Beruflich Dokumente
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ON
DISTORTION IN WELDING
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The project that I undertook was very helpful in my better understanding of the various welding processes and the difficulties in the industrial world during various welding operations. I am greatly indebted to MR. A. K. TRIVEDI, AGM, QA and MR. RAJAT BISWAS, Sr. Div. Manager, QA for offering this wonderful opportunity to acquire first hand knowledge of production activities in TELCON. I offer my sincere gratitude to MR. SOMANATH NAYAK, Manager, QA for his guidance throughout the course of this project. I would also like to thank all the persons in the fabrication shop for helping me to understand the various welding processes for their helpful attitude. Lastly I would also like to thank MR. D SUNDARESAN, Manager, QA and MR. RAJEEV RANJAN from International Auto Limited (IAL) for rendering their kind help without which it would have been difficult to complete the project. I found quality assurance department to be highly disciplined where endeavors are respected and achievements rewarded. I appreciate all the employees of TELCON for their devotion to their jobs, which is the reason behind their success story. Thanking you,
Certificate of Approval
This is to certify that Mr. Prem Diwakar, BE/220/05 of Birla Institute of Technology, Ranchi has successfully completed his training in the Quality Analysis Department from 05.05.2008 to 14.06.2008 During this period he has worked on to the project: DISTORTION IN WELDING The above project was successfully completed in the stipulated time period.
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER 1: About TELCON 1.1 A saga of vision, commitment and fortitude 1.2 About us 1.3 Vision 1.4 Mission 1.5 Value and purpose 1.6 Five core values 1.7 Tata Engineering and Hitachi in joint venture for earth moving equipment 1.8 Euclid-Hitachi to make dumpers for Telcon CHAPTER 2: Welding overview 2.1 An introduction 2.2 Welding processes 2.3 Types of welding joints 2.4 Heat affected zone 2.5 Welding defects CHAPTER 3: Distortion in welding 3.1 An introduction 3.2 What is weld distortion? 3.3 Understanding distortion 3.4 Main types of distortion 3.5 Factors affecting distortion 3.6 Ways to reduce distortion 3.7 Correcting distortion CHAPTER 4: Case study. 4.1 Arm (ZX 210) 4.2 Centre frame (ZX 210) 4.3 Tail frame (ZX 210) CHAPTER 5: Conclusions and references.
ABSTRACT
Welding distortion is a phenomenon that appears after welding and causes sometimes part failure and hence has to be observed seriously. High fitting and welding costs are the consequence of this large welding distortion. This problem is exacerbated as the fairness requirements are tightened. Distortion like buckling can cause plate failures or distortion like various shrinkages can really cause some real problems like change in dimension. There are various ways to check distortion knowing the fact that it cant be removed completely and hence required steps has to be taken to minimize it as much as possible. One of the ways to reduce distortion is to make a good welding design i.e. to reduce number of passes or like balanced welding one can control distortion to a large extent. Further, there are lots of other ways like tack welding or restrained welding to minimize distortion. The case study of three parts of excavator 210(arm, centre frame and tail frame) at TELCON shows the effect of distortion on these parts dimensions or plates. Distortion causes buckling of bottom plates of both tail and centre frame or change in dimension like decrease in the distance between side plates of centre frame thus increasing fitting cost and decreasing production rate.
1.3 Vision:
Global Top 25 in CE Industry By 2012.
1.4 Mission:
To be The Most Trusted Partner for providing Full Line of Constructive Solutions for Mining, Construction, Infrastructure & Agriculture Sectors. While Dominating the Indian Market, we shall make concerted efforts to meet our Global Ambitions. Our Hallmark shall be Our Motivated People, Strong Partnerships at all levels, Superior Technologies and Our Widespread Customer Support, all working in Unison with Environment and Society.
Integrity: We must conduct our business fairly, with honesty and transparency.
Everything we do must stand the test of public scrutiny.
Understanding: We must be caring, show respect, compassion and humanity for our
colleagues and customers around the world, and always work for the benefit of the communities we serve.
Excellence: We must constantly strive to achieve the highest possible standards in our
day-to-day work and in the quality of the goods and services we provide.
Unity: We must work cohesively with our colleagues across the Group and with our
customers and partners around the world, building strong relationships based on tolerance, understanding and mutual cooperation.
1.7 Tata Engineering and Hitachi in joint venture for earth moving equipment (January 31, 2000)
Tata Engineering and Hitachi Construction Machinery Company, Japan (Hitachi) today announced a joint venture to manufacture technologically advanced earth moving equipment in India. Hitachi will pay Tata Engineering US$ 21.5 million for a 20 per cent stake in Telco Construction Equipment Company Limited (Telcon), the Tata Engineering earth moving equipment subsidiary. Consequently, Tata Engineering will now hold 80 per cent of the equity. Telcon is the market leader in India with a 67 per cent market share in the hydraulic excavator sector. Hitachi Construction Machinery Company Limited was established in 1970. Its main products are hydraulic excavators, crawler cranes, foundation machines and shield machines, all of which have earned an excellent reputation world-wide for performance, reliability and safety. Hitachi and its affiliates have branched out into the fields of miniexcavators, wheel loaders, bulldozers and off-road dump trucks.
well suited to production welding. The process can be applied to a wide variety of metals, both ferrous and non-ferrous. 2.2.3. Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) or tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding: It is a manual welding process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode, an inert or semi-inert gas mixture, and a separate filler material. Especially useful for welding thin materials, this method is characterized by a stable arc and high quality welds, but it requires significant operator skill and can only be accomplished at relatively low speeds. GTAW can be used on nearly all weldable metals, though it is most often applied to stainless steel and light metals. It is often used when quality welds are extremely important, such as in bicycle, aircraft and naval applications. A related process, plasma arc welding, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to make the arc. The arc is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making transverse control more critical and thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized process. Because of its stable current, the method can be used on a wider range of material thicknesses than can the GTAW process, and furthermore, it is much faster. 2.2.4. Submerged arc welding (SAW): It is a high-productivity welding method in which the arc is struck beneath a covering layer of flux. This increases arc quality, since contaminants in the atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms on the weld generally comes off by itself, and combined with the use of a continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high. Working conditions are much improved over other arc welding processes, since the flux hides the arc and almost no smoke is produced. The process is commonly used in industry, especially for large products and in the manufacture of welded pressure vessels. 2.2.5. Gas welding: The most common gas welding process is oxyfuel welding, also known as oxyacetylene welding. It is one of the oldest and most versatile welding processes, but in recent years it has become less popular in industrial applications. It is still widely used for welding pipes and tubes, as well as repair work. It is also frequently well-suited, and favored, for fabricating some types of metal-based artwork. Oxyfuel equipment is versatile, lending itself not only to some sorts of iron or steel welding but also to brazing, braze-welding, metal heating (for bending and forming), and also oxyfuel cutting. The equipment is relatively inexpensive and simple, generally employing the combustion of acetylene in oxygen to produce a welding flame temperature of about 3100 C. The flame, since it is less concentrated than an electric arc, causes slower weld cooling, which can lead to greater residual stresses and weld distortion, though it eases the welding of high alloy steels.
It involves the generation of heat by passing current through the resistance caused by the contact between two or more metal surfaces. Small pools of molten metal are formed at the weld area as high current (1000100,000 A) is passed through the metal. Spot welding is a popular resistance welding method used to join overlapping metal sheets of up to 3 mm thick. Two electrodes are simultaneously used to clamp the metal sheets together and to pass current through the sheets. The advantages of the method include efficient energy use, limited workpiece deformation, high production rates, easy automation, and no required filler materials. Weld strength is significantly lower than with other welding methods, making the process suitable for only certain applications. It is used extensively in the automotive industry. Like spot welding, seam welding relies on two electrodes to apply pressure and current to join metal sheets. However, instead of pointed electrodes, wheel-shaped electrodes roll along and often feed the workpiece, making it possible to make long continuous welds. Energy beam welding: Energy beam welding methods, namely laser beam welding and electron beam welding, are relatively new processes that have become quite popular in high production applications. The two processes are quite similar, differing most notably in their source of power. Laser beam welding employs a highly focused laser beam, while electron beam welding is done in a vacuum and uses an electron beam. Both have a very high energy density, making deep weld penetration possible and minimizing the size of the weld area. Both processes are extremely fast, and are easily automated, making them highly productive. The primary disadvantages are their very high equipment costs and a susceptibility to thermal cracking. 2.2.7. Solid-state welding: Like forge welding, some modern welding methods do not involve the melting of the materials being joined. One of the most popular, ultrasonic welding is used to connect thin sheets or wires made of metal or thermoplastic by vibrating them at high frequency and under high pressure. The equipment and methods involved are similar to that of resistance welding, but instead of electric current, vibration provides energy input. Welding metals with this process does not involve melting the materials; instead, the weld is formed by introducing mechanical vibrations horizontally under pressure. When welding plastics, the materials should have similar melting temperatures, and the vibrations are introduced vertically. Ultrasonic welding is commonly used for making electrical connections out of aluminum or copper, and it is also a very common polymer welding process. Another common process, explosion welding, involves the joining of materials by pushing them together under extremely high pressure. The energy from the impact plasticizes the materials, forming a weld, even though only a limited amount of heat is generated. The process is commonly used for welding dissimilar materials, such as the welding of aluminum with steel in ship hulls or compound plates.
Welds can be geometrically prepared in many different ways. The five basic types of weld joints are the butt joint, lap joint, corner joint, edge joint, and T-joint. Other variations exist as wellfor example, double-V preparation joints are characterized by the two pieces of material each tapering to a single center point at one-half their height. Single-U and double-U preparation joints are also fairly commoninstead of having straight edges like the single-V and double-V preparation joints; they are curved, forming the shape of a U.
Fig 2.1: Common welding joint types (1) Square butt joint, (2) Single-V preparation joint, (3) Lap joint, (4) T-joint. Often, particular joint designs are used exclusively or almost exclusively by certain welding processes. For example, resistance spot welding, laser beam welding, and electron beam welding are most frequently performed on lap joints. However, some welding methods, like shielded metal arc welding, are extremely versatile and can weld virtually any type of joint.
Fig 2.2: Different zones in weldpool The cross-section of a welded butt joint, with the darkest gray representing the weld or fusion zone, the medium gray the heat-affected zone, and the lightest gray the base material. The weld itself is called the fusion zonemore specifically, it is where the filler metal was laid during the welding process. The properties of the fusion zone depend primarily on the filler metal used, and its compatibility with the base materials.
The blue area results from oxidation at a corresponding temperature of 600 F (316 C). This is an accurate way to identify temperature, but does not represent the HAZ width. The HAZ is the narrow area that immediately surrounds the welded base metal. The effects of welding on the material surrounding the weld can be detrimental depending on the materials used and the heat input of the welding process used, the HAZ can be of varying size and strength. The thermal diffusivity of the base material plays a large roleif the diffusivity is high, the material cooling rate is high and the HAZ is relatively small. Conversely, a low diffusivity leads to slower cooling and a larger HAZ. The amount of heat injected by the welding process plays an important role as well, as processes like oxyacetylene welding have an unconcentrated heat input and increase the size of the HAZ. Processes like laser beam welding give a highly concentrated, limited amount of heat, resulting in a small HAZ. To calculate the heat input for arc welding procedures, the following formula can be used Q = (V * I * 60) / (S * 1000) where Q = heat input (kJ/mm), V = voltage (V), I = current (A), and S = welding speed (mm/min). The efficiency is dependent on the welding process used, with shielded metal arc welding having a value of 0.75, gas metal arc welding and submerged arc welding, 0.9, and gas tungsten arc welding, 0.8.
i. Lack of fusion results from too little heat input and / or too rapid traverse of the welding torch (gas or electric). It is weld discontinuity in which fusion did not occur between weld metal and fusion faces or adjoining weld beads.
Fig 2.3: Lack of fusion at joints ii. Excess penetration arises from to high a heat input and / or too slows transverse of the welding torch (gas or electric). Excess penetration - burning through - is more of a problem with thin sheet as a higher level of skill is needed to balance heat input and torch traverse when welding thin metal. iii. Porosity - This occurs when gases are trapped in the solidifying weld metal. These may arise from damp consumables or metal or, from dirt, particularly oil or grease, on the metal in the vicinity of the weld. This can be avoided by ensuring all consumables are stored in dry conditions and work is carefully cleaned and degreased prior to welding. iv. Inclusions - These can occur when several runs are made along a V join when joining thick plate using flux cored or flux coated rods and the slag covering a run is not totally removed after every run before the following run. v. Cracking - This can occur due just to thermal shrinkage or due to a combination of strain accompanying phase change and thermal shrinkage. In the case of welded stiff frames, a combination of poor design and inappropriate procedure may result in high residual stresses and cracking. Where alloy steels or steels with carbon content greater than about 0.2% are being welded, self cooling may be rapid enough to cause some (brittle) martensite to form. This will easily develop cracks. To prevent these problems a process of pre-heating in stages may be needed and after welding a slow controlled post cooling in stages will be required. This can greatly increase the cost of welded joins, but for high strength steels, such as those used in petrochemical plant and piping, there may well be no alternative. vi Undercutting - In this case the thickness of one (or both) of the sheets is reduced at the toe of the weld. This is due to incorrect settings / procedure. There is already a stress concentration at the toe of the weld and any undercut will reduce the strength of the join.
Fig 2.6: Undercut at welded joint vii Lamellar tearing - This is mainly a problem with low quality steels. It occurs in plate that has a low ductility in the through thickness direction, which is caused by non metallic inclusions, such as suphides and oxides that have been elongated during the rolling process. These inclusions mean that the plate can not tolerate the contraction stresses in the short transverse direction. Lamellar tearing can occur in both fillet and butt welds, but the most vulnerable joints are 'T' and corner joints, where the fusion boundary is parallel to the rolling plane. These problems can be overcome by using better quality steel, 'buttering' the weld area with a ductile material and possibly by redesigning the joint.
Plastic deformation results in lasting change in the component dimensions and distorts the structure. This causes distortion of weldments.
Fig 3.2: Heating and cooling process. To understand how and why distortion occurs during heating and cooling of a metal, consider the bar of steel shown in Fig. 3-2. As the bar is uniformly heated, it expands in all directions, as shown in Fig. 3-2(a). As the metal cools to room temperature it contracts uniformly to its original dimensions. But if the steel bar is restrained -as in a vise - while it is heated, as shown in Fig. 3-2(b), lateral expansion cannot take place. But, since volume expansion must occur during the heating, the bar expands in a vertical direction
(in thickness) and becomes thicker. As the deformed bar returns to room temperature, it will still tend to contract uniformly in all directions, as in Fig. 3-2 (c). The bar is now shorter, but thicker. It has been permanently deformed, or distorted. (For simplification, the sketches show this distortion occurring in thickness only. But in actuality, length is similarly affected.) In a welded joint, these same expansion and contraction forces act on the weld metal and on the base metal. As the weld metal solidifies and fuses with the base metal, it is in its maximum expanded from. On cooling, it attempts to contract to the volume it would normally occupy at the lower temperature, but it is restrained from doing so by the adjacent base metal. Because of this, stresses develop within the weld and the adjacent base metal. At this point, the weld stretches (or yields) and thins out, thus adjusting to the volume requirements of the lower temperature. But only those stresses that exceed the yield strength of the weld metal are relieved by this straining. By the time the weld reaches room temperature - assuming complete restraint of the base metal so that it cannot move - the weld will contain locked-in tensile stresses approximately equal to the yield strength of the metal. If the restraints (clamps that hold the workpiece or an opposing shrinkage force) are removed, the residual stresses are partially relieved as they cause the base metal to move, thus distorting the weldment.
3.4 The Main Types of Distortion:On heating and cooling metals expand and contract according to their expansion coefficient with expansion and contraction occurring in all three principal axes. Usually expansion in the through thickness direction is unconstrained, but there is constraint in the transverse and longitudinal directions. Distortion can be categorized into six main types, i.e. longitudinal shrinkage, transverse shrinkage, angular distortion, bowing and dishing, buckling, and twisting. 1) Transverse shrinkage Shrinkage stresses leading to a shortening of the member across the toes of the welded joint 2) Longitudinal shrinkage Shrinkage stresses leading to a shortening of the member along the principal axis of the welded joint. 3) Angular distortion
Weld zone transverse shrinkage stresses not in the plane of the neutral axis leading to rotation of one member with respect to an adjacent member. 4) Bowing and dishing Shrinkage of edges or surfaces where the distortion is not coincident with the neutral axis of the member leading to bowing or dishing due to asymmetric shortening 5) Buckling Similar to bowing and dishing but more pronounced localized deformations as seen on larger structures or thinner or less restrained sections. 6) Twisting Seen in slender structures with shear deformation at welded joints. Box sections and fabricated beams and columns can twist.
3.5 Factors affecting distortion:If a component were uniformly heated and cooled distortion would be minimized. However, welding locally heats a component and the adjacent cold metal restrains the heated material. This generates stresses greater than yield stress causing permanent distortion of the component. Some of the factors affecting the distortion are listed below: Amount of restraint. Welding procedure. Parent metal properties. Weld joint design. Part fit up.
Restraint can be used to minimize distortion. Components welded without any external restraint are free to move or distort in response to stresses from welding. It is not unusual for many shops to clamp or restrain components to be welded in some manner to prevent movement and distortion. This restraint does result in higher residual stresses in the components. High restraint lower distortion, higher residual stress Low restraint higher distortion, Lower residual stress Welding procedure impacts the amount of distortion primarily due to the amount of the heat input produced. Following proper welding procedures ensures that weld metal shrinkage is consistent. Balanced welding sequence lower distortion Unbalanced welding sequence higher distortion Parent metal properties, which have an effect on distortion, are coefficient of thermal expansion and specific heat of the material. The coefficient of thermal expansion of the metal affects the degree of thermal expansion and contraction and the associated stresses that result from the welding process. This in turn determines the amount of distortion in a component. 1. Thermal expansion coefficient This is the amount of expansion (or contraction) in a material as it is heated (or cooled).The symbol for linear thermal expansion coefficient is , and is expressed as [mm/(mmK)] strain/Kelvin Carbon steel ( Steel = 12x10 6/K) expands less than stainless steel ( Stainless steel = 17.3x10 6/K), which expands less than aluminum ( Aluminium = 23x10 6/K). Lower thermal expansion lower distortion Higher thermal expansion higher distortion 2. Specific heat per unit volume Specific heat, c, is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of the substance by one Kelvin and is expressed as expressed as [J/(kgK)] Joule per kilogram Kelvin. Lower specific heat lower distortion Higher specific heat higher distortion 3. Thermal conductivity coefficient The coefficient of thermal conductivity, k, is a measure of the rate Q (W) at which heat flows through a material and is expressed as [W/(mK)] W = Watts, m = metres, K = degrees Kelvin. Lower conductivity lower distortion Higher conductivity higher distortion
4. Yield point and yield point at elevated temperatures The yield point is the limit of elastic behavior where any increase in strain (or stress) causes permanent deformation. The yield point is expressed as a stress, , expressed as MPa. Higher yield lower distortion, higher residual stress Lower yield higher distortion, lower residual stress 5. Melting point Lower melting point lower distortion Higher melting point higher distortion Weld joint design will affect the amount of distortion in a weldment. Both butt and fillet joints may experience distortion. However, distortion is easier to minimize in butt joints. Minimal weld volume and symmetrical shrinkage forces lower distortion Larger weld volume and asymmetrical shrinkage forces higher distortion
Part fit up should be consistent to fabricate foreseeable and uniform shrinkage. Weld joints should be adequately and consistently tacked to minimize movement between the parts being joined by welding. Good fit-up of components reduces the potential for movement as gaps close during welding and also minimizes weld volumes. Precise fit-up lower distortion Poor fit-up higher distortion Heat and temperature Heat input Lower heat input lower distortion Higher heat input higher distortion Preheat temperature Higher preheat lower distortion Lower preheat higher distortion
3.6 Ways to Reduce Distortion:Distortion reduction can be done by following techniques:3.6.1. By good design. 3.6.2. By fabrication technique 3.6.3. Welding processes
Fig 3.4: Welding at neutral axis 3.6.1.3. Reducing Volume of Weld Metal Since weld shrinkage is proportional to the volume of weld metal it follows that the smaller the total volume of weld metal deposited the smaller will be the overall contraction during cooling and hence reduced distortion. Details of weld preparations and welding process selection should aim for the minimum weld volume consistent with satisfying the design strength and weld quality requirements. A large fillet weld may be replaced by an incomplete penetration groove weld and smaller fillet to achieve the same effective throat thickness with a significant reduction in weld volume. Increased cost in preparation of the bevel has to be considered. A double V plate butt weld has approximately half of the weld volume of a single sided V plate butt weld. The trade off is the additional cost in preparation of a double V preparation, the need to access both sides for welding and the possibility that rotating the part may be impractical, costly or time consuming. It is worthwhile when distortion is an issue to
review weld detail designs and ensure that specified weld sizes are not greater than necessary. 3.6.1.4. Reducing the Number of Weld Runs Where possible use intermittent rather than continuous welds. Stagger intermittent fillet welds. For complete penetration joints that require multiple weld passes to fill the groove, the larger the volume of each weld deposit the lower the distortion in the lateral direction. Paradoxically the use of a higher number of smaller passes can lead to a reduction in longitudinal distortion. This is because of the substantially greater longitudinal rigidity especially of thicker plates and hence the greater tendency of a smaller bead to yield longitudinally compared to a large bead. The implementation of modern mechanized high-energy processes for single sided complete penetration welding of plates offers major advantages in reducing distortion as well as the obvious productivity gains.
Fig 3.5: Minimum no. of weld pass 3.6.1.5. Use of Balanced Welding Wherever practicable and particularly on thicker sections, use double side joints and a balanced welding sequence. This approach can be applied where components are small and rotation is practical.
This leads to greatly enhanced traceability of parts, enhanced precision of assembly, minimizing errors and rework. 3.6.2.2. Precision in Weld Preparation Preparation of bevels for plate butt welds is now commonly by machining. While machining is more expensive than thermal cutting it enables compound bevels to be produced with precision not achievable by thermal cutting processes. Extremely accurate fitment of parts to be joined can be achieved. This is particularly important for larger welds such as main plate butt welds where major gains can be made in controlling overall distortion. 3.6.2.3. Precision in Assembly This is where it all comes together and precision in assembly is dependent on accuracy of design, accuracy of cut parts, accuracy of marked assembly lines and last but not least the skills of the people doing the assembly. 3.6.2.4. Tack welding Tack welding plays a critical role in firstly holding the assembled structure together ready for welding and secondly in maintaining correct root gaps in butt welds and preventing movement in the structure as welding progresses. The number of tack welds, the length tack welds and the distance between them will depend on the length and thickness of the weld, the degree of rigidity needed, the details of the weld preparation and the welding process being used. The tacking sequence can also have an effect and may need to be controlled to ensure correct root gaps are maintained along the length of a joint. Procedures used for tack welding to prevent transverse shrinkage: a) Tack weld straight through to end of joint. b) Tack weld one end, then use back-step technique for tacking the rest of the joint. c) Tack weld the centre, then complete the tack welding by the back-step technique.
Fig 3.6: Tack welding. 3.6.2.5. Back-To-Back Assembly Back to back assembly of identical asymmetrical structures provides a method of counteracting the shrinkage forces of one component with the shrinkage forces of another. Additional presetting may be required so that when the two components are
freed from each other there is no residual distortion due to spring back from locked up residual stresses.
Fig 3.7: Back to back assembly 3.6.2.6. Stiffening Stiffening of a structure can be achieved in a number of ways. Use of larger tack welds, partially welding, provision of temporary bracing, use of assembly jigs with preset camber can be used to minimize distortion of a weldment. Longitudinal stiffeners welded along each side of a long seam can be used to prevent bowing of long members. Stiffener location is important. If stiffeners are too far from the joint they are stiffening they may be ineffective, whereas if stiffeners are too close they may interfere with welding of the joint.
Fig 3.8: Stiffening 3.6.2.7. Pre-setting Where a known amount of angular distortion will occur, presetting the joint by the amount of angular distortion expected ensures the alignment of the finished weld. This method can be very effective if consistent shrinkage rates are achieved through close control of welding procedures. 3.6.2.8. Jigs and Fixtures Jigs and fixtures can be used for assembly and welding of subassemblies where the components are held rigidly until welded. This approach works well for production of multiple smaller sub-assembles.
3.6.3. Welding
3.6.3.1. Welding Process Higher energy processes that allow higher welding speeds generally lead to lowering of shrinkage and distortion rates with the advantage of increased welding productivity. Implementation of processes enabling higher welding speeds may be difficult to justify solely on the basis of reduced welding time, but overall savings can be significant when the downstream costs of distortion correction are considered. 3.6.3.2. Controlled Welding Procedures Ensuring all operators are following welding procedures ensures that weld metal shrinkage is consistent. Maintaining consistency in shrinkage outcomes requires good welding management systems. Welding procedures should be developed to ensure that minimal weld metal is deposited while maintaining the specified weld quality level. When carrying out the fabrication it is important that the weld sizes are produced within the specified size range and weld shape is correct. Over-welding of thin structural sections is common although there is no advantage to the fabricator or customer in overwelding. On the other hand, undersize welds can lead to costly re-work with inevitable increased distortion. 3.6.3.3. Welding Technique General rules for minimizing distortion are: Keep weld volumes/size to the minimum specified Balance welds about neutral axes Keep the time between runs to a minimum Maintain preheat temperatures 3.6.3.4. Welding Sequence The direction and sequence of welding is important in distortion control. Generally welds are made in the direction of free ends. For longer welds, back-step welding or skip welding is used. a) For back-step welding short weld lengths are placed with welding in the opposite direction to the general progression b) For skip welding a sequence is worked out to minimize and balance out shrinkage stresses.
3.7 Correcting Distortion:Whilst the aim of this guidance note is to provide information to minimize distortion, the following is to assist a fabricator in the techniques of distortion correction.
Fig 3.10 (d) Hydraulic Jacking Hydraulic jacking is a variation on the dogging and wedging approach but offers more control and higher forces.
Fig 3.11: Localized heating. (b) Spot heating for correcting buckling.
(c) Static thermal technique. Static Thermal Tensioning (STT) is one method of reducing the weld residual stress. STT involves pre-stretching the weld area by means of an applied thermal gradient. The gradient is achieved by raising the temperature on either side of the weld by resistive heating bands, while simultaneously quenching the weld zone (e.g., with a water-spray on the bottom of the plate). A schematic is shown in Fig. The stress field produced by the temperature gradient opposes the normal weld stress state, and reduces the peak tensile stresses in the weld. While the technique is effective, quenching is difficult to implement in practice on existing shipyard equipment. Finite element analysis has shown that using heating bands without the quenching necessitates impractically large heating bands.
Figure 3.13 Thermal tensioning uses temperature gradients to produce stresses which oppose the development of welding stresses that cause buckling.
(d) Transient thermal technique. Transient Thermal Tensioning (TTT) is another method of reducing the weld residual stress. TTT uses local heat sources (Fig. 3.14) that move along the plate to induce zones of local plate tension where the weld compressive zones would normally exist. Burners (or other heat sources of sufficient intensity) are carried along with the welding head. The heat source locally yields and shrinks an area in the plate, in a similar manner as is done with flame straightening. Bands of residual tension stress are produced in the panel in opposition to the residual compressive buckling stress caused by welding, as Fig. 3.15 illustrates.
Lugs 2
Lugs1
Fig 4.1: Line diagram of arm Standard distance between plates of lugs 1= 216mm After tack After complete welding welding 1 216 215 2 216 215.5 3 215.5 215.5 4 215.5 215 Standard distance between plates of lugs 2= 188mm After tack After complete welding welding 1 188 187 2 188 187 3 188 187 4 188 187.5
Preventing actions used: 1. Use of manipulators and clamping devices. 2. Use of stiffeners.
Use of stiffeners
Use of manipulators and clamping devices Fig 4.2: Use of manipulators and stiffeners during arm welding. Suggestions: Use of skip welding procedure.
8 2 4 3 5 7
6 2
2. CENTRE FRAME Centre frame faces distortion at their side plates, foot lugs and bottom plate. Buckling at bottom plate is reduced by the help of spot heating and other is reduced by using manipulators and clamping devices as shown above. Distortion is maximum at other end w.r.t. lugs and a clamping device should be use their to reduce distortion at that place. And with help of step welding it can be further reduced.
3 2 1 6 7
2 3 4 5 6 7
Standard distance between plates of foot lug=145mm Left foot lug: After tack welding 1 2 3 Right foot lug: After tack welding 1 2 3 145 143 144 After complete welding 144 144 143.5 144.5 144.5 144.5 After complete welding 144 144 144
Buckling in the bottom plate after complete welding: After complete welding 1 1 2 1.5 3 2.5 4 1 5 1 Existing distortion problems: 1. Angular distortion at side plates and foot lugs. 2. Buckling of bottom plate. Preventing actions used: 1. By spot heating.
2. Use of manipulators and clamping devices. 3. Use of stiffeners for foot lugs.
Suggestions: Use of another clamping device at opposite end from lugs. Use of step welding procedure. 1
4 2
8 4
6 2
3. TAIL-FRAME Tail frame faces distortion at their side plates and bottom plate. In order to reduce distortion, there should be a manipulator and clamping devices that can be used during welding. Further, there should be a stiffener to hold the bottom plate in order to reduce the buckling distortion present in it.
BOTTOM
Fig 4.8: Tail frame Standard distance between side plate= 771mm. After tack welding 1 771 2 771 3 771 4 771 After complete welding 771.5 771.5 771.5 772
Buckling in the bottom plate after complete welding: After complete welding 1 3 2 1.5 3 1 4 1.5 5 2 Existing distortion problems: 1. Buckling of bottom plate. Preventing actions used: 1. Use of clamping devices.
Fig 4.9: Use of clamping devices during welding of tail frame. Suggestions: Use of manipulators during final welding. Use of stiffener at cut out of bottom plate to control its buckling. Use of step welding procedure.
3 2
1 4
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION:
Distortion is one of the most important factor affecting welding procedures everywhere. It has to be understood carefully and suitable measures have to taken in order to minimize it. It cant be eliminated but can be reduced to minimize loses as it can cause even failure of parts. Some of the factors controlling distortion of welded fabrications have been identified. Adopting best practice principles can have significant cost benefits. Reduce the effective shrinkage force Use welding processes that deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible, i.e. minimizing overall heat input Minimize the amount of weld metal Avoid over welding Use correct edge preparation and ensure good fit-up
Minimize weld passes Place welds near the neutral axis Use intermittent welds Use back-step welding sequence
Balance shrinkage forces with other forces Use tack welds to set up and maintain the root gap Balance welds symmetrically about a neutral axis, e.g. double vee butt welds welded alternately from each side. Components set up back-to-back Use of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal bowing in butt welds of thin plate structures Use jigs and fixtures, flexible clamps, strong-backs and tack welds to apply restraint during welding. Consider the risk of cracking which can be quite significant, especially for fully welded strong-backs. Welds for temporary attachments for restraint should be made using an approved procedure and may require preheat to avoid forming imperfections in the component surface.
REFERENCE:
1. Practical welding techniques to minimize distortion. By C. Conrardy, T. D. Huang, D. Harwig 2. Distortion Control in Shipbuilding Article by Welding technology institute of Australia. 3. Fundamentals of professional welding 4. Prediction of Welding Distortion By Panagiotis Michaleris and Andrew DeBiccari Edison Welding Institute, Columbus, Ohio