Internet Communication: Software Basis

Internet Communication
Software Basis
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Contents
Articles
Body Area Network Campus network Home network IEEE 802.20 Internet Interplanetary Internet Local area network Metropolitan area network Near-me area network Software release life cycle Storage area network Wide area network 1 4 5 9 11 24 28 31 32 34 38 42
References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 44 47
Article Licenses
License 48
Body Area Network
Body Area Network

Computer network types by area

Body (BAN) Personal (PAN) Near-me (NAN) Storage (SAN) Local (LAN)
Home (HAN)
Campus (CAN) Metropolitan (MAN) Wide (WAN) Global (GAN) Internet Interplanetary Internet
A Body Area Network (BAN), Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN) or Body sensor network (BSN) are terms used to describe the application of wearable computing devices.[1] [2] [3] This will enable wireless communication between several miniaturized Body Sensor Units (BSU) and a single Body Central Unit (BCU) worn at the human body.[4] [5] The development of WBAN technology started around 1995 by considering wireless personal area network (WPAN) technologies for communications on, near and around the human body. Later around 2001, this application of WPAN has been named as body area network (BAN) to represent the communications on, in and near the body only.[6] [7] A WBAN system can use WPAN wireless technologies as gateways to reach longer ranges.
Concept
The rapid growth in physiological sensors, low power integrated circuits and wireless communication has enabled a new generation of wireless sensor networks. These wireless sensor networks are used to monitor traffic, crops, infrastructure and health. The Body Area Network field is an interdisciplinary area which could allow inexpensive and continuous health monitoring with real-time updates of medical records via Internet. A number of intelligent physiological sensors can be integrated into a wearable wireless body area network, which can be used for computer assisted rehabilitation or early detection of medical conditions. This area relies on the feasibility of implanting very small bio-sensors inside the human body that are comfortable and that don't impair normal activities. The implanted sensors in the human body will collect various physiological changes in order to monitor the patient's health status no matter their location. The information will be transmitted wirelessly to an external processing unit. This device will instantly transmit all information in real time to the doctors throughout the world. If an emergency is detected, the physicians will immediately inform the patient through the computer system by sending appropriate messages or alarms. Currently the level of information provided and energy resources capable of powering the sensors are limiting. While the technology is still in its primitive stage it is being widely researched and once adopted, is expected to be a breakthrough invention in healthcare, leading to concepts like telemedicine and mHealth becoming real.
Body Area Network
Applications
Initial applications of BANs are expected to appear primarily in the healthcare domain, especially for continuous monitoring and logging vital parameters of patients suffering from chronic diseases such as diabetes, asthma and heart attacks. A BAN network in place on a patient can alert the hospital, even before they have a heart attack, through measuring changes in their vital signs. A BAN network on a diabetic patient could auto inject insulin though a pump, as soon as their insulin level declines. Other applications of this technology include sports, military, or security. Extending the technology to new areas could also assist communication by seamless exchanges of information between individuals, or between individual and machines.
Components
A typical BAN or BSN requires vital sign monitoring sensors, motion detectors (through accelerometers) to help identify the location of the monitored individual and some form of communication, to transmit vital sign and motion readings to medical practitioners or care givers. A typical Body Area Network kit will consist of sensors, a Processor, a transceiver and a battery. Physiological sensors, such as ECG and SpO2 sensors, have been developed. Other sensors such as a blood pressure sensor, EEG sensor and a PDA for BSN interface are under development.[8]
Challenges
Problems with the use of this technology could include: Interoperability: WBAN systems would have to ensure seamless data transfer across standards such as Bluetooth, ZigBee etc. to promote information exchange, plug and play device interaction. Further, the systems would have to be scalable, ensure efficient migration across networks and offer uninterrupted connectivity. System Devices: The sensors used in WBAN would have to be low on complexity, small in form factor, light in weight, power efficient, easy to use and reconfigurable. Further, the storage devices need to facilitate remote storage and viewing of patient data as well as access to external processing and analysis tools via the Internet. System and device-level security: Considerable effort would be required to make BAN transmission secure and accurate. It would have to be made sure that the patient?s data is only derived from each patient?s dedicated BAN system and is not mixed up with other patient?s data. Further, the data generated from WBAN should have secure and limited access. Invasion of privacy: People might consider the WBAN technology as a potential threat to freedom, if the applications go beyond ?secure? medical usage. Social acceptance would be key to this technology finding a wider application. Sensor validation: Pervasive sensing devices are subject to inherent communication and hardware constraints including unreliable wired/wireless network links, interference and limited power reserves. This may result in erroneous datasets being transmitted back to the end user. It is of the utmost importance especially within a healthcare domain that all sensor readings are validated. This helps to reduce false alarm generation and to identify possible weaknesses within the hardware and software design.[9] Data consistency: Data residing on multiple mobile devices and wireless patient motes need to be collected and analysed in a seamless fashion. Within Body Area Networks, vital patient datasets may be fragmented over a number of nodes and across a number of networked PCs or Laptops. If a medical practitioner?s mobile device does not contain all known information then the quality of patient care may degrade.[10] Interference: The wireless link used for body sensors should reduce the interference and increase the coexistence of sensor node devices with other network devices available in the environment. This is especially important for
Body Area Network large scale implementation of WBAN systems.[11]
References
[1] Developing wireless body area networks standard (http:/ / www. ieee802. org/ 15/ pub/ TG6. html) [2] Sana Ullah, Henry Higgins, Bart Braem, Benoit Latre, Chris Blondia, Ingrid Moerman, Shahnaz Saleem, Ziaur Rahman and Kyung Sup Kwak, A Comprehensive Survey of Wireless Body Area Networks: On PHY, MAC, and Network Layers Solutions, Journal of Medical Systems (Springer), 2010. DOI: 10.1007/s10916-010-9571-3. (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ h7143g8870u48000/ fulltext. pdf/ ) [3] Chen, Min; Gonzalez, Sergio and Vasilakos, Athanasios and Cao, Huasong and Leung, Victor (2010). "Body Area Networks: A Survey" (http:/ / mmlab. snu. ac. kr/ ~mchen/ min_paper/ Min-0-JNL-2-9-BAN-MONET2010. pdf). Mobile Networks and Applications (MONET) (Springer Netherlands) 16 (2): 123. doi:10.1007/s11036-010-0260-8. ISSN1383-469X. . [4] Schmidt R, Norgall T, Mrsdorf J, Bernhard J, von der Grn T. (2002). "Body Area Network BAN--a key infrastructure element for patient-centered medical applications". Biomed Tech 47 (1): 365?8. doi:10.1515/bmte.2002.47.s1a.365. PMID12451866. [5] O'Donovan, T., O'Donoghue, J., Sreenan, C., O'Reilly, P., Sammon, D. and O'Connor, K.: A Context Aware Wireless Body Area Network (BAN), In proceedings of the Pervasive Health Conference 2009. (http:/ / jod. ucc. ie/ Body_Area_Network. pdf) [6] M. R. Yuce (2010). "Implementation of wireless body area networks for healthcare systems" (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6THG-5093N36-3& _user=915767& _coverDate=07/ 31/ 2010& _rdoc=1& _fmt=high& _orig=search& _origin=search& _sort=d& _docanchor=& view=c& _acct=C000047922& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=915767& md5=bfcb3fbcaf1e3295f8a625a3cf5b75fc& searchtype=a). Sensors and Actuators A: Physical 162: 116129. doi:10.1016/j.sna.2010.06.004. . [7] http:/ / doc. utwente. nl/ 66761/ 1/ WG1_Val_Jones_Richard_Bults. pdf [8] http:/ / vip. doc. ic. ac. uk/ bsn/ m621. html [9] O?Donoghue, J. Herbert, J. and Fensli, R.: Sensor Validation within a Pervasive Medical Environment, In Proceedings of IEEE Sensors, South Korea, ISBN 1-4244-0376-6, 2006. (http:/ / jod. ucc. ie/ IEEE_Sensors_2006. pdf) [10] O?Donoghue, J., Herbert, J. and Kennedy, R.: Data Consistency within a Pervasive Medical Environment, In Proceedings of IEEE Sensors, South Korea, ISBN 1-4244-0376-6, 2006. (http:/ / jod. ucc. ie/ IEEE_Sensors_2006_2. pdf) [11] http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6THG-5093N36-3& _user=915767& _coverDate=07%2F31%2F2010& _rdoc=1& _fmt=high& _orig=search& _origin=search& _sort=d& _docanchor=& view=c& _acct=C000047922& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=915767& md5=bfcb3fbcaf1e3295f8a625a3cf5b75fc& searchtype=a
External links
Near-field Intra body communication (http://cims.clayton.edu/itsd4303/UsefulStuff/zimmerman.pdf) Body Area NEtworks and Technologies (http://www.banet.fr/) Ullah, Sana and Higgins, Henry and Braem, Bart and Latre, Benoit and Blondia, Chris and Moerman, Ingrid and Saleem, Shahnaz and Rahman, Ziaur and Kwak, Kyung (2010). "A Comprehensive Survey of Wireless Body Area Networks: On PHY, MAC, and Network Layers Solutions". Journal of Medical Systems (Springer Netherlands): 130. doi:10.1007/s10916-010-9571-3. ISSN0148-5598. PMID20721685 Energy Harvesting for Self Powered Wearable Health Monitoring System (http://www.techonline.com/ learning/techpaper/216500124) RedTacton (http://www.redtacton.com/en/info/index.html) - an example of a BAN TrainTrack (http://www.qinetiq-na.com/products-commercial-traintrak.htm) - an example of a BAN using conductive electrotextiles Energy Harvesting for Self Powered Wearable Health Monitoring System (http://www.techonline.com/ learning/techpaper/216500124) Video of a short talk by Cardiologist Eric Topol about Wireless medicine (http://www.ted.com/talks/ eric_topol_the_wireless_future_of_medicine.html) "Mobile Health: Concepts, Initiatives and Applications", First Book (in Portuguese) about using Wireless Technology to assist Healthcare (http://www.nr2.ufpr.br/?p=115)
Campus network
Campus network

Home (HAN)
A campus network, campus area network, corporate area network or CAN is a computer network made up of an interconnection of local area networks (LANs) within a limited geographical area.[1] [2] The networking equipments (switches, routers) and transmission media (optical fiber, copper plant, Cat5 cabling etc) are almost entirely owned by the campus tenant / owner: an enterprise, university, government etc.[3]
University campuses
In the case of a college or university, its campus area network is likely to interconnect a variety of campus buildings, including administrative buildings, academic buildings, university libraries, campus or student centers, residence halls, gymnasiums, and other outlying structures, like conference centers, technology centers, and training institutes. Early examples include the Stanford University Network at Stanford University,[4] Project Athena at MIT,[5] and the Andrew Project at Carnegie Mellon University.[6]
Corporate campuses
Much like a university campus network, a corporate campus network serves to connect buildings. Examples of such are the networks at Googleplex and Microsoft's campus. Campus networks are normally interconnected with high speed Ethernet links operating over optical fiber such as Gigabit Ethernet and 10 Gigabit Ethernet.
References
[1] [2] [3] [4] Edwards, Wade. CCNP Complete Study Guide (642-801, 642-811, 642-821, 642-831). Sybex. 2005 Long, Cormac. IP Network Design. McGraw-Hill/Osborne. 2001. Gary A. Donahue (2007-06). Network Warrior. O'Reilly. p.5. "Network (SUNet The Stanford University Network)" (http:/ / itservices. stanford. edu/ service/ network). Stanford University Information Technology Services. July 16, 2010. . Retrieved May 4, 2011. [5] "Athena history (1983 - present) from A to Z" (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ acs/ athena. html). MIT. . Retrieved May 4, 2011. [6] N. S. Borenstein (December 1996). "CMU's Andrew project: a retrospective" (ftp:/ / ftp. andrew. cmu. edu/ pub/ AUIS/ PAPERS/ atk/ Boren. CACM). Communications of the ACM 39 (12). doi:10.1145/272682.272717. .
Home network
Home network
IEEE Home networking Recommendations Recommendations HomePlug AV HomePlug AV2 HomePlug Green PHY Recommendations Wi-Fi 802.11a Wi-Fi 802.11b Wi-Fi 802.11g Wi-Fi 802.11n 5 GHz 2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz 2.4GHz and/or 5GHz GHz
ITU-T Home networking Recommendations Common Name HomePNA 2.0 HomePNA 3.0 HomePNA 3.1 G.hn/HomeGrid G.cx G.hnta Recommendations G.9951, G.9952, G.9953 G.9954 (02/05) G.9954 (01/07) G.9960, G.9961 G.9972 G.9970

Home (HAN)
A home network or home area network (HAN) is a residential local area network (LAN). It is used for communication between digital devices typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of personal computers and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing devices. An important function is the sharing of Internet access, often a broadband service through a fiber-to-the-home, cable TV, Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) or mobile broadband internet service provider (ISP). If the ISP only provides one IP address, a router including NAT proxy server and typically a network firewall, allows several computers to share the IP address. The router may be emulated by a PC with several network interfaces, but today a dedicated hardware router is more common, often including a wireless accesspoint, providing WiFi access.
Home network In operating systems, a home group is a feature that allows shared disk access, shared printer access and shared scanner access among all computers and users (typically all family members) in a home, in a similar fashion as in a small office workgroup, i.e. by means of distributed peer-to-peer networking (without a central server). Additionally, a home server may be added for increased functionality. A Windows HomeGroup is a new feature in Microsoft Windows 7 that simplifies file sharing. All users (typically all family members), except guest accounts, may access any shared library on any computer that is connected to the home group. Passwords are not required from the family members during logon. Instead, secure file sharing is possible by means of a temporary password that is used when adding a computer to the HomeGroup.[1]
Physical transmission media

Home networks may use wired or wireless technologies. Wired systems typically use shielded or unshielded twisted pair cabling, such as any of the Category 3 (CAT3) through Category 6 (CAT6) classes, but may also be implemented with coaxial cable, or over the existing electrical power wiring within homes. One of the most common ways of creating a home network is by using wireless radio signal technology; the 802.11 network as certified by the IEEE. Most products that are wireless-capable operate at a frequency of 2.4 GHz under 802.11b and 802.11g or 5 GHz under 802.11a. Some home networking devices operate in both radio-band signals and fall within the standard 802.11n. A wireless network can be used for communication between many electronic devices, to connect to the Internet or to wired networks that use Ethernet technology. Wi-Fi is a marketing and compliance certification for IEEE 802.11 technologies.[2] The WiFi Alliance has tested compliant products certifies them for interoperability. As an alternative to wireless networking, the existing home wiring (coax in North America, telephone wiring in multi dwelling units (MDU) and power-line in Europe and USA) can be used as a network medium. With the installation of a home networking device, the network can be accessed by simply plugging the Computer into a wall socket. The ITU-T G.hn and IEEE Powerline standard, which provide high-speed (up to 1 Gbit/s) local area networking over existing home wiring, are examples of home networking technology designed specifically for IPTV delivery. Recently, the IEEE passed proposal P1901 which grounded a standard within the Market for wireline products produced and sold by companies that are part of the HomePlug Alliance.[3] The IEEE is continuously working to push for P1901 to be completely recognized worldwide as the sole standard for all future products that are produced for Home Networking.
Home network
Network devices
A home network may consist of the following components:
Infrastructure Devices
A broadband modem for connection to the internet (either a DSL modem using the phone line, or cable modem using the cable internet connection). A residential gateway (sometimes called a broadband router) connected between the broadband modem and the rest of the network. This enables multiple devices to connect to the internet simultaneously. Residential gateways, hubs/switches, DSL modems, and wireless access points are often combined.
An example of a simple home network
A wireless access point, usually implemented as a feature rather than a separate box, for connecting wireless devices
Client Devices
A PC, or multiple PCs including laptops, Netbooks and Tablet PCs Entertainment peripherals - an increasing number of devices can be connected to the home network, including DVRs like TiVo, digital audio players, games machines, stereo system, and IP set-top box as well as TVs themselves. Internet Phones (VoIP) Smart Phones connected via Wifi. A network bridge connects two networks together, often giving a wired device, e.g. Xbox, access to a wireless network. A network hub/switch - a central networking hub containing a number of Ethernet ports for connecting multiple networked devices A network attached storage (NAS) device can be used for storage on the network. A print server can be used to share printers among computers on the network. Older devices may not have the appropriate connector to the network. USB and PCI network controllers can be installed in some devices to allow them to connect to networks. Network devices may also be configured from a computer. For example, broadband modems are often configured through a web client on a networked PC. As networking technology evolves, more electronic devices and home appliances are becoming Internet ready and accessible through the home network. Set-top boxes from cable TV providers already have USB and Ethernet ports "for future use". Home networking may use Ethernet Category 5 cable, Category 6 cable - for speeds of 10 Mbit/s, 100 Mbit/s, or 1 Gbit/s. Wi-Fi Wireless LAN connections - for speeds up to 450 Mbit/s, dependent on signal strength and wireless standard.
Home network Coaxial cables (TV antennas) - for speeds of 270 Mbit/s (see Multimedia over Coax Alliance or 320 Mbit/s see HomePNA) Electrical wiring - for speeds of 14 Mbit/s to 200 Mbit/s (see Power line communication) Phone wiring - for speeds of 160 Mbit/s (see HomePNA) Fiber optics - although rare, new homes are beginning to include fiber optics for future use. Optical networks generally use Ethernet. All home wiring (coax, powerline and phone wires) - future standard for speeds up to 1 Gbit/s being developed by the ITU-T (see G.hn)
Home Coverage
Challenges
Wireless Signal Loss The Wireless signal strength may not be powerful enough to cover the entire house or may not be able to get through to all floors of multiple floor residences. Wired Background "Noise" One of the largest challenges posed for those that wanted to utilize the home electrical system for networking is how to combat other electrical noise that would be around due to the use of a power outlet to transfer information. Whenever any appliance is turned on or turned off it creates noise that could possibly dissrupt data transfer through the wiring. IEEE products past the HomePlug 1.0 stage have combated this problem and no longer interfere with, or receive interference from, other devices plugged into a power outlet.[4] "Leaky" WiFi WiFi often extends beyond the boundaries of a home and can create coverage where it is least wanted, allowing a way for people to compromise a system and retrieve personal data. The usual way to combat this is by the use of authentication, encryption, or VPN that requires a password to access the WiFi.[5]
References
[1] Greg Holden, Lawrence C. Miller, Home Networking Do-It-Yourself for Dummies (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=UoN0PAlIUScC& pg=PA93& dq=windows+ homeGroup& hl=sv& ei=HgTITanoN8aOswa4-cyTDw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4& ved=0CEgQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage& q=windows homeGroup& f=false), John Wiley and Sons, 2011. [2] Discover and Learn, WiFi Alliance, http:/ / www. wi-fi. org/ discover_and_learn. php (accessed June 30, 2010). [3] Faure, Jean-Philippe. IEEE P1901 Draft Standard for Broadband over Power Line Networks: Medium Access Control and Physical Layer Specifications, IEEE Standards Association, http:/ / grouper. ieee. org/ groups/ 1901/ (accessed June 22, 2010). [4] Frequently Asked Questions, HomePlug Powerline Alliance, http:/ / www. homeplug. org/ about/ faqs/ (accessed June 22, 2010). [5] Wangerien, Brian. "The Challenges of Wi-Fi." Communications News. Encyclopedia Britanica. Web. <http://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/21597846/The-challenges-of-WiFi>.
External links
Home Network Help Site (http://www.home-network-help.com) WikiBooks:Transferring Data between Standard Dial-Up Modems
IEEE 802.20
IEEE 802.20
IEEE 802.20 or Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA) is an IEEE Standard to enable worldwide deployment of multi-vendor interoperable mobile broadband wireless access networks[1]
Overview
It is hoped that such an interface will allow the creation of low-cost, always-on, and truly mobile broadband wireless networks, nicknamed as Mobile-Fi. IEEE 802.20 will be specified according to a layered architecture, which is consistent with other IEEE 802 specifications. The scope of the working group consists of the physical (PHY), medium access control (MAC), and logical link control (LLC) layers. The air interface will operate in bands below 3.5 GHz and with a peak data rate of over 80 Mbit/s. The goals of 802.20 and 802.16e, the so-called "mobile WiMAX", are similar. A draft 802.20 specification was balloted and approved on January 18, 2006. The IEEE approved 802.20-2008, Physical and Media Access Specification on 12 June 2008. This is now freely available from the IEEE website. The baseline specifications that have been proposed for this specification aim considerably higher than those available on our current mobile architecture.
Technical description
The standard's proposed benefits: IP roaming & handoff (at more than 1 Mbit/s) New MAC and PHY with IP and adaptive antennas Optimized for full mobility up to vehicular speeds of 250km/h Operates in Licensed Bands (below 3.5 GHz) Utilizes Packet Architecture Low Latency
Some technical details Bandwidths of 5, 10, and 20 MHz. Peak data rates of 80 Mbit/s. Spectral efficiency above 1 bit/sec/Hz using MIMO. Layered frequency hopping allocates OFDM carriers to near, middle, and far-away handsets, improving SNR (works best for SISO handsets.) Supports low-bit rates efficiently, carrying up to 100 phone calls per MHz. Hybrid ARQ with up to 6 transmissions and several choices for interleaving. Basic slot period of 913 microseconds carrying 8 OFDM symbols. One of the first standards to support both TDM (FL,RL) and separate-frequency (FL, RL) deployments.
IEEE 802.20
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History
The 802.20 working group was proposed in response to ArrayComm's iBurst standard. The Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA) Working Group was approved by IEEE Standards Board on December 11, 2002 with aims to prepare a formal specification for a packet-based air interface designed for IP-based services. From the start Qualcomm saw iBurst and its standardization as a competitive threat; they did all they could to thwart the progress of the standard. On 8 June 2006, the IEEE-SA Standards Board directed that all activities of the 802.20 Working Group be temporarily suspended. This suspension was effective immediately and continued until 1 October 2006.[2] [3] On 15 September 2006, the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved a plan to enable the IEEE 802.20 Working Group to move forward with its work to develop a mobile broadband wireless access standard and provide the best opportunity for its completion and approval.[4] On 17 July 2007, the IEEE 802 Executive Committee along with its 802.20 Oversight Committee approved a change to voting in the 802.20 working group. Going forward voting was changed from an individual voting member to an entity based system. Since the original allegation of dominance and lack of transparency of the process had been raised this was a possibility. With some of those issues possibly again being an issue the IEEE 802 management groups took this proactive step in another attempt to secure the IEEE process for this particular standard.[5] On 12 June 2008, the IEEE approved the new standard.[1] 802.20 standard was put to hibernation on March 2011 due to lack of activity.
References
[1] "IEEE Working Group Announces Updated 1647-2008 e Language Standard (12 June 2008)" (http:/ / standards. ieee. org/ announcements/ 802. 20approval. html). . Retrieved 2008-06-15. [2] Steve Mills. "Status of 802.20" (http:/ / grouper. ieee. org/ groups/ 802/ mbwa/ email/ pdf00015. pdf). IEEE. . Retrieved 2008-06-15. [3] "EETimes.com - Updated: IEEE 802.20 working group declares 'cooling off' period (15 June 2006)" (http:/ / www. eetimes. com/ news/ latest/ showArticle. jhtml?articleID=189401737). . Retrieved 2008-06-13. [4] "IEEE-SA ADOPTS PLAN TO MOVE 802.20(TM) BROADBAND WIRELESS STANDARD FORWARD" (http:/ / standards. ieee. org/ announcements/ pr_80220plan. html). . Retrieved 2008-06-13. [5] "Media Statement from IEEE Standards Association Regarding the Status of the IEEE 802.20 Standard and Working Group" (http:/ / standards. ieee. org/ announcements/ 802. 20std_status. html). . Retrieved 2008-06-13.
External links
IEEE website for 802.20 (http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/20/) IEEE website for 802.16 (http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/16/) IEEE Xplore, Std.802.20-2008 (http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search/srchabstract.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4618042& queryText=802.20-2008&openedRefinements=*&searchField=Search+All)
Internet
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Internet
Internet
Visualization from the Opte Project of the various routes through a portion of the Internet

Home (HAN)
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support electronic mail. Most traditional communications media including telephone, music, film, and television are reshaped or redefined by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and IPTV. Newspaper, book and other print publishing are adapting to Web site technology, or are reshaped into blogging and web feeds. The Internet has enabled or accelerated new forms of human interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Online shopping has boomed both for major retail outlets and small artisans and traders. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries. The origins of the Internet reach back to research of the 1960s, commissioned by the United States government in collaboration with private commercial interests to build robust, fault-tolerant, and distributed computer networks. The funding of a new U.S. backbone by the National Science Foundation in the 1980s, as well as private funding for other commercial backbones, led to worldwide participation in the development of new networking technologies, and the merger of many networks. The commercialization of what was by the 1990s an international network resulted in its popularization and incorporation into virtually every aspect of modern human life. As of 2009, an
Internet estimated quarter of Earth's population used the services of the Internet. The Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage; each constituent network sets its own standards. Only the overreaching definitions of the two principal name spaces in the Internet, the Internet Protocol address space and the Domain Name System, are directed by a maintainer organization, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). The technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise.
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Terminology
Internet is a short form of the technical term internetwork,[1] the result of interconnecting computer networks with special gateways or routers. The Internet is also often referred to as the Net. The term the Internet, when referring to the entire global system of IP networks, has been treated as a proper noun and written with an initial capital letter. In the media and popular culture a trend has also developed to regard it as a generic term or common noun and thus write it as "the internet", without capitalization. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized as a noun but not capitalized as an adjective. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used in everyday speech without much distinction. However, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not one and the same. The Internet is a global data communications system. It is a hardware and software infrastructure that provides connectivity between computers. In contrast, the Web is one of the services communicated via the Internet. It is a collection of interconnected documents and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs.[2]
Depiction of the Internet as a cloud in network diagrams
In many technical illustrations when the precise location or interrelation of Internet resources is not important, extended networks such as the Internet are often depicted as a cloud.[3] The verbal image has been formalized in the newer concept of cloud computing.
History
The USSR's launch of Sputnik spurred the United States to create the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) in February 1958 to regain a technological lead.[4] [5] ARPA created the Information Processing Technology Office (IPTO) to further the research of the Semi Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) program, which had networked country-wide radar systems together for the first time. The IPTO's purpose was to find ways to address the US military's concern about survivability of their communications networks, and as a first step interconnect their computers at the Pentagon, Cheyenne Mountain, and Strategic Air Command headquarters (SAC). J. C. R. Licklider, a promoter of universal networking, was selected to head the IPTO. Licklider moved from the Psycho-Acoustic Laboratory at Harvard University to MIT in 1950, after becoming interested in information technology. At MIT, he served on a committee that established Lincoln Laboratory and worked on the SAGE project. In 1957 he became a Vice President at BBN, where he bought the first production PDP-1 computer and conducted the first public demonstration of time-sharing.
Internet
13
At the IPTO, Licklider's successor Ivan Sutherland in 1965 got Lawrence Roberts to start a project to make a network, and Roberts based the technology on the work of Paul Baran,[6] who had written an exhaustive study for the United States Air Force that recommended packet switching (opposed to circuit switching) to achieve better network robustness and disaster survivability. Roberts had worked at the MIT Lincoln Laboratory originally established to work on the design of the SAGE system. UCLA professor Leonard Kleinrock had provided the theoretical foundations for packet networks in 1962, and later, in the 1970s, for hierarchical routing, concepts which have been the underpinning of the development towards today's Internet. Sutherland's successor Robert Taylor convinced Roberts to build on his early packet switching successes and come and be the IPTO Chief Scientist. Once there, Roberts prepared a report called Resource Sharing Computer Networks which was approved by Taylor in June 1968 and laid the foundation for the launch of the working ARPANET the following year.
Professor Leonard Kleinrock with the first ARPANET Interface Message Processors at UCLA
After much work, the first two nodes of what would become the ARPANET were interconnected between Kleinrock's Network Measurement Center at the UCLA's School of Engineering and Applied Science and Douglas Engelbart's NLS system at SRI International (SRI) in Menlo Park, California, on 29 October 1969. The third site on the ARPANET was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics center at the University of California at Santa Barbara, and the fourth was the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of future growth, there were already fifteen sites connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. In an independent development, Donald Davies at the UK National Physical Laboratory developed the concept of packet switching in the early 1960s, first giving a talk on the subject in 1965, after which the teams in the new field from two sides of the Atlantic ocean first became acquainted. It was actually Davies' coinage of the wording packet and packet switching that was adopted as the standard terminology. Davies also built a packet-switched network in the UK, called the Mark I in 1970.[7] Bolt, Beranek & Newman (BBN), the private contractors for ARPANET, set out to create a separate commercial version after establishing "value added carriers" was legalized in the U.S.[8] The network they established was called Telenet and began operation in 1975, installing free public dial-up access in cities throughout the U.S. Telenet was the first packet-switching network open to the general public.[9] Following the demonstration that packet switching worked on the ARPANET, the British Post Office, Telenet, DATAPAC and TRANSPAC collaborated to create the first international packet-switched network service. In the UK, this was referred to as the International Packet Switched Service (IPSS), in 1978. The collection of X.25-based networks grew from Europe and the US to cover Canada, Hong Kong and Australia by 1981. The X.25 packet switching standard was developed in the CCITT (now called ITU-T) around 1976. X.25 was independent of the TCP/IP protocols that arose from the experimental work of DARPA on the ARPANET, Packet Radio Net, and Packet Satellite Net during the same time period. The early ARPANET ran on the Network Control Program (NCP), implementing the host-to-host connectivity and switching layers of the protocol stack, designed and first implemented in December 1970 by a team called the Network Working Group (NWG) led by Steve Crocker. To respond to the network's rapid growth as more and more locations connected, Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn developed the first description of the now widely used TCP protocols during 1973 and published a paper on the subject in May 1974. Use of the term "Internet" to describe a single global TCP/IP network originated in December 1974 with the publication of RFC 675, the first full specification of TCP that was written by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine, then at Stanford University. During the next nine years, work proceeded to refine the protocols and to implement them on a wide range of operating systems. The first TCP/IP-based wide-area network was operational by 1 January 1983 when all hosts on the ARPANET were switched over from the older NCP protocols.
Internet
14
In 1985, the United States' National Science Foundation (NSF) commissioned the construction of the NSFNET, a university 56 kilobit/second network backbone using computers called "fuzzballs" by their inventor, David L. Mills. The following year, NSF sponsored the conversion to a higher-speed 1.5megabit/second network that became operational in 1988. A key decision to use the DARPA TCP/IP protocols was made by Dennis Jennings, then in charge of the Supercomputer program at NSF. The NSFNET backbone was T3 NSFNET Backbone, c. 1992 upgraded to 45Mbps in 1991 and decommissioned in 1995 when it was replaced by new backbone networks operated by commercial Internet Service Providers. The opening of the NSFNET to other networks began in 1988.[10] The US Federal Networking Council approved the interconnection of the NSFNET to the commercial MCI Mail system in that year and the link was made in the summer of 1989. Other commercial electronic mail services were soon connected, including OnTyme, Telemail and Compuserve. In that same year, three commercial Internet service providers (ISPs) began operations: UUNET, PSINet, and CERFNET. Important, separate networks that offered gateways into, then later merged with, the Internet include Usenet and BITNET. Various other commercial and educational networks, such as Telenet (by that time renamed to Sprintnet), Tymnet, Compuserve and JANET were interconnected with the growing Internet in the 1980s as the TCP/IP protocol became increasingly popular. The adaptability of TCP/IP to existing communication networks allowed for rapid growth. The open availability of the specifications and reference code permitted commercial vendors to build interoperable network components, such as routers, making standardized network gear available from many companies. This aided in the rapid growth of the Internet and the proliferation of local-area networking. It seeded the widespread implementation and rigorous standardization of TCP/IP on UNIX and virtually every other common operating system. Although the basic applications and guidelines that make the Internet possible had existed for almost two decades, the network did not gain a public face until the 1990s. On 6 August 1991, CERN, a pan-European organization for particle research, publicized the new World Wide Web project. The Web was invented by British scientist Tim Berners-Lee in 1989. An early popular web browser was ViolaWWW, patterned after HyperCard and built using the X Window System. It was eventually replaced in popularity by the Mosaic web browser. In 1993, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of This NeXT Computer was used by Sir Tim Illinois released version 1.0 of Mosaic, and by late 1994 there was Berners-Lee at CERN and became the world's growing public interest in the previously academic, technical Internet. first Web server. By 1996 usage of the word Internet had become commonplace, and consequently, so had its use as a synecdoche in reference to the World Wide Web. Meanwhile, over the course of the decade, the Internet successfully accommodated the majority of previously existing public computer networks (although some networks, such as FidoNet, have remained separate). During the late 1990s, it was estimated that traffic on the public Internet grew by 100 percent per year, while the mean annual growth in the number of Internet users was thought to be between 20% and 50%.[11] This growth is often attributed to the lack of central administration, which allows organic growth of the network, as well as the non-proprietary open nature of the Internet protocols, which encourages vendor interoperability and prevents any one company from exerting too much control over the network.[12] The estimated population of Internet users is 1.97billion as of 30 June 2010.[13]
Internet From 2009 onward, the Internet is expected to grow significantly in Brazil, Russia, India, China, and Indonesia (BRICI countries). These countries have large populations and moderate to high economic growth, but still low Internet penetration rates. In 2009, the BRICI countries represented about 45 percent of the world's population and had approximately 610 million Internet users, but by 2015, Internet users in BRICI countries will double to 1.2 billion, and will triple in Indonesia.[14] [15]
15
Technology
Protocols
The complex communications infrastructure of the Internet consists of its hardware components and a system of software layers that control various aspects of the architecture. While the hardware can often be used to support other software systems, it is the design and the rigorous standardization process of the software architecture that characterizes the Internet and provides the foundation for its scalability and success. The responsibility for the architectural design of the Internet software systems has been delegated to the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).[16] The IETF conducts standard-setting work groups, open to any individual, about the various aspects of Internet architecture. Resulting discussions and final standards are published in a series of publications, each called a Request for Comments (RFC), freely available on the IETF web site. The principal methods of networking that enable the Internet are contained in specially designated RFCs that constitute the Internet Standards. Other less rigorous documents are simply informative, experimental, or historical, or document the best current practices (BCP) when implementing Internet technologies. The Internet Standards describe a framework known as the Internet Protocol Suite. This is a model architecture that divides methods into a layered system of protocols (RFC 1122, RFC 1123). The layers correspond to the environment or scope in which their services operate. At the top is the Application Layer, the space for the application-specific networking methods used in software applications, e.g., a web browser program. Below this top layer, the Transport Layer connects applications on different hosts via the network (e.g., clientserver model) with appropriate data exchange methods. Underlying these layers are the core networking technologies, consisting of two layers. The Internet Layer enables computers to identify and locate each other via Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, and allows them to connect to one-another via intermediate (transit) networks. Lastly, at the bottom of the architecture, is a software layer, the Link Layer, that provides connectivity between hosts on the same local network link, such as a local area network (LAN) or a dial-up connection. The model, also known as TCP/IP, is designed to be independent of the underlying hardware which the model therefore does not concern itself with in any detail. Other models have been developed, such as the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, but they are not compatible in the details of description, nor implementation, but many similarities exist and the TCP/IP protocols are usually included in the discussion of OSI networking. The most prominent component of the Internet model is the Internet Protocol (IP) which provides addressing systems (IP addresses) for computers on the Internet. IP enables internetworking and essentially establishes the Internet itself. IP Version 4 (IPv4) is the initial version used on the first generation of the today's Internet and is still in dominant use. It was designed to address up to ~4.3billion (109) Internet hosts. However, the explosive growth of the Internet has led to IPv4 address exhaustion which is estimated to enter its final stage in approximately 2011.[17] A new protocol version, IPv6, was developed in the mid 1990s which provides vastly larger addressing capabilities and more efficient routing of Internet traffic. IPv6 is currently in commercial deployment phase around the world and Internet address registries (RIRs) have begun to urge all resource managers to plan rapid adoption and conversion.[18] IPv6 is not interoperable with IPv4. It essentially establishes a "parallel" version of the Internet not directly accessible with IPv4 software. This means software upgrades or translator facilities are necessary for every networking device that needs to communicate on the IPv6 Internet. Most modern computer operating systems are
Internet already converted to operate with both versions of the Internet Protocol. Network infrastructures, however, are still lagging in this development. Aside from the complex physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the Internet is facilitated by bi- or multi-lateral commercial contracts (e.g., peering agreements), and by technical specifications or protocols that describe how to exchange data over the network. Indeed, the Internet is defined by its interconnections and routing policies.
16
Structure
The Internet structure and its usage characteristics have been studied extensively. It has been determined that both the Internet IP routing structure and hypertext links of the World Wide Web are examples of scale-free networks. Similar to the way the commercial Internet providers connect via Internet exchange points, research networks tend to interconnect into large subnetworks such as GEANT, GLORIAD, Internet2 (successor of the Abilene Network), and the UK's national research and education network JANET. These in turn are built around smaller networks (see also the list of academic computer network organizations). Many computer scientists describe the Internet as a "prime example of a large-scale, highly engineered, yet highly complex system".[19] The Internet is extremely heterogeneous; for instance, data transfer rates and physical characteristics of connections vary widely. The Internet exhibits "emergent phenomena" that depend on its large-scale organization. For example, data transfer rates exhibit temporal self-similarity. The principles of the routing and addressing methods for traffic in the Internet reach back to their origins the 1960s when the eventual scale and popularity of the network could not be anticipated. Thus, the possibility of developing alternative structures is investigated.[20]
Governance
The Internet is a globally distributed network comprising many voluntarily interconnected autonomous networks. It operates without a central governing body. However, to maintain interoperability, all technical and policy aspects of the underlying core infrastructure and the principal name spaces are administered by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), headquartered in Marina del Rey, California. ICANN is the authority that coordinates the assignment of unique identifiers for use on the Internet, including domain names, Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, application port ICANN headquarters in Marina Del Rey, numbers in the transport protocols, and many other parameters. California, United States Globally unified name spaces, in which names and numbers are uniquely assigned, are essential for the global reach of the Internet. ICANN is governed by an international board of directors drawn from across the Internet technical, business, academic, and other non-commercial communities. The government of the United States continues to have the primary role in approving changes to the DNS root zone that lies at the heart of the domain name system. ICANN's role in coordinating the assignment of unique identifiers distinguishes it as perhaps the only central coordinating body on the global Internet. On 16 November 2005, the World Summit on the Information Society, held in Tunis, established the Internet Governance Forum (IGF) to discuss Internet-related issues.
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Modern uses
The Internet is allowing greater flexibility in working hours and location, especially with the spread of unmetered high-speed connections and web applications. The Internet can now be accessed almost anywhere by numerous means, especially through mobile Internet devices. Mobile phones, datacards, handheld game consoles and cellular routers allow users to connect to the Internet from anywhere there is a wireless network supporting that device's technology. Within the limitations imposed by small screens and other limited facilities of such pocket-sized devices, services of the Internet, including email and the web, may be available. Service providers may restrict the services offered and wireless data transmission charges may be significantly higher than other access methods. Educational material at all levels from pre-school to post-doctoral is available from websites. Examples range from CBeebies, through school and high-school revision guides, virtual universities, to access to top-end scholarly literature through the likes of Google Scholar. In distance education, help with homework and other assignments, self-guided learning, whiling away spare time, or just looking up more detail on an interesting fact, it has never been easier for people to access educational information at any level from anywhere. The Internet in general and the World Wide Web in particular are important enablers of both formal and informal education. The low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge, and skills has made collaborative work dramatically easier, with the help of collaborative software. Not only can a group cheaply communicate and share ideas, but the wide reach of the Internet allows such groups to easily form in the first place. An example of this is the free software movement, which has produced, among other programs, Linux, Mozilla Firefox, and OpenOffice.org. Internet "chat", whether in the form of IRC chat rooms or channels, or via instant messaging systems, allow colleagues to stay in touch in a very convenient way when working at their computers during the day. Messages can be exchanged even more quickly and conveniently than via email. Extensions to these systems may allow files to be exchanged, "whiteboard" drawings to be shared or voice and video contact between team members. Version control systems allow collaborating teams to work on shared sets of documents without either accidentally overwriting each other's work or having members wait until they get "sent" documents to be able to make their contributions. Business and project teams can share calendars as well as documents and other information. Such collaboration occurs in a wide variety of areas including scientific research, software development, conference planning, political activism and creative writing. Social and political collaboration is also becoming more widespread as both Internet access and computer literacy grow. From the flash mob 'events' of the early 2000s to the use of social networking in the 2009 Iranian election protests, the Internet allows people to work together more effectively and in many more ways than was possible without it. The Internet allows computer users to remotely access other computers and information stores easily, wherever they may be across the world. They may do this with or without the use of security, authentication and encryption technologies, depending on the requirements. This is encouraging new ways of working from home, collaboration and information sharing in many industries. An accountant sitting at home can audit the books of a company based in another country, on a server situated in a third country that is remotely maintained by IT specialists in a fourth. These accounts could have been created by home-working bookkeepers, in other remote locations, based on information emailed to them from offices all over the world. Some of these things were possible before the widespread use of the Internet, but the cost of private leased lines would have made many of them infeasible in practice. An office worker away from their desk, perhaps on the other side of the world on a business trip or a holiday, can open a remote desktop session into his normal office PC using a secure Virtual Private Network (VPN) connection via the Internet. This gives the worker complete access to all of his or her normal files and data, including email and other applications, while away from the office. This concept has been referred to among system administrators as the Virtual Private Nightmare,[21] because it extends the secure perimeter of a corporate network into its employees' homes.
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Services
Information
Many people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web, or just the Web, interchangeably, but the two terms are not synonymous. The World Wide Web is a global set of documents, images and other resources, logically interrelated by hyperlinks and referenced with Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs). URIs allow providers to symbolically identify services and clients to locate and address web servers, file servers, and other databases that store documents and provide resources and access them using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), the primary carrier protocol of the Web. HTTP is only one of the hundreds of communication protocols used on the Internet. Web services may also use HTTP to allow software systems to communicate in order to share and exchange business logic and data. World Wide Web browser software, such as Microsoft's Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Apple's Safari, and Google Chrome, let users navigate from one web page to another via hyperlinks embedded in the documents. These documents may also contain any combination of computer data, including graphics, sounds, text, video, multimedia and interactive content including games, office applications and scientific demonstrations. Through keyword-driven Internet research using search engines like Yahoo! and Google, users worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to printed encyclopedias and traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled the decentralization of information. The Web has also enabled individuals and organizations to publish ideas and information to a potentially large audience online at greatly reduced expense and time delay. Publishing a web page, a blog, or building a website involves little initial cost and many cost-free services are available. Publishing and maintaining large, professional web sites with attractive, diverse and up-to-date information is still a difficult and expensive proposition, however. Many individuals and some companies and groups use web logs or blogs, which are largely used as easily updatable online diaries. Some commercial organizations encourage staff to communicate advice in their areas of specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free information, and be attracted to the corporation as a result. One example of this practice is Microsoft, whose product developers publish their personal blogs in order to pique the public's interest in their work. Collections of personal web pages published by large service providers remain popular, and have become increasingly sophisticated. Whereas operations such as Angelfire and GeoCities have existed since the early days of the Web, newer offerings from, for example, Facebook and MySpace currently have large followings. These operations often brand themselves as social network services rather than simply as web page hosts. Advertising on popular web pages can be lucrative, and e-commerce or the sale of products and services directly via the Web continues to grow. When the Web began in the 1990s, a typical web page was stored in completed form on a web server, formatted with HTML, ready to be sent to a user's browser in response to a request. Over time, the process of creating and serving web pages has become more automated and more dynamic. Websites are often created using content management or wiki software with, initially, very little content. Contributors to these systems, who may be paid staff, members of a club or other organization or members of the public, fill underlying databases with content using editing pages designed for that purpose, while casual visitors view and read this content in its final HTML form. There may or may not be editorial, approval and security systems built into the process of taking newly entered content and making it available to the target visitors.
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Communication
Electronic mail, or email, is an important communications service available on the Internet. The concept of sending electronic text messages between parties in a way analogous to mailing letters or memos predates the creation of the Internet. Pictures, documents and other files are sent as email attachments. Emails can be cc-ed to multiple email addresses. Internet telephony is another common communications service made possible by the creation of the Internet. VoIP stands for Voice-over-Internet Protocol, referring to the protocol that underlies all Internet communication. The idea began in the early 1990s with walkie-talkie-like voice applications for personal computers. In recent years many VoIP systems have become as easy to use and as convenient as a normal telephone. The benefit is that, as the Internet carries the voice traffic, VoIP can be free or cost much less than a traditional telephone call, especially over long distances and especially for those with always-on Internet connections such as cable or ADSL. VoIP is maturing into a competitive alternative to traditional telephone service. Interoperability between different providers has improved and the ability to call or receive a call from a traditional telephone is available. Simple, inexpensive VoIP network adapters are available that eliminate the need for a personal computer. Voice quality can still vary from call to call but is often equal to and can even exceed that of traditional calls. Remaining problems for VoIP include emergency telephone number dialing and reliability. Currently, a few VoIP providers provide an emergency service, but it is not universally available. Traditional phones are line-powered and operate during a power failure; VoIP does not do so without a backup power source for the phone equipment and the Internet access devices. VoIP has also become increasingly popular for gaming applications, as a form of communication between players. Popular VoIP clients for gaming include Ventrilo and Teamspeak. Wii, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360 also offer VoIP chat features.
Data transfer
File sharing is an example of transferring large amounts of data across the Internet. A computer file can be emailed to customers, colleagues and friends as an attachment. It can be uploaded to a website or FTP server for easy download by others. It can be put into a "shared location" or onto a file server for instant use by colleagues. The load of bulk downloads to many users can be eased by the use of "mirror" servers or peer-to-peer networks. In any of these cases, access to the file may be controlled by user authentication, the transit of the file over the Internet may be obscured by encryption, and money may change hands for access to the file. The price can be paid by the remote charging of funds from, for example, a credit card whose details are also passedusually fully encryptedacross the Internet. The origin and authenticity of the file received may be checked by digital signatures or by MD5 or other message digests. These simple features of the Internet, over a worldwide basis, are changing the production, sale, and distribution of anything that can be reduced to a computer file for transmission. This includes all manner of print publications, software products, news, music, film, video, photography, graphics and the other arts. This in turn has caused seismic shifts in each of the existing industries that previously controlled the production and distribution of these products. Streaming media is the real-time delivery of digital media for the immediate consumption or enjoyment by end users. Many radio and television broadcasters provide Internet feeds of their live audio and video productions. They may also allow time-shift viewing or listening such as Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again features. These providers have been joined by a range of pure Internet "broadcasters" who never had on-air licenses. This means that an Internet-connected device, such as a computer or something more specific, can be used to access on-line media in much the same way as was previously possible only with a television or radio receiver. The range of available types of content is much wider, from specialized technical webcasts to on-demand popular multimedia services. Podcasting is a variation on this theme, whereusually audiomaterial is downloaded and played back on a computer or shifted to a portable media player to be listened to on the move. These techniques using simple equipment allow anybody, with little censorship or licensing control, to broadcast audio-visual material worldwide.
Internet Digital media streaming increases the demand for network bandwidth. For example, standard image quality needs 1 Mbps link speed for SD 480p, HD 720p quality requires 2.5 Mbps, and the top-of-the-line HDX quality needs 4.5 Mbps for 1080p.[22] Webcams are a low-cost extension of this phenomenon. While some webcams can give full-frame-rate video, the picture is usually either small or updates slowly. Internet users can watch animals around an African waterhole, ships in the Panama Canal, traffic at a local roundabout or monitor their own premises, live and in real time. Video chat rooms and video conferencing are also popular with many uses being found for personal webcams, with and without two-way sound. YouTube was founded on 15 February 2005 and is now the leading website for free streaming video with a vast number of users. It uses a flash-based web player to stream and show video files. Registered users may upload an unlimited amount of video and build their own personal profile. YouTube claims that its users watch hundreds of millions, and upload hundreds of thousands of videos daily.[23]
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Access
The prevalent language for communication on the Internet has been English. This may be a result of the origin of the Internet, as well as the language's role as a lingua franca. Early computer systems were limited to the characters in the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), a subset of the Latin alphabet. After English (27%), the most requested languages on the World Wide Web are Chinese (23%), Spanish (8%), Japanese (5%), Portuguese and German (4% each), Arabic, French and Russian (3% each), and Graph of Internet users per 100 inhabitants between 1997 and 2007 by Korean (2%).[24] By region, 42% of the International Telecommunication Union world's Internet users are based in Asia, 24% in Europe, 14% in North America, 10% in Latin America and the Caribbean taken together, 6% in Africa, 3% in the Middle East and 1% in Australia/Oceania.[25] The Internet's technologies have developed enough in recent years, especially in the use of Unicode, that good facilities are available for development and communication in the world's widely used languages. However, some glitches such as mojibake (incorrect display of some languages' characters) still remain. Common methods of Internet access in homes include dial-up, landline broadband (over coaxial cable, fiber optic or copper wires), Wi-Fi, satellite and 3G/4G technology cell phones. Public places to use the Internet include libraries and Internet cafes, where computers with Internet connections are available. There are also Internet access points in many public places such as airport halls and coffee shops, in some cases just for brief use while standing. Various terms are used, such as "public Internet kiosk", "public access terminal", and "Web payphone". Many hotels now also have public terminals, though these are usually fee-based. These terminals are widely accessed for various usage like ticket booking, bank deposit, online payment etc. Wi-Fi provides wireless access to computer networks, and therefore can do so to the Internet itself. Hotspots providing such access include Wi-Fi cafes, where would-be users need to bring their own wireless-enabled devices such as a laptop or PDA. These services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. A hotspot need not be limited to a confined location. A whole campus or park, or even an entire city can be enabled. Grassroots efforts have led to wireless community networks. Commercial Wi-Fi services covering large city areas are in place in London, Vienna, Toronto, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Chicago and
Internet Pittsburgh. The Internet can then be accessed from such places as a park bench.[26] Apart from Wi-Fi, there have been experiments with proprietary mobile wireless networks like Ricochet, various high-speed data services over cellular phone networks, and fixed wireless services. High-end mobile phones such as smartphones generally come with Internet access through the phone network. Web browsers such as Opera are available on these advanced handsets, which can also run a wide variety of other Internet software. More mobile phones have Internet access than PCs, though this is not as widely used. An Internet access provider and protocol matrix differentiates the methods used to get online. In contrast, an Internet blackout or outage can be caused by accidental local signaling interruptions. Disruptions of submarine communications cables may cause blackouts or slowdowns to large areas depending on them, such as in the 2008 submarine cable disruption. Internet blackouts of almost entire countries can be achieved by governments as Internet censorship, such as with the Internet in Egypt, where approximately 93%[27] of networks were shut down in 2011 in an attempt to stop mobilisation for anti-government protests.[28]
21
In an American study in 2005, the percentage of men using the Internet was very slightly ahead of the percentage of women, although this difference reversed in those under 30. Men logged on more often, spend more time online, and are more likely to be broadband users, whereas women tended to make more use of opportunities to communicate (such as email). Men were more likely to use the Internet to pay bills, participate in auctions, and for recreation such as downloading music and videos. Men and women were equally likely to use the Internet for shopping and banking.[29] More recent studies indicate that in 2008, women significantly outnumbered men on most social networking sites, such as Facebook and Myspace, although the ratios varied with .5Bhttp:.2F.2Fbusiness.rapleaf.com.2Fcompany_press_2008_07_29.html_Rapleaf_Study_on_Social_Network_Users.5D age. In addition, women watched more streaming content, whereas men downloaded more..5Bhttp:.2F.2Fwww.entrepreneur.com.2Ftradejournals.2Farticle.2F178175272.html_Entrepreneur.2C_study_into_men_and_women.27s_use_of_technology.5D In terms of blogs, men were more likely to blog in the first place; among those who blog, men were more likely to have a professional blog, whereas women were more likely to have a personal blog.
.5Bhttp:.2F.2Ftechnorati.com.2Fblogging.2Fstate-of-the-blogosphere.2F_Technorati_study_into_the_blogosphere.5D
Overall Internet usage has seen tremendous growth. From 2000 to 2009, the number of Internet users globally rose from 394 million to 1.858 billion.[30]
Social impact
The Internet has enabled entirely new forms of social interaction, activities, and organizing, thanks to its basic features such as widespread usability and access. Social networking websites such as Facebook, Twitter and MySpace have created new ways to socialize and interact. Users of these sites are able to add a wide variety of information to pages, to pursue common interests, and to connect with others. It is also possible to find existing acquaintances, to allow communication among existing groups of people. Sites like LinkedIn foster commercial and business connections. YouTube and Flickr specialize in users' videos and photographs. In the first decade of the 21st century the first generation is raised with widespread availability of Internet connectivity, bringing consequences and concerns in areas such as personal privacy and identity, and distribution of copyrighted materials. These "digital natives" face a variety of challenges that were not present for prior generations. The Internet has achieved new relevance as a political tool, leading to Internet censorship by some states. The presidential campaign of Howard Dean in 2004 in the United States was notable for its success in soliciting donation via the Internet. Many political groups use the Internet to achieve a new method of organizing in order to carry out their mission, having given rise to Internet activism. Some governments, such as those of Iran, North Korea, Myanmar, the People's Republic of China, and Saudi Arabia, restrict what people in their countries can access on the Internet, especially political and religious content. This is accomplished through software that filters domains and content so that they may not be easily accessed or obtained without elaborate circumvention.
Internet In Norway, Denmark, Finland[31] and Sweden, major Internet service providers have voluntarily, possibly to avoid such an arrangement being turned into law, agreed to restrict access to sites listed by authorities. While this list of forbidden URLs is only supposed to contain addresses of known child pornography sites, the content of the list is secret. Many countries, including the United States, have enacted laws against the possession or distribution of certain material, such as child pornography, via the Internet, but do not mandate filtering software. There are many free and commercially available software programs, called content-control software, with which a user can choose to block offensive websites on individual computers or networks, in order to limit a child's access to pornographic materials or depiction of violence. The Internet has been a major outlet for leisure activity since its inception, with entertaining social experiments such as MUDs and MOOs being conducted on university servers, and humor-related Usenet groups receiving much traffic. Today, many Internet forums have sections devoted to games and funny videos; short cartoons in the form of Flash movies are also popular. Over 6million people use blogs or message boards as a means of communication and for the sharing of ideas. The pornography and gambling industries have taken advantage of the World Wide Web, and often provide a significant source of advertising revenue for other websites. Although many governments have attempted to restrict both industries' use of the Internet, this has generally failed to stop their widespread popularity. One main area of leisure activity on the Internet is multiplayer gaming. This form of recreation creates communities, where people of all ages and origins enjoy the fast-paced world of multiplayer games. These range from MMORPG to first-person shooters, from role-playing video games to online gambling. This has revolutionized the way many people interact while spending their free time on the Internet. While online gaming has been around since the 1970s, modern modes of online gaming began with subscription services such as GameSpy and MPlayer. Non-subscribers were limited to certain types of game play or certain games. Many people use the Internet to access and download music, movies and other works for their enjoyment and relaxation. Free and fee-based services exist for all of these activities, using centralized servers and distributed peer-to-peer technologies. Some of these sources exercise more care with respect to the original artists' copyrights than others. Many people use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and sports reports, to plan and book vacations and to find out more about their interests. People use chat, messaging and email to make and stay in touch with friends worldwide, sometimes in the same way as some previously had pen pals. The Internet has seen a growing number of Web desktops, where users can access their files and settings via the Internet. Cyberslacking can become a drain on corporate resources; the average UK employee spent 57 minutes a day surfing the Web while at work, according to a 2003 study by Peninsula Business Services.[32] Internet addiction disorder is excessive computer use that interferes with daily life. Some psychologists believe that Internet use has other effects on individuals for instance interfering with the deep thinking that leads to true creativity. Internet usage has been correlated to users' loneliness.[33] Lonely people tend to use the Internet as an outlet for their feelings and to share their stories with others, such as in the "I am lonely will anyone speak to me" thread.
22
Notes
[1] "Internet, n." (http:/ / dictionary. oed. com/ cgi/ entry/ 00304286). Oxford English Dictionary (Draft ed.). March 2009. . Retrieved 2010-10-26. "Shortened < INTERNETWORK n., perhaps influenced by similar words in -net". [2] "Links" (http:/ / www. w3. org/ TR/ html401/ struct/ links. html#h-12. 1). HTML 4.01 Specification. World Wide Web Consortium. HTML 4.01 Specification. . Retrieved 2008-08-13. "[T]he link (or hyperlink, or Web link) [is] the basic hypertext construct. A link is a connection from one Web resource to another. Although a simple concept, the link has been one of the primary forces driving the success of the Web." [3] "Cloud Computer Dictionary Definition" (http:/ / computer. yourdictionary. com/ cloud). YourDictionary.com. LoveToKnow. . Retrieved 26 October 2010. [4] "ARPA/DARPA" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070407064829/ http:/ / www. darpa. mil/ body/ arpa_darpa. html). Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. darpa. mil/ body/ arpa_darpa. html) on April 7, 2007. . Retrieved 2007-05-21. [5] "DARPA: History" (http:/ / www. darpa. mil/ history. html). Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. . Retrieved 2009-12-07. [6] Baran, Paul (1964). On Distributed Communications (http:/ / www. rand. org/ pubs/ research_memoranda/ RM3767). . Retrieved 2010-07-05.
Internet
[7] "Internet History" (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ i/ ii. htm). Living Internet site. . Retrieved 2010-03-10. [8] "Electronic post for switching data." Timothy Johnson. New Scientist. May 13, 1976 [9] Stephen Segaller, NERDS 2.0.1:115 (TV Books Publisher 1998) [10] Vinton Cerf, Bernard Aboba (1993). "How the Internet Came to Be" (http:/ / www. netvalley. com/ archives/ mirrors/ cerf-how-inet. html). . Retrieved 2010-11-23. [11] Coffman, K. G; Odlyzko, A. M. (1998-10-02) (PDF). The size and growth rate of the Internet (http:/ / www. dtc. umn. edu/ ~odlyzko/ doc/ internet. size. pdf). AT&T Labs. . Retrieved 2007-05-21. [12] Comer, Douglas (2006). The Internet book. Prentice Hall. p.64. ISBN0132335530. [13] "World Internet Users and Population Stats" (http:/ / www. internetworldstats. com/ stats. htm). Internet World Stats. Miniwatts Marketing Group. 2010-06-30. . Retrieved 2010-08-04. [14] "Internet users in BRICI countries set to double by 2015" (http:/ / www. ibtimes. com/ art/ services/ print. php?articleid=48062). International Business Times IBTIMES.com. 2010-09-01. . Retrieved 2010-10-31. [15] "Internet Users in Indonesia to Triple by 2015: Report" (http:/ / www. thejakartaglobe. com/ business/ internet-users-in-indonesia-to-triple-by-2015-report/ 394066). The Jakarta Globe. . Retrieved 2010-10-31. [16] "IETF Home Page" (http:/ / www. ietf. org/ ). Ietf.org. . Retrieved 2009-06-20. [17] Huston, Geoff. "IPv4 Address Report, daily generated" (http:/ / www. potaroo. net/ tools/ ipv4/ index. html). . Retrieved 2009-05-20. [18] "Notice of Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) Address Depletion" (https:/ / www. arin. net/ knowledge/ about_resources/ ceo_letter. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2009-08-07. [19] Walter Willinger, Ramesh Govindan, Sugih Jamin, Vern Paxson, and Scott Shenker (2002). Scaling phenomena in the Internet (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 99/ suppl_1/ 2573), in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99, suppl. 1, 25732580 [20] "Internet Makeover? Some argue it's time" (http:/ / seattletimes. nwsource. com/ html/ businesstechnology/ 2003667811_btrebuildnet16. html). The Seattle Times, 2007-04-16. [21] "The Virtual Private Nightmare: VPN" (http:/ / librenix. com/ ?inode=5013). Librenix. 2004-08-04. . Retrieved 2010-07-21. [22] What to know before buying a 'connected' TV http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 40241749/ ns/ technology_and_science-tech_and_gadgets [23] "YouTube Fact Sheet" (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ t/ fact_sheet). YouTube, LLC. . Retrieved 2009-01-20. [24] Internet World Stats (http:/ / www. internetworldstats. com/ stats7. htm), updated for 30 June 2010. Retrieved 20 Feb 2011. [25] World Internet Usage Statistics News and Population Stats (http:/ / www. internetworldstats. com/ stats. htm) updated for 30 June 2010. Retrieved 20 Feb 2011. [26] "Toronto Hydro to Install Wireless Network in Downtown Toronto" (http:/ / www. bloomberg. com/ apps/ news?pid=10000082& sid=aQ0ZfhMa4XGQ& refer=canada). Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 19-Mar-2006. [27] Cowie, James. "Egypt Leaves the Internet" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5w51j0pga). Renesys. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. renesys. com/ blog/ 2011/ 01/ egypt-leaves-the-internet. shtml) on 28 January 2011. . Retrieved 28 January 2011. [28] "Egypt severs internet connection amid growing unrest" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ technology-12306041). BBC News. 28 January 2011. . [29] How men and women use the Internet Pew Research Center December 28, 2005 [30] Internet users graphs (http:/ / www. itu. int/ ITU-D/ ict/ statistics/ ), Market Information and Statistics, International Telecommunications Union [31] "Finland censors anti-censorship site" (http:/ / www. theregister. co. uk/ 2008/ 02/ 18/ finnish_policy_censor_activist/ ). The Register. 2008-02-18. . Retrieved 2008-02-19. [32] "Net abuse hits small city firms" (http:/ / news. scotsman. com/ topics. cfm?tid=914& id=1001802003). Edinburgh: News.scotsman.com. . Retrieved 2009-08-07. [33] Carole Hughes, Boston College (1999-01-01). "The relationship of use of the Internet and loneliness among college students" (http:/ / escholarship. bc. edu/ dissertations/ AAI9923427/ ). Escholarship.bc.edu. . Retrieved 2010-10-31.
23
References
Media Freedom Internet Cookbook (http://www.osce.org/item/13570.html) by the OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media Vienna, 2004 Living Internet (http://www.livinginternet.com/)Internet history and related information, including information from many creators of the Internet First Monday (http://www.firstmonday.org/) peer-reviewed journal on the Internet How Much Does The Internet Weigh? (http://discovermagazine.com/2007/jun/ how-much-does-the-internet-weigh) by Stephen Cass, Discover 2007 Castells, M. 1996. Rise of the Network Society. 3 vols. Vol. 1. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers. Castells, M. (2001), Lessons from the History of Internet, in The Internet Galaxy, Ch. 1, pp 935. Oxford University Press.
Internet Rehmeyer, Julie J. 2007. Mapping a medusa: The Internet spreads its tentacles. Science News 171(June 23):387388. RFC 1122, Requirements for Internet HostsCommunication Layers, IETF, R. Braden (Ed.), October 1989 RFC 1123, Requirements for Internet HostsApplication and Support, IETF, R. Braden (Ed.), October 1989
24
External links
The Internet (http://www.nsf.gov/about/history/nsf0050/internet/internet.htm) (National Science Foundation) Berkman Center for Internet and Society (http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/) The Internet Society (http://www.isoc.org/) European Commission Information Society (http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/index_en.htm) ltg:krsteiklys
Interplanetary Internet
The speed of light, illustrated here by a beam of light traveling from the Earth to the Moon, limits the speed at which Interplanetary Internet messages would be able to travel. In this example, it takes light 1.26 seconds to travel from the Earth to the Moon. Due to the vast distances involved, much longer delays are incurred than in the Earth-bound Internet.

Home (HAN)
The Interplanetary Internet (IPN) is a conceived computer network in space, consisting of a set of network nodes which can communicate with each other.[1] [2] Communication would be greatly delayed by the great interplanetary distances, so the IPN needs a new set of protocols and technology that are tolerant to large delays and errors.[2] While the Internet as we know it tends to be a busy "network of networks" with high traffic, negligible delay and errors, and a wired backbone, the Interplanetary Internet is a store-and-forward "network of Internets" that is often disconnected, has a wireless backbone fraught with error-prone links and delays ranging to tens of minutes, even hours, even when there is a connection.[3]
25
Development
Space communication technology has steadily evolved from expensive, one-of-a-kind point-to-point architectures, to the re-use of technology on successive missions, to the development of standard protocols agreed upon by space agencies of many countries. This last phase has gone on since 1982 through the efforts of the Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS),[4] a body composed of the major space agencies of the world. It has 11 member agencies, 22 observer agencies, and over 100 industrial associates. The evolution of space data system standards has gone on in parallel with the evolution of the Internet, with conceptual cross-pollination where fruitful, but largely as a separate evolution. Since the late 1990s, familiar Internet protocols and CCSDS space link protocols have integrated and converged in several ways, for example, the successful FTP file transfer to Earth-orbiting STRV-1b on January 2, 1996, which ran FTP over the CCSDS IPv4-like Space Communications Protocol Specifications (SCPS) protocols.[5] [6] Internet Protocol use without CCSDS has taken place on spacecraft, e.g., demonstrations on the UoSAT-12 satellite, and operationally on the Disaster Monitoring Constellation. Having reached the era where networking and IP on-board spacecraft have been shown to be feasible and reliable, a forward-looking study of the bigger picture was the next phase. The Interplanetary Internet study at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) was started by a team of scientists at JPL led by Vinton Cerf and Adrian Hooke.[7] Cerf is one of the pioneers of the Internet on Earth, and currently holds the position of distinguished visiting scientist at JPL. Hooke is one of the directors of the CCSDS. While IP-like SCPS protocols are feasible for short hops, such as ground station to orbiter, rover-to-lander, lander-to-orbiter, probe-to-flyby, and so on, delay-tolerant networking is needed to get information from one region of the solar system to another. It becomes apparent that the concept of a "region" is a natural architectural factoring of the InterPlanetary Internet.
ICANN meeting, Los Angeles, USA, 2007. The marquee plays a humorous homage to the Ed Wood film Plan 9 from Outer Space, while namedropping Internet pioneer Vint Cerf.
A "region" is an area where the characteristics of communication are the same.[8] Region characteristics include communications, security, the maintenance of resources, perhaps ownership, and other factors.[8] The Interplanetary Internet is a "network of regional internets." What is needed then, is a standard way to achieve end-to-end communication through multiple regions in a disconnected, variable-delay environment using a generalized suite of protocols. Examples of regions might include the terrestrial Internet as a region, a region on the surface of the moon or Mars, or a ground-to-orbit region. The recognition of this requirement led to the concept of a "bundle" as a high-level way to address the generalized Store-and-Forward problem. Bundles are an area of new protocol development in the upper layers of the OSI model, above the Transport Layer with the goal of addressing the issue of bundling store-and-forward information so that it can reliably traverse radically dissimilar environments constituting a "network of regional internets." Bundle Service Layering, implemented as the Bundling protocol suite for delay-tolerant networking, will provide general purpose delay-tolerant protocol services in support of a range of applications: custody transfer, segmentation and reassembly, end-to-end reliability, end-to-end security, and end-to-end routing among them. The Bundle Protocol was first tested in space on the UK-DMC satellite in 2008.[9] [10]
26
An example of one of these end-to-end applications flown on a space mission is CFDP, used on the comet mission, Deep Impact. CFDP is the CCSDS File Delivery Protocol[11] an international standard for automatic, reliable file transfer in both directions. CFDP should not be confused with Coherent File Distribution Protocol, which unfortunately has the same acronym and is an IETF-documented experimental protocol for rapidly deploying files to multiple targets in a highly-networked environment. In addition to reliably copying a file from one entity (i. e., a spacecraft or ground station) to another entity, the CCSDS CFDP has the capability to reliably transmit arbitrary small messages defined by the user, in the metadata accompanying the file, and to reliably transmit commands relating to file system management that are to be executed automatically on the remote end-point entity (i. e., a spacecraft) upon successful reception of a file.
The Deep Impact mission
Implementation
The dormant InterPlanetary Internet Special Interest Group of the Internet Society has worked on defining protocols and standards that would make the IPN possible.[12] The Delay-Tolerant Networking Research Group (DTNRG) is the primary group researching Delay-tolerant networking. Additional research efforts focus on various uses of the new technology. As of 2005, NASA has canceled plans to launch the Mars Telecommunications Orbiter in September 2009; it had the goal of supporting future missions to Mars and would have functioned as a possible first definitive Internet hub around another planetary body. NASA JPL continued to test the DTN protocol with their Deep Impact Networking (DINET) experiment onboard the Deep Impact/EPOXI spacecraft in October, 2008.[13] In May 2009, DTN was deployed to a payload onboard the ISS.[14] NASA and BioServe Space Technologies, a research group at the University of Colorado, have been continuously testing DTN on two Commercial Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus (CGBA) payloads. CGBA-4 and CGBA-5 serve as computational and communications platforms which are remotely controlled from BioServe's Payload Operations Control Center (POCC) in Boulder, CO.[15] [16] These initial experiments provide insight into future missions where DTN will enable the extension of networks into deep space to explore other planets and solar system points of interest. Seen as necessary for space exploration, DTN enables timeliness of data return from operating assets which results in reduced risk and cost, increased crew safety, and improved operational awareness and science return for NASA and additional space agencies.[17] DTN has several major arenas of application, in addition to the Interplanetary Internet, which include sensor networks, military and tactical communications, disaster recovery, hostile environments, mobile devices and remote outposts.[18] As an example of a remote outpost, imagine an isolated Arctic village, or a faraway island, with electricity, one or more computers, but no communication connectivity. With the addition of a simple wireless hotspot in the village, plus DTN-enabled devices on, say, dog sleds or fishing boats, a resident would be able to check their e-mail or click on a Wikipedia article, and have their requests forwarded to the nearest networked location on the sled's or boat's next visit, and get the replies on its return.
27
References
[1] The Interplanetary Internet (http:/ / spectrum. ieee. org/ telecom/ internet/ the-interplanetary-internet), Joab Jackson, IEEE Spectrum, August 2005. [2] Generation InterPlanetary Internet | SpaceRef Your Space Reference (http:/ / www. spaceref. com/ news/ viewnews. html?id=87) [3] The Interplanetary Internet: A Communications Infrastructure for Mars Exploration (http:/ / www. ipnsig. org/ reports/ IAF-Oct-2002. pdf) 53rd International Astronautical Congress The World Space Congress, 19 Oct 2002/Houston, Texas [4] http:/ / public. ccsds. org [5] The Space Technology Research Vehicles: STRV-1a, b, c and d (http:/ / www. klabs. org/ DEI/ References/ avionics/ small_sat_conference/ 1996/ strv. pdf), Richard Blott and Nigel Wells, AIAA Small Satellite Conference, Logan, Utah, 1996. [6] Appendix F, CCSDS 710.0-G-0.3: Space Communication Protocol Specification (SCPS) - Rationale, Requirements, and Application Notes (http:/ / nssdc. gsfc. nasa. gov/ nost/ nost/ wwwclassic/ draft_green_books. html), Draft Green Book, Issue 0.3. April 1997. [7] CCSDS.org Meet the Area Directors Adrian Hooke (http:/ / public. ccsds. org/ about/ AreaDirectors/ AdrianHooke. aspx) [8] Interplanetary Internet (http:/ / sunset. usc. edu/ gsaw/ gsaw2003/ s3/ hooke. pdf) [9] Use of the Delay-Tolerant Networking Bundle Protocol from Space (http:/ / info. ee. surrey. ac. uk/ Personal/ L. Wood/ publications/ ), L.Wood et al., Conference paper IAC-08-B2.3.10, 59th International Astronautical Congress, Glasgow, September 2008. [10] UK-DMC satellite first to transfer sensor data from space using 'bundle' protocol (http:/ / www. sstl. co. uk/ News_and_Events/ Latest_News/ ?story=1254), press release, Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd, 11 September 2008. [11] CCSDS.org - CCSDS Recommendations and Reports - Space Internetworking Services Area (http:/ / public. ccsds. org/ publications/ SIS. aspx) [12] InterPlanetary Internet (http:/ / www. ipnsig. org) [13] NASA Successfully Tests First Deep Space Internet (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ home/ hqnews/ 2008/ nov/ HQ_08-298_Deep_space_internet. html) NASA Press Release 08-298, November 2008. [14] http:/ / www. theregister. co. uk/ 2009/ 07/ 07/ dtn_node/ [15] Jenkins, Andrew; Kuzminsky, Sebastian; Gifford, Kevin K.; Holbrook, Mark; Nichols, Kelvin; Pitts, Lee. (2010). "Delay/Disruption-Tolerant Networking: Flight Test Results from the International Space Station." (http:/ / www-bioserve. colorado. edu/ wp2/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2010/ 05/ DTN-Initial-Flight-Tests-Results-v0. 035. pdf) IEEE Aerospace Conference. [16] The Automation Group at BioServe Space Technologies. (http:/ / bioserve. colorado. edu) University of Colorado, Boulder. [17] NASA: Delay Tolerant Networking (DTN) - Experiment/Payload Overview. (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ station/ science/ experiments/ DTN. html) September 24, 2010. Retrieved October 2010. [18] Home - Delay-Tolerant Networking Research Group (http:/ / www. dtnrg. org/ wiki)
External links
The Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS) (http://www.ccsds.org) The InterPlaNetary Internet Project (http://www.ipnsig.org/) IPN Special Interest Group The Delay-Tolerant Networking Research Group (DTNRG) (http://www.dtnrg.org/wiki) NASA video: DINET-DTN w/Vint Cerf (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SniWy7C_shg) (requires Flash)
Local area network
28
Local area network


Home (HAN)
A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory or office building.[1] The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to wide area networks (WANs), include their usually higher data-transfer rates, smaller geographic area, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines. ARCNET, Token Ring and other technology standards have been used in the past, but Ethernet over twisted pair cabling, and Wi-Fi are the two most common technologies currently in use.
History
As larger universities and research labs obtained more computers during the late 1960s, there was an increasing pressure to provide high-speed interconnections. A report in 1970 from the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory detailing the growth of their "Octopus" network[2] [3] gives a good indication of the situation. Cambridge Ring was developed at Cambridge University in 1974[4] but was never developed into a successful commercial product. Ethernet was developed at Xerox PARC in 19731975,[5] and filed as U.S. Patent 4063220 [6]. In 1976, after the system was deployed at PARC, Metcalfe and Boggs published a seminal paper, "Ethernet: Distributed Packet-Switching For Local Computer Networks."[7] ARCNET was developed by Datapoint Corporation in 1976 and announced in 1977.[8] It had the first commercial installation in December 1977 at Chase Manhattan Bank in New York.[9]
Standards evolution
The development and proliferation of CP/M-based personal computers from the late 1970s and then DOS-based personal computers from 1981 meant that a single site began to have dozens or even hundreds of computers. The initial attraction of networking these was generally to share disk space and laser printers, which were both very expensive at the time. There was much enthusiasm for the concept and for several years, from about 1983 onward, computer industry pundits would regularly declare the coming year to be the year of the LAN.[10] [11] [12] In practice, the concept was marred by proliferation of incompatible physical Layer and network protocol implementations, and a plethora of methods of sharing resources. Typically, each vendor would have its own type of network card, cabling, protocol, and network operating system. A solution appeared with the advent of Novell NetWare which provided even-handed support for dozens of competing card/cable types, and a much more
Local area network sophisticated operating system than most of its competitors. Netware dominated[13] the personal computer LAN business from early after its introduction in 1983 until the mid 1990s when Microsoft introduced Windows NT Advanced Server and Windows for Workgroups. Of the competitors to NetWare, only Banyan Vines had comparable technical strengths, but Banyan never gained a secure base. Microsoft and 3Com worked together to create a simple network operating system which formed the base of 3Com's 3+Share, Microsoft's LAN Manager and IBM's LAN Server - but none of these were particularly successful. During the same period, Unix computer workstations from vendors such as Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, Silicon Graphics, Intergraph, NeXT and Apollo were using TCP/IP based networking. Although this market segment is now much reduced, the technologies developed in this area continue to be influential on the Internet and in both Linux and Apple Mac OS X networkingand the TCP/IP protocol has now almost completely replaced IPX, AppleTalk, NBF, and other protocols used by the early PC LANs.
29
Cabling
Early LAN cabling had always been based on various grades of coaxial cable. However shielded twisted pair was used in IBM's Token Ring implementation, and in 1984 StarLAN showed the potential of simple unshielded twisted pair by using Cat3the same simple cable used for telephone systems. This led to the development of 10Base-T (and its successors) and structured cabling which is still the basis of most commercial LANs today. In addition, fiber-optic cabling is increasingly used in commercial applications. As cabling is not always possible, wireless Wi-Fi is now the most common technology in residential premises, as the cabling required is minimal and it is well suited to mobile laptops and smartphones.
Technical aspects
Switched Ethernet is the most common Data Link Layer and Physical Layer implementation for local area networks. At the higher layers, the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) has become the standard. Smaller LANs generally consist of one or more switches linked to each other, often at least one is connected to a router, cable modem, or ADSL modem for Internet access. Larger LANs are characterized by their use of redundant links with switches using the spanning tree protocol to prevent loops, their ability to manage differing traffic types via quality of service (QoS), and to segregate traffic with VLANs. Larger LANs also contain a wide variety of network devices such as switches, firewalls, routers, load balancers, and sensors.[14] LANs may have connections with other LANs via leased lines, leased services, or by tunneling across the Internet using virtual private network technologies. Depending on how the connections are established and secured in a LAN, and the distance involved, a LAN may also be classified as metropolitan area network (MAN) or wide area networks (WAN) Network topology describes the layout pattern of interconnections between devices and network segments. The most common topology types are bus, ring, star, bus-star composite and mesh.
Local area network
30
References
[1] Gary A. Donahue (2007-06). Network Warrior. O'Reilly. p.5. [2] Samuel F. Mendicino (1970-12-01). "Octopus: The Lawrence Radiation Laboratory Network" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5tP07Xoec). Rogerdmoore.ca. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. rogerdmoore. ca/ PS/ OCTOA/ OCTO. html) on 2010-10-11. . [3] "THE LAWRENCE RADIATION LABORATORY OCTOPUS" (http:/ / www. osti. gov/ energycitations/ product. biblio. jsp?osti_id=4045588). Courant symposium series on networks (Osti.gov). 29 Nov 1970. . Retrieved 2010-10-11. [4] "A brief informal history of the Computer Laboratory" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5tP0nKIlL). University of Cambridge. 20 December 2001. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. cl. cam. ac. uk/ conference/ EDSAC99/ history. html) on 2010-10-11. . [5] "Ethernet Prototype Circuit Board" (http:/ / americanhistory. si. edu/ collections/ object. cfm?key=35& objkey=96). Smithsonian National Museum of American History. . Retrieved 2007-09-02. [6] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=4063220 [7] "Ethernet: Distributed Packet-Switching For Local Computer Networks" (http:/ / www. acm. org/ classics/ apr96/ ). Acm.org. . Retrieved 2010-10-11. [8] "ARCNET Timeline" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5tP1JOSj5). ARCNETworks magazine. Fall 1998. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. arcnet. com/ resources/ HistoryATA. pdf) on 2010-10-11. . [9] Lamont Wood (2008-01-31). "The LAN turns 30, but will it reach 40?" (http:/ / www. computerworld. com/ action/ article. do?command=viewArticleBasic& articleId=9060198). Computerworld.com. . Retrieved 2010-10-11. [10] "'The Year of The LAN' is a long-standing joke, and I freely admit to being the comedian that first declared it in 1982..." (http:/ / books. google. co. nz/ books?id=FzsEAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA45& lpg=PA45& dq=the+ year+ of+ the+ LAN+ bogus& source=bl& ots=hGEgb2Ekvc& sig=y6XBt_XvpiQlq-kmVwUSRoYUCe8& hl=en& ei=6YlnTcCmNIjksQP9-tymBA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=false), Robert Metcalfe, InfoWorld Dec 27, 1993 [11] "...you will remember numerous computer magazines, over numerous years, announcing 'the year of the LAN.'" (http:/ / www. ibiblio. org/ java/ quotes1999. html), Quotes in 1999 [12] "...a bit like the Year of the LAN which computer industry pundits predicted for the good part of a decade..." (http:/ / herot. typepad. com/ cherot/ 2010/ 10/ connected-health-symposium. html), Christopher Herot [13] Wayne Spivak (2001-07-13). "Has Microsoft Ever Read the History Books?" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5tP23vwBy). VARBusiness. Archived from the original (http:/ / guide. sbanetweb. com/ press/ varbiz07116001. html) on 2010-10-11. . [14] "A Review of the Basic Components of a Local Area Network (LAN)" (http:/ / networkbits. net/ lan-components/ local-area-network-lan-basic-components/ ). NetworkBits.net. . Retrieved 2008-04-08.
External links
LAN design and sizing (http://en.wikipractice.org/wiki/Category:LAN)
Internet access Network type Wired Optical Coaxial cable Twisted pair Phone line Power line Unlicensed terrestrial bands Wireless Licensed terrestrial bands Satellite
LAN
Ethernet
G.hn
Ethernet
HomePNA G.hn
G.hn HomePlug Powerline Alliance BPL
Wi-Fi Bluetooth DECT Wireless USB
WAN
PON Ethernet
DOCSIS
Ethernet
Dial-up ISDN DSL
Muni Wi-Fi
GPRS iBurst WiBro/WiMAX UMTS-TDD, HSPA EVDO LTE MMDS
Satellite
Metropolitan area network
31


Home (HAN)
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus. A MAN usually interconnects a number of local area networks (LANs) using a high-capacity backbone technology, such as fiber-optical links, and provides up-link services to wide area networks (or WAN) and the Internet. The IEEE 802-2002 standard describes a MAN as being[1] :
A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings to entire cities. MANs can also depend on communications channels of moderate-to-high data rates. A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used by many individuals and organizations. MANs might also be owned and operated as public utilities. They will often provide means for internetworking of local networks.
Authors Kenneth C. Laudon and Jane P. Laudon(2001) of Management Information Systems: Managing the Digital Firm 10th ed. define a metropolitan area network as:
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a large computer network that spans a metropolitan area or campus. Its geographic scope falls between a WAN and LAN. MANs provide Internet connectivity for LANs in a metropolitan region, and connect them to wider area networks like the Internet.
It can also be used in cable television.
Implementation
Some technologies used for this purpose are Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), FDDI, and SMDS. These technologies are in the process of being displaced by Ethernet-based connections (e.g., Metro Ethernet) in most areas. MAN links between local area networks have been built without cables using either microwave, radio, or infra-red laser links. Most companies rent or lease circuits from common carriers due to the fact that laying long stretches of cable can be expensive. DQDB, Distributed-queue dual-bus, is the metropolitan area network standard for data communication. It is specified in the IEEE 802.6 standard. Using DQDB, networks can be up to 20 miles (30km) long and operate at speeds of 34 to 155 Mbit/s. Several notable networks started as MANs, such as the Internet peering points MAE-West, MAE-East, and the Sohonet media network.
32
References
[1] IEEE Std 802-2002, IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks: Overview and Architecture, page 1, section 1.2: "Key Concepts", http:/ / standards. ieee. org/ getieee802/ download/ 802-2001. pdf
Near-me area network


Home (HAN)
A near-me area network (NAN) is a logical communication network built on top of existing physical network infrastructures that focuses on communication among wireless devices in close proximity. Unlike local area networks (LANs), in which the devices are in the same network segment and share the same broadcast domain, the devices in a NAN can belong to different proprietary network infrastructures (for example, different mobile carriers). So, even though two devices are geographically close, the communication path between them might, in fact, traverse a long distance, going from a LAN, through the Internet, and to another LAN. NAN applications focus on two-way communications among people within a certain proximity to each other. Nonetheless, the applications arent always concerned with those peoples exact locations.
Background
The Internet employs many different types of communication networks. A local area network (LAN) covers a small geographic area, such as a school or company; a metropolitan area network (MAN) usually spans a larger area, such as a city or state, whereas a wide area network (WAN) provides communication in a broad geographic area covering national and international locations. Personal area networks (PANs) are wireless LANs with a very short range (up to a few meters), enabling computer devices (such as PDAs and printers) to communicate with other nearby devices and computers. Due to the increasing popularity of location-enabled (or GPS-enabled) mobile devices (e.g., iPhone and Android phones), a new type of communication network is emerging the near-me area network (NAN).
Near-me area network
33
Examples of applications
Some services are meaningful only to a group of people in close proximity, which has generated the need for NANs. The following scenarios show some example NAN applications: Ben is going to the ABC supermarket to buy three bottles of red wine. The supermarket offers a 30 percent discount on the purchase of six bottles, so he sends a message to other customers to see if they would like to buy the other three bottles of wine. Susan bought a movie ticket 15 minutes ago, but she now feels dizzy and cant watch the film. She sends out messages to people around the cinema to see if anyone will purchase her ticket at 50 percent off. In a theme park, guests would like to know each rides queue status to reduce their waiting time. So, they take a photo of the queue theyre in and share it with other guests through a NAN application. Ann works in Causeway Bay and would like to find someone to have lunch with. She checks her friend list to see who is closest to her at this moment and invites that friend to join her. Carol just lost her son in the street, so she sends out his picture, which is stored in her mobile device, to passers-by to see if they can find him.
References
Angus K.Y. Wong, "The Near-Me Area Network," IEEE Internet Computing, vol. 14, no. 2, pp.7477, Mar./Apr. 2010 A. Beach et al. WhozThat? Evolving an Ecosystem for Context-Aware Mobile Social Networks, IEEE Network, vol. 22, no. 4, 2008, pp.5055. H. Liu et al., Survey of Wireless Indoor Positioning Techniques and Systems, IEEE Trans. Systems, Man, and Cyber- netics, Part C: Applications and Reviews, vol. 37, no. 6, 2007, pp.10671080. GPS Mobile Phones: The Privacy and Regulatory Issues, Research and Markets, 2008; www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/ c82919.
Software release life cycle
34

Software Development and Release Stages
A software release is the distribution of software code, documentation, and support materials. The software release life cycle is composed of discrete phases that describe the software's maturity as it advances from planning and development to release and support phases. This article does not discuss the end-of-life, or dispoal phase of software.
Development
Pre-alpha
Pre-alpha refers to all activities performed during the software project prior to testing. These activities can include requirements analysis, software design, software development and unit testing. In typical open source development, there are several types of pre-alpha versions. Milestone versions include specific sets of functions and are released as soon as the functionality is complete.
Alpha
The alpha phase of the release life cycle is the first phase to begin software testing (alpha is the first letter of the ancient Greek alphabet, used as the number 1). In this phase, developers generally test the software using white box techniques. Additional validation is then performed using black box or gray box techniques, by another testing team. Moving to black box testing inside the organization is known as alpha release.[1] Alpha software can be unstable and could cause crashes or data loss. The exception to this is when the alpha is available publicly (such as a pre-order bonus), in which developers normally push for stability so that their testers can test properly. External availability of alpha software is uncommon. The alpha phase usually ends with a feature freeze, indicating that no more features will be added to the software. At this time, the software is said to be feature complete.
Beta
Beta is the software development phase following alpha (beta is the second letter of the ancient Greek alphabet, used as the number 2. It is not nowadays usual to speak of a later gamma test). It generally begins when the software is feature complete. The focus of beta testing is reducing impacts to users, often incorporating usability testing. The process of delivering a beta version to the users is called beta release and this is typically the first time that the software is available outside of the organization that developed it. The users of a beta version are called beta testers. They are usually customers or prospective customers of the organization that develops the software, willing to test the software without charge, often receiving the final software
Software release life cycle free of charge or for a reduced price. Beta version software is often useful for demonstrations and previews within an organisation and to prospective customers. Some developers refer to this stage as a preview, prototype, technical preview (TP), or early access. Some software is kept in perpetual beta. Open and closed beta Developers release either a closed beta or an open beta; closed beta versions are released to a select group of individuals for a user test, while open betas are to a larger community group, sometimes to anyone interested. The testers report any bugs that they find, and sometimes suggest additional features they think should be available in the final version. Examples of a major public beta test are: In September 2000 a boxed version of Apple Inc.'s Mac OS X Public Beta operating system was released.[2] Microsoft's release of community technology previews (CTPs) for Windows Vista in January 2005.[3] Open betas serve the dual purpose of demonstrating a product to potential consumers, and testing among an extremely wide user base likely to bring to light obscure errors that a much smaller testing team may not find. Though, online Free-to-play (F2P) games have developed a trend to use Open Beta to lure customers with an intent to profit off customers in a same aspect if such F2P were a final product. Many such games can be locked in Open Beta for years before going final, for example Conquer Online. Open Beta in F2P is coming a more meaningless concept for testing compared to a powerful business model for profit with Cash shop items either in game or on official website. Such purchases can only be done by exchanging real money for Item mall currency. Such currency exchange varies from F2P to F2P.
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Release candidate
The term release candidate (RC) refers to a version with potential to be a final product, which is ready to release unless fatal bugs emerge. In this stage of product stabilization, all product features have been designed, coded and tested through one or more beta cycles with no known showstopper-class bug. Apple Inc. uses the term "golden master" for its release candidates, and the final golden master is used as the general availability release. Other Greek letters, such as gamma and delta, are sometimes used to indicate versions that are substantially complete, but still undergoing testing, with omega or zenith used to indicate final testing versions that are believed to be relatively bug-free, ready for production. A release is called code complete when the development team agrees that no entirely new source code will be added to this release. There may still be source code changes to fix defects. There may still be changes to documentation and data files, and to the code for test cases or utilities. New code may be added in a future release.
Origin of alpha and beta terminology

The term beta test comes from an IBM convention, dating back to punched card tabulating and sorting machines. Hardware first went through an alpha test for preliminary functionality and small scale manufacturing feasibility. Then came a beta test, to verify that the hardware correctly performed the intended functions and could be manufactured at scale. Ultimately, a gamma test was performed to verify safety. When IBM began testing software, it used the same terminology as it had for hardware. As other companies began developing their own software, they adopted and kept the same terminology.
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Release
RTM
The term "release to manufacturing" or "release to marketing" (both abbreviated RTM, initials also commonly used for the quite different "return to manufacturer" of faulty goods)also known as "going gold"is a term used when software is ready for or has been delivered or provided to the customer. It is typically used in certain retail mass-production software contextsas opposed to a specialized software production or project in a commercial or government production and distributionwhere the software is sold as part of a bundle in a related computer hardware sale and typically where the software and related hardware is ultimately to be available and sold on mass/public basis at retail stores to indicate that the software has met a defined quality level and is ready for mass retail distribution. RTM could also mean in other contexts that the software has been delivered or released to a client or customer for installation or distribution to the related hardware end user computers or machines. The term does not define the delivery mechanism or volume; it only states that the quality is sufficient for mass distribution. The deliverable from the engineering organization is frequently in the form of a gold master CD used for duplication or to produce the image for the web. RTM precedes general availability (GA) when the product is released to the public.
General availability
General availability or general acceptance (GA) is the point where all necessary commercialization activities have been completed and the software has been made available to the general market either via the web or physical media. Another term with a meaning almost identical to GA is first customer shipment (FCS). Some companies (such as Sun Microsystems and Cisco) use FCS to describe a software version that has been shipped for revenue. Commercialization activities could include but are not limited to the availability of media world wide via dispersed distribution centers, marketing collateral is completed and available in as many languages as deemed necessary for the target market, the finishing of security and compliance tests, etc. The time between RTM and GA can be from a week to months in some cases before a generally available release can be declared because of the time needed to complete all commercialization activities required by GA. It is also at this stage that the software is considered to have "gone live". The production, live version is the final version of a particular product. A live release is considered to be very stable and relatively bug-free with a quality suitable for wide distribution and use by end users. In commercial software releases, this version may also be signed (used to allow end-users to verify that code has not been modified since the release). The expression that a software product "has gone live" means that the code has been completed and is ready for distribution. Other terms for the live version include live master, live release, and live build. In some areas of software development it is at this stage that the release is referred to as a gold release; this seems to be confined mainly to game software. Some release versions might be classified as a long term support (LTS) release, which should guarantee the ability to upgrade to the next LTS release and will be supported/updated/patched for a longer time than a non-LTS release.
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Support
Service release
During its supported lifetime, software is sometimes subjected to service releases, or service packs. As a well used example, Microsoft's Windows XP has currently had 3 major Service Packs. Such service releases contain a collection of updates, fixes and/or enhancements, delivered in the form of a single installable package. They may also contain entirely new features. Certain software is released with the expectation of regular support. Classes of software that generally involve protracted support as the norm include anti-virus suites and massively multiplayer online games.
End-of-life
When software is no longer sold or supported, the product is said to have reached end-of-life.
Impact of the World Wide Web

As the Internet has allowed for rapid and inexpensive distribution of software, companies have begun to take a more loose approach to use of the word "beta".[4] Netscape Communications was infamous for releasing alpha level versions of its Netscape web browser to the public and calling them "beta" releases. In February 2005, ZDNet published an article about the recent phenomenon of a beta version often staying for years and being used as if it were in production level. It noted that Gmail and Google News, for example, had been in beta for a long period of time and were not expected to drop the beta status despite the fact that they were widely used; however, Google News did leave beta in January 2006, followed by Google Apps, including Gmail, in July 2009.[5] This technique may also allow a developer to delay offering full support and/or responsibility for remaining issues. In the context of Web 2.0, people even talk of perpetual betas to signify that some software is meant to stay in beta state. Also, "beta" is sometimes used to indicate something more like a release candidate, or as a form of time limited demo, or marketing technique.[6] Some users disparagingly refer to release candidates and even final "point oh" releases as "gamma test" software, suggesting that the developer has chosen to use its customers to test software that is not truly ready for general release. Beta testers, if privately selected, will often be credited for using the release candidate as though it were a finished product.
Web release
A web release is a means of software delivery that utilizes the Internet for distribution. No physical media are produced in this type of release mechanism by the manufacturer. This is sometimes also referred to as release to web (RTW).
References
[1] "Encyclopedia definition of alpha version" (http:/ / www. pcmag. com/ encyclopedia_term/ 0,2542,t=alpha+ version& i=37675,00. asp). PC Magazine. . Retrieved 12 January 2011. [2] Apple Inc. (13 September 2000). "Apple Releases Mac OS X Public Beta" (http:/ / www. apple. com/ pr/ library/ 2000/ sep/ 13macosx. html). Press release. . Retrieved 22 February 2011. [3] Microsoft (October 2005). "Microsoft Windows Vista October Community Technology Preview Fact Sheet" (http:/ / www. microsoft. com/ presspass/ newsroom/ winxp/ WinVistaCTPFS. mspx). Press release. . Retrieved 22 February 2011. [4] "Waiting with Beta'd Breath TidBITS #328 (May 13, 1996)" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060515093203/ http:/ / www. tidbits. com/ tb-issues/ TidBITS-328. html). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. tidbits. com/ tb-issues/ TidBITS-328. html) on 2006-05-15. . [5] "Google Apps is out of beta (yes, really)" (http:/ / googleblog. blogspot. com/ 2009/ 07/ google-apps-is-out-of-beta-yes-really. html). Google Blog. Google. 7 July 2009. . Retrieved 12 January 2011. [6] The inconvenient truths behind betas (http:/ / www. gamesradar. com/ f/ the-inconvenient-truths-behind-betas/ a-2010051712402686048)
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External links
Apple, Inc. Version Territory (http://developer.apple.com/technotes/tn/tn1132.html) Free Software Project Management HOWTO (http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/Software-Proj-Mgmt-HOWTO/ users.html#ALPHABETA). Java Standard Terms (https://pide.dev.java.net/glossary-std.html). Software Release Decisions (http://www.se-cure.ch/Publications.html) A Methodology to Support Software Release Decisions (http://www.methodsandtools.com/archive/archive. php?id=55) Software Testing Life Cycle (http://www.editorial.co.in/software/software-testing-life-cycle.php). computeruser.com definition (http://www.computeruser.com/resources/dictionary/definition. html?lookup=792) smartcomputing.com definition (http://www.smartcomputing.com/editorial/dictionary/detail.asp?guid=& searchtype=&DicID=8430&RefType=Dictionary) techweb.com definition (http://www.techweb.com/encyclopedia/defineterm.jhtml?term=betaware) Semantic versioning (http://semver.org/)
Further reading
"Continuous Delivery: Reliable Software Releases through Build, Test, and Deployment Automation" by Jez Humble, David Farley; ISBN 0-321-60191-2
Storage area network

A storage area network (SAN) is a dedicated storage network that provides access to consolidated, block level storage. SANs primarily are used to make storage devices (such as disk arrays, tape libraries, and optical jukeboxes) accessible to servers so that the devices appear as locally attached to the operating system. A SAN typically has its own network of storage devices that are generally not accessible through the regular network by regular devices. The cost and complexity of SANs dropped in the early 2000s, allowing wider adoption across both enterprise and small to medium sized business environments. A SAN alone does not provide the "file" abstraction, only block-level operations. However, file systems built on top of SANs do provide this abstraction, and are known as SAN filesystems or shared disk file systems.
Storage area network
39
Storage sharing
Historically, data centers first created "islands" of SCSI disk arrays as direct-attached storage (DAS), each dedicated to an application, and visible as a number of "virtual hard drives" (i.e. LUNs). Essentially, a SAN consolidates such storage islands together using a high-speed network. Operating systems maintain their own file systems on them on dedicated, non-shared LUNs, as though they were local to themselves. If multiple systems were simply to attempt to share a LUN, these would interfere with each other and quickly corrupt the data. Any planned sharing of data on different computers within a LUN requires advanced solutions, such as SAN file systems or clustered computing.
Organization
Despite such issues, SANs help to increase storage capacity utilization, since multiple servers consolidate their private storage space onto the disk arrays. Common uses of a SAN include provision of transactionally accessed data that require high-speed block-level access to the hard drives such as email servers, databases, and high usage file servers.
SAN and NAS

Network-attached storage (NAS), in contrast to SAN, uses file-based protocols such as NFS or SMB/CIFS where it is clear that the storage is remote, and computers request a portion of an abstract file rather than a disk block. Recently, the introduction of NAS heads, also called NAS gateways, has allowed easy conversion of SAN storage to NAS.
SAN-NAS hybrid
Despite the differences between SAN and NAS, it is possible to create solutions that include both technologies, as shown in the diagram.
Benefits
Sharing storage usually simplifies storage administration and adds flexibility since cables and storage devices do not have to be physically moved to shift storage from one server to another. Other benefits include the ability to allow servers to boot from the SAN itself. This allows for a quick and Hybrid using DAS, NAS and SAN technologies. easy replacement of faulty servers since the SAN can be reconfigured so that a replacement server can use the LUN of the faulty server. This process can take as little as half an hour and is a relatively new idea being pioneered in newer data centers. There are a number of emerging products designed to facilitate and speed this up still further. While this area of technology is still new many view it as being the future of the enterprise datacenter.[1]
Storage area network SANs also tend to enable more effective disaster recovery processes. A SAN could span a distant location containing a secondary storage array. This enables storage replication either implemented by disk array controllers, by server software, or by specialized SAN devices. Since IP WANs are often the least costly method of long-distance transport, the Fibre Channel over IP (FCIP) and iSCSI protocols have been developed to allow SAN extension over IP networks. The traditional physical SCSI layer could only support a few meters of distance - not nearly enough to ensure business continuance in a disaster. The economic consolidation of disk arrays has accelerated the advancement of several features including I/O caching, snapshotting, and volume cloning (Business Continuance Volumes or BCVs).
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Network types
Most storage networks use the SCSI protocol for communication between servers and disk drive devices. A mapping layer to other protocols is used to form a network: ATA over Ethernet (AoE), mapping of ATA over Ethernet Fibre Channel Protocol (FCP), the most prominent one, is a mapping of SCSI over Fibre Channel Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE) ESCON over Fibre Channel (FICON), used by mainframe computers HyperSCSI, mapping of SCSI over Ethernet iFCP[2] or SANoIP[3] mapping of FCP over IP iSCSI, mapping of SCSI over TCP/IP iSCSI Extensions for RDMA (iSER), mapping of iSCSI over InfiniBand
Storage networks may also be built using SAS and SATA technologies. SAS evolved from SCSI direct-attached storage. SATA evolved from IDE direct-attached storage. SAS and SATA devices can be networked using SAS Expanders.
SAN infrastructure
SANs often utilize a Fibre Channel fabric topology - an infrastructure specially designed to handle storage communications. It provides faster and more reliable access than higher-level protocols used in NAS. A fabric is similar in concept to a network segment in a local area network. A typical Fibre Channel SAN fabric is made up of a number of Fibre Channel switches. Today, all major SAN equipment vendors also offer some form of Fibre Channel routing solution, and these bring substantial scalability benefits to the SAN architecture by allowing data to Qlogic SAN-switch with optical Fibre Channel connectors installed. cross between different fabrics without merging them. These offerings use proprietary protocol elements, and the top-level architectures being promoted are radically different. They often enable mapping Fibre Channel traffic over IP or over SONET/SDH.
Compatibility
One of the early problems with Fibre Channel SANs was that the switches and other hardware from different manufacturers were not entirely compatible. Although the basic storage protocols FCP were always quite standard, some of the higher-level functions did not interoperate well. Similarly, many host operating systems would react
Storage area network badly to other operating systems sharing the same fabric. Many solutions were pushed to the market before standards were finalised and vendors have since innovated around the standards.
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SANs in media and entertainment

Video editing workgroups require very high data transfer rates. Outside of the enterprise market, this is one area that greatly benefits from SANs. Per-node bandwidth usage control, sometimes referred to as Quality of Service (QoS), is especially important in video workgroups as it ensures fair and prioritized bandwidth usage across the network, if there is insufficient open bandwidth available. Avid Unity, Apple's Xsan and Tiger Technology MetaSAN are specifically designed for video networks and offer this functionality.
Storage virtualization
Storage virtualization refers to the process of completely abstracting logical storage from physical storage. The physical storage resources are aggregated into storage pools, from which the logical storage is created. It presents to the user a logical space for data storage and transparently handles the process of mapping it to the actual physical location. This is implemented in modern disk arrays, using vendor proprietary solutions. However, the goal is to virtualize multiple disk arrays from different vendors, scattered over the network, into a single monolithic storage device, which can be managed uniformly.
References
[1] "SAN vs DAS: A Cost Analysis of Storage in the Enterprise" (http:/ / capitalhead. com/ articles/ san-vs-das-a-cost-analysis-of-storage-in-the-enterprise. aspx). SAN vs DAS: A Cost Analysis of Storage in the Enterprise. 1900-1-0. . Retrieved 2010-01-28. [2] "TechEncyclopedia: IP Storage" (http:/ / www. techweb. com/ encyclopedia/ defineterm. jhtml?term=IPstorage). . Retrieved 2007-12-09. [3] "TechEncyclopedia: SANoIP" (http:/ / www. techweb. com/ encyclopedia/ defineterm. jhtml?term=SANoIP). . Retrieved 2007-12-09.
External links
Introduction to Storage Area Networks Exhaustive Introduction into SAN, [[IBM Redbooks|IBM Redbook (http:/ /www.redbooks.ibm.com/abstracts/sg245470.html?Open)]] SAN vs. DAS: A Cost Analysis of Storage in the Enterprise (http://capitalhead.com/articles/ san-vs-das-a-cost-analysis-of-storage-in-the-enterprise.aspx) SAS and SATA, solid-state storage lower data center power consumption (http://searchstorage.techtarget.co. uk/generic/0,295582,sid181_gci1516893,00.html)
Wide area network
42
Wide area network


Home (HAN)
A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e., any network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries).[1] This is in contrast with personal area networks (PANs), local area networks (LANs), campus area networks (CANs), or metropolitan area networks (MANs) which are usually limited to a room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area (e.g., a city) respectively.
Design options
WANs are used to connect LANs and other types of networks together, so that users and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers in other locations. Many WANs are built for one particular organization and are private. Others, built by Internet service providers, provide connections from an organization's LAN to the Internet. WANs are often built using leased lines. At each end of the leased line, a router connects to the LAN on one side and a hub within the WAN on the other. Leased lines can be very expensive. Instead of using leased lines, WANs can also be built using less costly circuit switching or packet switching methods. Network protocols including TCP/IP deliver transport and addressing functions. Protocols including Packet over SONET/SDH, MPLS, ATM and Frame relay are often used by service providers to deliver the links that are used in WANs. X.25 was an important early WAN protocol, and is often considered to be the "grandfather" of Frame Relay as many of the underlying protocols and functions of X.25 are still in use today (with upgrades) by Frame Relay. Academic research into wide area networks can be broken down into three areas: mathematical models, network emulation and network simulation. Performance improvements are sometimes delivered via wide area file services or WAN optimization.
Connection technology options

Several options are available for WAN connectivity:[2]
Wide area network
43
Option:
Description
Advantages
Disadvantages
Bandwidth range
Sample protocols used
Leased line Circuit switching Packet switching
Point-to-Point connection between two computers or Local Area Networks (LANs) A dedicated circuit path is created between end points. Best example is dialup connections Devices transport packets via a shared single point-to-point or point-to-multipoint link across a carrier internetwork. Variable length packets are transmitted over Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVC) or Switched Virtual Circuits (SVC)
Most secure
Expensive
PPP, HDLC, SDLC, HNAS 28 - 144 kbit/s PPP, ISDN
Less Expensive
Call Setup
Shared media across link
X.25 Frame-Relay
Cell relay
Similar to packet switching, but uses fixed length cells Best for instead of variable length packets. Data is divided into simultaneous use fixed-length cells and then transported across virtual circuits of voice and data
Overhead can be considerable
ATM
Transmission rates usually range from 1200 bit/s to 24 Mbit/s, although some connections such as ATM and Leased lines can reach speeds greater than 156 Mbit/s. Typical communication links used in WANs are telephone lines, microwave links & satellite channels. Recently with the proliferation of low cost of Internet connectivity many companies and organizations have turned to VPN to interconnect their networks, creating a WAN in that way. Companies such as Cisco, New Edge Networks and Check Point offer solutions to create VPN networks.
References
[1] Groth, David; Toby Skandier (2005). 'Network+ Study Guide, Fourth Edition'. 2009: Sybex, Inc.. ISBN0-7821-4406-3. [2] McQuerry, Steve (November 19, 2003). 'CCNA Self-Study: Interconnecting Cisco Network Devices (ICND), Second Edition'. Cisco Press. ISBN1-58705-142-7.
External links
Cisco - Introduction to WAN Technologies (http://docwiki.cisco.com/wiki/ Internetworking_Technology_Handbook#WAN_Technologies)
Article Sources and Contributors
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Body Area Network Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=429860438 Contributors: Aircorn, Back ache, Cybercobra, Dawnseeker2000, Deemos, Didipg, Dwright8, Gununonu, Jang Jae Sung, Jodonoghue, Joe Decker, Karl.brown, Mfyuc, Pbrandao, Rjwilmsi, Rutja76, Skarebo, Skysmith, Stypex, , 39 anonymous edits Campus network Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=427752741 Contributors: Aapo Laitinen, Ali Esfandiari, Axl, Chris G, Cordless Larry, Cybercobra, English06, Erianna, Hadal, Hodg, JonHarder, Kbdank71, Kocio, Kvng, Kwsn, Ludovic.ferre, MendedAxe, Nat682, NigelJ, Nwatson, Oxymoron83, Panarchy, Rkononenko, Saaga, Suruena, Thief12, Thingg, UNHchabo, Utcursch, Vikiizer, Viriditas, W Nowicki, Willemo, Woohookitty, 41 anonymous edits Home network Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=430836583 Contributors: Annierana, Astral9, BenFrantzDale, Bkkbrad, Boommozart, Bumbelbell, CJ1158, CliffC, Coyoty, Cybercobra, Dawnseeker2000, Dharatal, DictatorEuro, Drcwright, Editore99, Ft1, Gc9580, Gentaur, GregA, Gurch, HPNAUSER, Haseo9999, Ianmillner, Incnis Mrsi, Itusg15q4user, Jim.henderson, Jncraton, Kbrose, KitchM, Kraftlos, LittleOldMe, LizardJr8, Lucid, Mange01, Materialscientist, Mathblasters, Mazarin07, Midnightcomm, Monkey Bounce, Monkeyman, Mr Grim Reaper, Mzub, Neillucas, Ohnoitsjamie, Oleg Alexandrov, Pepper2000, Plasticboob, Pnm, R'n'B, Roberdin, Robertvan1, Sanchom, Seraphimblade, Sidasta, Sodmy, Stealdude, Twillett, Typhoon, UU, Upaplc, Veinor, Waveletrules, Wishdasher, Woohookitty, 97 anonymous edits IEEE 802.20 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=417270459 Contributors: Alfaisanomega, Armando, Bobblewik, CesarB, Demiurg, Dispenser, Editore99, Emmanuelm, Ervini, Itai, KelleyCook, Kgrr, Kvng, Loren.wilton, Lukeritchie, Merfles, Nelson50, Nisselua, Optim, Pnm, RetiredWikipedian789, Rich Farmbrough, Robertvan1, Samuel.dellit, Spelemann, SystemBuilder, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tomchiukc, Twidlerofthumbs, Twthmoses, 17 anonymous edits Internet Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=430143508 Contributors: -Majestic-, 000o, 0waldo, 12.235.7.xxx, 16@r, 199.196.144.xxx, 2dogs, 3idiot, 424242, 75th Trombone, 802geek, A. 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Internet Communication: Software Basis

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Internet Communication

Body Area Network

Body Area Network

Body Area Network

Body Area Network large scale implementation of WBAN systems.[11]

Computer network types by area

Physical transmission media

An example of a simple home network

Computer network types by area

Depiction of the Internet as a cloud in network diagrams

Computer network types by area

The Deep Impact mission

Local area network

Local area network

Local area network

G.hn HomePlug Powerline Alliance BPL

Wi-Fi Bluetooth DECT Wireless USB

Dial-up ISDN DSL

GPRS iBurst WiBro/WiMAX UMTS-TDD, HSPA EVDO LTE MMDS

Metropolitan area network

Metropolitan area network

It can also be used in cable television.

Metropolitan area network

Near-me area network

Near-me area network

Software release life cycle

Software release life cycle

Origin of alpha and beta terminology

Software release life cycle

Software release life cycle

Impact of the World Wide Web

Software release life cycle

Storage area network

Storage area network

SAN and NAS

SANs in media and entertainment

Wide area network

Wide area network

Connection technology options

Wide area network

Sample protocols used

Leased line Circuit switching Packet switching

PPP, HDLC, SDLC, HNAS 28 - 144 kbit/s PPP, ISDN

Shared media across link

Overhead can be considerable

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

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