads to a change of topic, or of supervisor, or both. If this change were made without enough
thought and analvsis, but rather because of fear or anger or some other emotion, it might lead to
the same problems again. Avoidbeing caught inthis trapof endless change of topic andsupervisor.
Youwill be wasting valuable time, and will achieve nothing inthe endunless voustick to vour topic
and supervisor.
.
.For that, I reiterate: explore thoroughly, reect and choose very carefully, and
pursue your goal steadfastly until the end.
.
.8 Honesty and integrity
As the last word on supervisors, I would sav that above all else, seek a principal supervisor who has
honestv and integritv. If these qualities are lacking in an otherwise eminent person, mv personal
advice is to forgo the eminent supervisor and work under the guidance of a lesser achiever who
has honestv and integritv.
8 Te research proposal
Your research proposal is a vital document. It sets the tone and goal for anvwhere between three
vears (full time) and eight vears (part time) of vour research life. One does not wander willv nillv
in search of inspiration on what research to do next. One follows a well-worn path to search out
and scope a problem of sucient interest and impact, but which has hitherto not been studied.
Te topic of research is then enunciated, so that regardless of research outcome, a degree mav be
awarded at the end. An example will help here.
Suppose vou wanted to do research to create a black-coloured rose. You could dene vour
topic to be Te creation of a hvbrid black-coloured rose. Suppose at the end of about four vears
of full time research, the closest vou could get was a verv deep purple rose, but not a strictlv black
one. Unfortunatelv, vou mav not have lefvourself enough leewav to claimcompletion of research.
If instead, vou had dened vour proposal to be An investigation into the production of a
hvbrid black-coloured rose, vou could verv well claimthat a purple rose, of hitherto unseen depth
of colour, is a signicant advance. What is more, vou could claimto have completed vour research.
You would also have laid a solid foundationfor future research that could verv well lead to a perfect
black rose.
Universities varv in how seriouslv thev approach the formulation of the research proposal. In
some universities, afer a period of preliminarv studv, completing examinable units, the candidate
is asked to undertake a survev of the literature in the broad research area. She or he must master
the basic knowledge in the eld bv self-studv, and must identifv the major unanswered questions,
or existing contradictions or paradoxes, that are worthv of further studv. In some cases, the pro-
posal would extend the envelope of existing knowledge, such as in the above hvpothetical case of
producing a hvbrid black rose.
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Te candidate must then carefullv summarize the existing state of knowledge and must formu-
late the research proposal carefullv, so as not to prejudice the granting of a degree later on. Tis
proposal must then be presented to a committee of academic facultv and perhaps, extra-mural
experts, who will debate on its acceptabilitv. Tev will ask questions like these:
1. Is it something that has alreadv been done before:
i. Is it interesting enough to be worthwhile:
:. Has the proposal been formulated carefullv so that the student mav be awarded the degree
regardless of the research outcome, whether positive or negative:
a. Is it well-founded on the existing bodv of knowledge:
-. Is the scope feasible for the envisaged time frame:
o. What is the closest bodv of existing knowledge and who are the research leaders for that:
Te candidate will verv likelv be quizzed, and the proposal turned over several times like a
pancake, and viewed from all angles, before the committee gives its blessing.
Tere are universities where there is no formal proposal process. Worse still, the student is
given free rein and mav not have an idea about where he or she is headed, until expirv of a schol-
arship or nancial imperatives nallv force the thesis to be written.
It is then that the knottv problem of what in the world have I worked on for four vears:
suddenlv strikes the student with alarming force. Panic ofen ensues before a plan for a patchwork
quilt of a thesis is worked on, in consultation with the panel of supervisors. Do not ever allow
vourself to get into this mess. Even if vour universitv is relaxed about a research proposal, make
sure vou are not, and take steps to formulate a rigorous and worthwhile proposal, in consultation
with vour panel of supervisors. It is time and eort well spent.
o Visualizing the end: thesis writing and the oral defence
Successful people ofen stronglv visualize the goal that thev are striving to achieve. In vour case,
it is fullling the requirements for the PhD. Tis means writing the thesis and preparing for vour
oral defence. Neither of these should be taken lightlv.
o.1 Tesis writing
.
. You should start work on your thesis from the very beginning.
.
Writing is a demanding discipline. Tose who do it well make it seem eortless. Tose who
do not excel at it look upon it as an unpleasant chore. Tose who dread it, put it o for as long as
thev can. Make sure vou are not in the last categorv.
I have written a separate chapter entitled How to Write a esis where I have gone into the
process of thesis writing in some depth. Read it carefullv before vou start vour research work.
You would then start o on the right footing. Do not think of writing up as an aferthought or
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something that vou can do overnight. Believe me: it takes at least six months, and possiblv a
full vear of sustained eort to produce a good qualitv thesis. Your thesis is the rst document bv
which vour examining committee will encounter vour work. Give it vour best shot and do vourself
a favour.
Tesis preparation can be aided bv the judicious use of sofware. Use a document tvpesetting
program and bibliographic reference management program that vou are comfortable with. I per-
sonallv use the freelv available, open source, T
E
X-based L
A
T
E
X and X
E
T
E
X document preparation
svstems and allied sofware for preparing illustrations and managing bibliographies. Te initial
learning curve is steep, but once vou have mastered that, the rewards are great. Especiallv valuable
is the advice of hundreds if not thousands of academics and researchers from all elds, who are
available for help through Internet newsgroups and mailing lists. I heartilv recommend this path,
if vou have not made a choice vet.
Manv universities now require the thesis to be available electronicallv, sav in Portable Doc-
ument Format (PDF). Ensure that whatever sofware vou have chosen to prepare vour thesis is
capable of seamlesslv exporting the output in the prescribed format, without anv hassles.
o.i Oral defence
Te oral defence` is perhaps the most dreaded part of the whole PhD process. Tere is something
unnerving about a face-to-face encounter with experts who, however svmpathetic thev mav be
toward vour work, put on an adversarial stance in order to ferret out anv weaknesses that mav
lurk within it. Te fact that thev are not fellow students but experienced and learned academics
might make this seeman uneven gladiatorial contest. Banish such thoughts and visualize vourself
as the expert and vour committee as a bunch of school kids whomvou are going to enlighten. I do
not mean that vou should be arrogant, but please do not do vourself the disservice of becoming
nervous or dumbstruck before vour committee.
Prepare vour talk using appropriate technologv. Make sure that vou have enough material but
not too much. It is better to have too few slides than too manv. Give vourself enough time. Speak
clearlv and slowlv. Anticipate questions that vou might be asked. Remember that some experts
mav have onlv glancing acquaintance with vour topic and could ask questions around the topic
rather than on it. Be prepared for such questions bv reading up thoroughlv on related research.
Of course vou should be master of vour own work. Practise as manv as twenty times, if necessarv,
so that vour oral defence is awless. Realize that vou get to do an oral defence of vour PhD onlv
once in vour life. Let it be memorable and triumphant.
1o How not to not get a PhD`
.
. The only way not to get a PhD is to give it up yourself.
.
Tere is no other wav, once vou have been enrolled as a doctoral candidate, and as long as vou do
not engage in deceit or unacceptable behaviour. It is therefore instructive to look at the wavs in
which vou might be persuaded to give up and also how to avoid that.
`Also called viva voce or simplv viva, (literallv with living voice) at British and European universities.
`Inspired bv chapter a of [1].
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1o.1 Helplessness
About six months into vour research proper, vou will feel a sense of helplessness. You would have
alreadv done vour literature search and perhaps written an interim report or two. But vou would
suddenlv come to the realization that vou are well and trulv at sea and rudderless too! You would
despair of ever being able to do research; the task seems hopelesslv overwhelming.
You might be scared that someone else somewhere, working on the same topic, might pip vou
to the nish. Worse still, vou might regret deciding to do a PhD in the rst place. What seemed
such a charming proposition at rst, now seems like an endeavour undertaken in a t of insanitv.
Like seasickness, a good manv do not suer from such feelings, but quite a few others do.
You need to pep talk vourself out of this mood of despair. Tis is where vour reasons for doing
vour PhD come into plav. Tev will keep vou focused, on track, and on time.
1o.i Time
It is verv easv to squander time during the earlv stages of vour doctoral work. Your PhD might be
vour rst taste of academic freedom awav from the regimentation of undergraduate assignments
and examinations. But remember that this freedom comes with responsibilitv.
You are responsible for vour time; use it frugallv. Tere is no immediate feedback when vou
lag behind or slack o. But retribution is swif and sudden when vou run out of time. Manv
universities have a cut-o time frame afer which vour PhD candidature will not be renewed.
Tis varies bv countrv and universitv, but vou do not have an indenite period within which to
complete.
.
.To avoid the time-trap, be businesslike from the start of your programme.
.
Ten vou will not have the pressure of time, on top of other pressures. Do not procrastinate on
writing up. Start earlv and revise vour drafs so that vour thesis can be passed with few or no
corrections.
1o.: Money
Most students complete their PhDs on scholarships because higher degree fees are prohibitive.
Tese scholarships are subject to satisfactorv documented progress and could be renewed perhaps
for an extra semester or two. But when the scholarship runs out, vou mav not have the luxurv of
working full time on vour research or thesis writing.
If vou can get an academic joblike a tutor or teaching assistantat the universitv where vou
are enrolled, that would be ideal to fund vou over the nal, vulnerable lap when vou complete
vour research and write up vour thesis.
If not, vou might be forced to seek emplovment outside academia. You then run the risk of
drifing awav from the immediacv of vour research and settling into the workadav routine. You
could also use work and its pressure as an excuse to get awav from writing vour thesis. If vou
fall into this trap, vou risk not completing vour thesis. Whatever the demands on vour time and
energv, discipline vourself and write up vour thesis. Better still, complete vour PhD and submit
vour thesis before vour scholarship runs out. If vou are disciplined from the beginning, vou can
do so easilv.
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SECRETS OF ACADEMIC SUCCESS So You Want to Do a PhD?
1o.a Competing priorities
.
.Completing a PhDrequires an almost monastic dedication to the task at hand.
.
If vou are voung and proceeding to vour PhD immediatelv afer nishing vour rst or second
degrees, vou might nd vour social life competing for attention. Romance and marriage mav and
ofen do claim vour attention and time. You then have to balance vour priorities so that vou are
fullled as a person without compromising on vour goal of a PhD.
If vou are a mature-age student with a spouse and familv to look afer, it is even more com-
plicated. You need vour spouses uninching support for vour enterprise of getting a PhD. Tere
could be role reversals, and even times when vou are not available to vour familv for extended
periods.
Each of these situations brings with it its own emotional stresses and strains. You need to be
def at juggling these competing demands and vet have vour eve on the goal. If vou are committed
to vour familv and to vour PhD, vou will nd a wav to balance the two and succeed at both.
1o.= Ioss of motivation
.
.The worst thing that can happen is for you to lose motivation at some point in
your PhD.
.
Perhaps some of the factors outlined previouslv have knocked a hole in vour determination. Per-
haps vou have just seen a newlv published paper that is about the verv thing vou are working
on, and vou fear it mav steal not onlv vour thunder but also vour chances of getting a PhD. It
is easv to get discouraged and view things as being worse than thev reallv are. Perhaps the just
published paper approaches vour problem from another viewpoint and does not reallv pose a
threat to vour work. Indeed, it might highlight the importance of vour research topic, as being of
interest to other researchers, and therebv underscore the importance of vour own research. So,
vour research could still be relevant, and new, and original.
Sometimes, vou might develop a distaste for what vou are doing because of over-exposure to
the subject. It might be a monotonous laboratorv routine, a sofware error vou cannot localize,
a theorem on which vou are stuck, data that somehow seems inconsistent, or a performance that
clearlv does not gel. Whatever vour eld, and whatever vour problem, this distaste is a sign that
vou need a break.
Contemplate a holidav, perhaps afer presenting a conference paper overseas. Or do some
writing up on vour thesis. If nothing else appeals to vou, do something mind-numbinglv relaxing
like tvping up vour bibliographv. If vou are in need of a fresh viewpoint, talk to some else: a fellow
student, a facultv member who mav not be on vour panel, an academic from another discipline,
or simplv a familv friend.
Do something sucientlv dierent from what vou have been doing so far, and vet somehow
linked to vour work. You do not want to take a break that is so long or comfortable that vou do
not feel like returning to vour PhD work. But vou do need to do something denite and dierent
to dispel the staleness or distaste that makes vou lose motivation.
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SECRETS OF ACADEMIC SUCCESS So You Want to Do a PhD?
.
.Do not ever lose your motivation. Remember that even after your thesis has
been examined, it is only after all corrections are in that you can relax and say,
been there; done that.
.
1o.o Bureaucratic dereliction
Sometimes not ling a progress report to full universitv or scholarship regulations can lead to
vour candidature being revoked. Avoid dereliction of bureaucratic requirements because it is such
a trivial reason for which to jeopardize vour PhD. Follow the rules and satisfv the powers that be,
keeping vour eves ever on vour goal.
11 Will power, guts, and gumption
Tere will be inevitable setbacks on vour road to a PhD. You might have had a verbal ti with
vour supervisor. You might have made an expensive mistake in an experiment. You might have
received a rejection letter for a journal submission. Te list is endless.
Do not be discouraged. You are not alone. Remember that the greatest scholars have had
their books and papers rejected. Your rst rejection letter betokens vour membership into their
distinguished companv. Keep working awav on vour publications until thev see the light of dav.
Te stout of heart and rm of resolve will prevail in the end. For this vou need will power, guts,
and gumption.
1i Te art of doing research
Te PhD is ultimatelv a testament to the fact that vou can conduct supervised research. Te art of
doing research is rapidlv changing, especiallv in the interconnected world of knowledge available
though the Internet and the World Wide Web. See mv chapter entitled Harnessing the Power of the
Web to Learn and Do Research for an up-to-date summarv. Here we look briev at the art of doing
research per se.
1i.1 Know your subject thoroughly
Tere is no substitute for knowledge. Youare onthe roadto becoming a teacher (or doctor) invour
subject at an advanced level. Needless to sav, vou should have alreadv mastered the fundamentals
of vour subject bv now. If vou have not, vou should resist the temptation to paper over the cracks
in vour knowledge.
If vour knowledge of the foundations of vour home discipline are shakv, the rst thing to do is
to acknowledge that fact. Ten identifv well-written undergraduate or graduate texts in the eld
and work through them. Find out if relevant nal-vear undergraduate or graduate units are taught
at vour universitv, and enrol in them if vou can.
Surf the web. Manv of the worlds leading universities, like the Universitv of California, Berke-
lev, Yale, MIT, the Indian Institutes of Technologv, Stanford, Carnegie-Mellon Universitv, Oxford,
and Te Open Universitv, have all started putting some of their courses online for free [ia], ofen
complete with questions and assignments, that vou can use for self-education and self-assessment.
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SECRETS OF ACADEMIC SUCCESS So You Want to Do a PhD?
Use whatever means vou can to bring vourself up to speed in vour discipline. Do not fret over the
time spent on this: it is an investment in knowledge that vou cannot do without.
Challenge vourself bv attempting some past nal-vear examination papers in relevant units at
vour universitv. If vou are able to breeze through them, vou have an objective measure of vour own
masterv of the fundamentals of vour subject. If vou are in a praxis-based discipline, test vourself
bv asking an expert to gauge vour performance in the area.
.
.My unequivocal advice toyouis to ensure that youhave anunshakable found-
ationof knowledge inyour chosendiscipline(s) before youstart onthe special-
ized research that will earn you your PhD.
.
1i.i Read and internalize seminal papers
Once vou have mastered the basics of vour eld, vou are qualied to enter the inner sanctum of
advanced knowledge. Identifv the trailblazers in vour area. Read their papers. Tis should give
vou a broad viewof where the research is heading. Tis overviewof the eld is vital in formulating
vour research proposal.
Tis step in the process has an analogv in the wav we see things. When something is far awav
we see it as the merest speck, un-identiable as anvthing specic, but an object that is distinct
from its background, nevertheless. As it approaches closer, we are able to make out a silhouette
that allows us to guess what the object could be. As we get still closer, it is clear what the object is,
but the details escape us. Finallv when we are right in front of the object, we see it clearlv for what
it is, details and all.
Tis is exactlv how vour approach to vour research eld should pan out. Te detail that vou
see close up cannot and should not obscure the global overview that vou had when viewing the
silhouette. Both are essential to demonstrate masterv of vour chosen research area.
Once vou have got the large scale picture, vou should progress bv reading and assimilating
the classic seminal papers in the turf where vou have chosen to pitch vour research tent. Look at
how leading researchers have surveved the area. Do also read important and interesting papers
bv relativelv unknown researchers because thev might embodv valuable insights. Do not gloss
over a paper simplv because of its age. Te authors of vestervear were ofen the crme de la crme
of their generation and their papers could still vield rare nuggets of truth that might have been
missed bv others.
Most of all, vou should internalize this newfound knowledge. Onlv then are vou readv to as-
cend vour chosen peak of research. Iust as those attempting to conquer the Everest train hard, and
methodicallv prepare themselves bv scaling similar peaks, so should vou use the papers written
bv others to prepare vourself to prosecute vour own research.
1i.: Prepare a critical survey
Bv now vou should have a solid feel for vour research area. Tis is the time vou should prepare
a critical survev of the research literature in vour eld. Look at what has gone on before. Look
at what is being done at present. Identifv what needs to be done, but has not been. Single out
interesting questions that have not been answered. Are there anv contradictions or paradoxes or
glaring omissions: Is there anvthing that vou, as a relative newcomer, nd strange or unsettling:
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SECRETS OF ACADEMIC SUCCESS So You Want to Do a PhD?
.
.This critical survey reects your state-of-the-eld summary of the research
area, illuminated by your own insight, after your assimilation of the research
literature.
.
Ideallv, vou now have the expert knowledge required to formulate vour research proposal intelli-
gentlv.
Iulius Caesar is famed for his words Veni, Vidi, Vici, which translate to I came, I saw, I
conquered. Let vour critical survev be the I saw part of this process and let it lead to the I
conquered stage of vour PhD journev.
1i.a Repeat some previous work
You are now readv to commence vour research proper. Sometimes this presents its own set of
starting problems. One wav to ease vour entrv into research is to repeat something that someone
else has alreadv done successfullv. It is a bit like cooking a dish for the rst time, following a recipe
written bv a chef. Because someone else has alreadv done it, there is no anxietv about whether
what is proposed is feasible. Tis allows vou to concentrate on technique and skills.
Tis will probablv be vour rst taste of what it means to do research. In all likelihood, vou
will love doing whatever vou are doing and become totallv absorbed in it. Tis mental absorption
leads to great inner fullment. You get a high because vou are creativelv engaged in something
vou passionatelv believe in. Tere is also the added satisfaction that what vou do could later be-
net humankind in some wav or another. Finallv, when vou successfullv conclude vour repeat
experiment vou would have gained the condence that vou too can do what others have done.
Doing research now does seem to be within vour grasp.
.
.This conviction or sense of can do, earned through your own hard work, is
the most valuable and durable research currency you will earn fromyour PhD.
.
1i.= Plan and execute your own original work
You are now readv to plan and execute vour own original work. You should plan vour work be-
forehand, whether it be laboratorv-based experiments, a computer simulation, a eld trip to an
anthropological site, a psvchologv experiment needing manv volunteers, an ethicallv-constrained
studv of a drug on humans, a performance of a forgotten dance, or analvzing the work habits of
computer geeks.
You are likelv to need time, monev, hardware, sofware, some data, perhaps some laboratorv
animals or human volunteers, travel plans, etc. You should marshal all the necessarv resources
so that vour research is not delaved bv their lack. Make sure that all bureaucratic hurdles are
surmounted, whether thev be customs and immigration formalities, or getting the approval of
universitv ethics committees.
Tere are specic questions that vou need to answer if vou are doing research related to hu-
man health. You will need controls for experiments, and double blind experimental protocols to
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SECRETS OF ACADEMIC SUCCESS So You Want to Do a PhD?
exclude human and interpretational bias. If there are anv such special issues impacting on vour
research, make sure vou encounter them head on now, and seek professional statistical help if
necessarv, rather than wait to have vour results trashed later because of poor protocols.
At this stage, vou are giving birth to the original component of research that will go into vour
thesis. It is paramount that vou should keep good records.
.
.Write results using ink, not pencil. Do not write on paper scraps but in a prop-
erly bound notebook. Record your thoughts, ashes of inspiration, the set-
backs you faced, how you solved them, etc.
.
While all this material need not nd its wav into vour thesis, some of it invariablv will. Whatever
will help a fellowresearcher later in time, whether it be optimizing a protocol, or avoiding a pitfall,
is valuable enough to be bequeathed, through vour thesis, to a future generation of researchers.
Your original contribution will verv likelv come in manv parts. Tere will be several experi-
ments, or a number of projects, or a few performances, or a few of whatever, depending on vour
eld of research. Each time vou are nished with one chunk of work, make sure that vou have
written evervthing up clearlv and lef nothing unrecorded. Seek vour supervisors input on this.
One of the most heart-breaking events vou want to avoid is to repeat past work because some
parameter was not recorded, or some drawing was missing, or some protocol was not properlv
observed, or because a multimedia record of a performance vou directed was out of focus and
noisv.
Te rst person who needs to understand vour experiments or projects is vourself. If vou
cannot make head or tail of them when vou look them over afer, sav six months, then vou have
done vourself in. So, be kind to yourself, and do it well the rst and nal time.
At this stage, vou should be somewhere between the half and three quarter mark of vour PhD
programme. Do not panic if vou have consumed more time, but be aware that time is not on vour
side. Do vour work svstematicallv. Practise the self-discipline of recording evervthing neatlv,
legiblv, understandablv, and in one place.
1i.o If you get stuck
If vou get stuck while conducting vour original research, vou can turn to manv sources for help.
Because the PhD is supervised research, vou are not working alone. You have the benevolent over-
sight of vour panel of supervisors. One of them will certainlv have some word of wisdom that
could direct vou out of vour current impasse. Ten, there is the literature. Tere is the Web. And
a Google search might be all vou need to pick vourself up and get on track again. Moreover, there
are fellow PhD students to whom vou could turn for assistance.
.
. The one thing you should not and cannot aord to do is to stagnate.
.
Imagine vour research as being a vehicle, sav a motorcar. It is suddenlv stuck in the mud. You do
not get out and wail vour heart out in despair. You put vour shoulder to the vehicle and trv to get
it out. Or vou enlist the help of passersbv. Or vou call for help on vour mobile phone. You do what
it takes to get it unstuck. Te same applies to vour research work.
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SECRETS OF ACADEMIC SUCCESS So You Want to Do a PhD?
1: Writing conference and journal papers
Writing vour rst research paper is a new experience. It need not be daunting. Because vou have
mastered vour subject and criticallv surveved the literature, vou knowvour subject. Afer vou have
completed some module of research, vou could be in a position to prepare and present vour rst
conference paper.
You might experience some hesitation in doing this. Overcome that reluctance. Verv likelv,
vou think that what vou have to sav mav not be signicant enough to merit a conference paper.
Let the referees who review vour paper decide that. Perhaps a fellow researcher or PhD candidate
told vou that vour idea for a paper will not v. Do not let that deter vou. Let the navsavers have
their navs; vou need not accept their view. Do not deprecate your own work. You must make a start
somewhere, and where better than at the beginning of vour research:
1:.1 Te conference paper
In one sense, the conference paper is reallv more dicult than the journal paper. For a start,
vou have to be verv concise, because page limits are stricter. For another, vou need to prepare
a presentation of slides, and talk about vour work before a live audience. Again, the time limits
could be verv strict, tvpicallv varving from ve minutes to feen. In that time, a live audience
of fellow researchers, who verv likelv have rst-hand, expert knowledge of what vou are saving,
engage with vou. Tev listen to what vou have to sav, thev mentallv compare vour work with what
thev know, and then thev ask vou questions designed either to clarifv or correct what vou have
said. You might have anticipated a question or two, but it does take some nerve to answer experts
asking unrehearsed questions, while vou are on vour toes. Te experience of presenting vour rst
conference paper can also be reassuring, if it was well received.
Conference papers almost alwavs entail travelsometimes overseasand the associated ex-
penditure. If vou are not allocated an oral presentation, vou would have to make a colourful poster
of vour work, neatlv organized and well illustrated, to displav at the conference. Making a high
qualitv poster is an exercise in visual communication. You must put together at least one poster
before vou nish vour PhD: it is a good learning experience. But posters too, are expensive. Tis
is whv I said that conference papers tend to demand more than journal papers: thev consume
more time, more eort, and more monev.
If all this sounds a bit o-putting, start small. Present vour rst paper at a seminar at vour
universitv. Well-run research groups generallv have scheduled research seminars sprinkled liber-
allv throughout the vear. Make sure that vou book a slot and get to show and tell what vou have
done. You mav then wish to graduate to a local svmposium or a national meeting. From there,
it is onlv a short hop to an international conference. Once vou have fought and overcome anv
initial shvness or stage-fright, vou will actuallv get to enjov the opportunitv for live dialogue and
discussion.
One salutarv side eect of conferences is that vouget to meet others working invour area. Tev
might be from a neighbouring citv, or a continent awav. If vou meet someone with whom vou feel
comfortable enough to discuss research, vou might have found a potential research collaborator
with whom vou could forge a productive working relationship. Te Internet has nullied the
tvrannv of distance. Your collaborator might be ve time zones awav on the other side of the
world, but vou could be collaborating happilv and publishing copiouslv.
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SECRETS OF ACADEMIC SUCCESS So You Want to Do a PhD?
1:.i Te journal paper
Te journal paper must be of a higher standard than the conference paper. It must be meticulouslv
researched, clearlv written up, adequatelv referenced, and revised several times afer the rst draf.
You would generallv want vour paper to appear in a leading journal in vour eld. See mv chapter
entitled Getting Published in World-Class Journals: A Checklist for Researchers for help on how to go
about writing a journal paper, starting with whv vou want to do it, going through the motions of
selecting a journal, and nallv battening down the hatches and writing and revising it.
Now, a word or two about what to avoid. Do not plagiarize or cheat. If vou are tempted to
indulge in either of these, I suggest that vou forget about vour PhDand do something else instead.
.
.Knowledge thrives on honesty and integrity. Our civilization has advanced to
where it is because each brick of knowledge on which it is built, is solid and of
high standard. The worst disservice one can performto knowledge as a whole
is to corrupt the process by which it is gathered and guarded.
.
Plagiarismis using anothers ideas or work and passing it o as vour own. Whether vou do this
because vou are slipshod in vour work habits, or whether vou do it with intentional malice, vou
are plagiarizing nevertheless. If vou need to use someone elses ideas or work, give due credit bv
attribution in a reference or a footnote, or whatever is appropriate for vour mediumof publication.
But never ever steal anothers ideas or work and pass it o as vour own.
Even worse than plagiarism is faking results. It is downright cheating. Mathematics, because
of its infallible chain of logic, is thankfullv, one subject in which cheating will alwavs be uncovered
eventuallv. A fake theorem that has been proved will eventuallv be unmasked for the falsehood
that it is. But in most other disciplines, cheating mav go undetected for a long time. Even the most
reputable journals have fallen victimto fraudsters who have invaded the sacred niches of research.
Your academic integritv must be guarded like a precious familv heirloom: protect vour own work
and reputation bv keeping meticulous records, and bv documenting vour work svstematicallv.
1a What to do aner you submit your thesis
While vou are working on it, the PhDbecomes a verv major part of vour life, or perhaps even vour
whole life. Once vou have submitted vour thesis, however, vou are likelv to feel a vacuum or even
become depressed. Te reason is that, what loomed ahead forever as a goal to be attainednamelv
writing up and submitting vour thesishas now unbelievablv been accomplished. Te resulting
void is uncomfortable and even unsettling. Some hints on how to cope with this are in order.
Before vou began vour PhD vovage vou would have had a mental picture of what vou were
going to do afer that. Possible options include:
1. Returning to work withvour previous emplover if vouhadtakena leave of absence to pursue
vour PhD.
i. Seeking a position as a post-doctoral fellowat some universitv other than the one where vou
did vour PhD.
:. Applving for a teaching position in academia, whether at the same or a dierent universitv.
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SECRETS OF ACADEMIC SUCCESS So You Want to Do a PhD?
a. Seeking placement in a national research agencv, or the militarv, or government, or a multi-
national corporation, or a Non-Governmental Organization (NGO).
-. Starting vour owncompanv or organizationtodoconsulting, teaching, research, or whatever
vou feel is appropriate.
Afer thesis submission, vou should seek to be gainfullv emploved in some such activitv as
the above. Trv to be with an organization that allows vou the freedom to work on vour research
publications for at least half a dav each working week. Tat wav, vou maintain a link with vour
research while at work, and correcting vour PhD thesis when the time comes, will be less of an
eort.
1= Te last lap
Depending on vour universitv and its tradition, vou would know the fate of vour PhD thesis at
the hands of the examiners, in a time frame ranging from a few minutes afer vour oral defence,
to perhaps three months afer submission. In most cases, it will be passed with minor corrections.
You will then be given a deadline within which to make those corrections, and re-submit vour
thesis. Te universitv can then declare vour thesis passed and award vou vour PhD. Your task
of getting a PhD is not complete until this nal stage is reached.
.
.You need to keep alive the ame of academic enquiry, and the research and
writing skills that you have carefully cultivated, until your PhDthesis has been
corrected and nally graded as passed.
.
If vou are alreadv working, there mav be a tremendous reluctance to revert to PhD candidate
mode, and to correct the thesis carefullv and send it in. Overcome this malaise and get the job
over and done with. Running the last lap gives the greatest pain and demands the greatest eort
and will. Do it just the same and emerge victorious.
1o Suggestions for further reading
Te book, How to get a PhD: A handbook for students and their supervisors, bv Phillips and Pugh [1]
is a classic worth consulting. Chapter a of that book, entitled How not to get a PhD, inspired
section 1o here.
Mauch and Park have written the well-received Guide to the Successful esis and Dissertation:
A Handbook for Students and Faculty [-]. Like Phillips and Pughs book [1] this book is addressed
to both students and facultv, allowing each partv a (rare) glimpse of the others viewpoint.
e PhD Application Handbook bv Bentlev [o] covers in greater detail manv of the issues ad-
dressed in this chapter. Although it is directed principallv to an audience contemplating doing
their PhD in the United Kingdom, much of the advice given in the book is generic and more
widelv applicable.
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SECRETS OF ACADEMIC SUCCESS So You Want to Do a PhD?
1 Conclusion
Te PhD should be undertaken onlv if vou vourself feel the need to. A PhD is a licence to teach
at tertiarv level. It is also the portal to a research career. Whatever the reason, start on vour PhD
onlv for non-frivolous, serious reasons, about which vou vourself are convinced.
You should select vour research area, supervisor, and universitv, onlv afer searching thor-
oughlv and deliberating carefullv on all available choices. Once vou have chosen, stick with vour
choice.
Determine to succeed and never to give up. Once vou have so resolved, do not let vour gaze
be deected. Persevere until vou are awarded the PhD degree. Hopefullv, the process instills in
vou a lifelong love for acquiring and imparting new knowledge. Use vour advanced knowledge to
become a benefactor of humankind.
Best of Luck!
References
[1] Estelle M. Phillips and Derek S. Pugh. How to get a PhD: A handbook for students and their
supervisors. Revised and updated ath edition. Maidenhead, Berkshire, England: Open Uni-
versitv Press, ioo-.
[i] Dan Colman. e Top Five Collections of Free University Courses. Sept. ioo8. Uvi: http://
www.oculture.com/2008/09/the_top_five_open_course_collections.html (visited on
i/o:/iooo).
[:] Universities with the Best Free Online Courses. iooo. Uvi: http : / / education - portal .
com/articles/Universities_with_the_Best_Free_Online_Courses.html (visited on
i/o:/iooo).
[a] Andreas Petersen. free university lectures onlinecomputer science, mathematics, physics and
more. iooo. Uvi: http://lecturefox.com/mix/ (visited on i/o:/iooo).
[-] Iames E. Mauch and Namgi Park. Guide to the Successful esis and Dissertation: A Handbook
for Students and Faculty. -th ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, ioo:.
[o] Peter I. Bentlev. e PhDApplication Handbook. Maidenhead, Berkshire, England: Open Uni-
versitv Press, iooo.
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SECRETS OF ACADEMIC SUCCESS So You Want to Do a PhD?
Quick Reference Guide
A PhD is a licence to teach at university.
Be clear why you want to do a PhD. Proceed only if you have strong personal convictions.
After committing yourself, never vacillate. Keep on at it until you complete your PhDsuccessfully.
Search carefully for a research eld, supervisor, and university. Analyze your options and decide
where you want to do your PhD, under whose supervision, and in what area.
You cannot fail to get a PhD unless you give it up yourself.
When you encounter diculties, consult with your supervisors, your fellow students, and those
with experience.
Master your subject.
Survey the eld and draft a clear and feasible research proposal.
Plan your research and execute it with care.
Write up your work, present papers at conferences, and publish in journals.
Prepare carefully for your oral defence.
Submit your thesis, make the necessary corrections, and full your destiny armed with a PhD.
R (Chandra) Chandrasekhar, io1o Page i1 of i1