NE-202

Radiation Sources, Interactions and Detection

Beta-Ray Range
Revised by: A. I. Hawari and J. M. Harp, 2009 Based on Lab notes revised by: R. M. Mayo and D. E. Peplow and notes by E. Stam and T. S. Elleman

Laboratory Procedures Objectives:

1. 2. 3. To study the stopping of - particles emitted by 90Sr. To determine the maximum range of 90Sr - rays in aluminum using the stacked foil method. To prepare a laboratory report presenting your results for the maximum range of 90Sr - rays.

Equipment:
Sr - source Sealed gas proportional counter High Voltage power supply Pre-amplifier Amplifier Single Channel Analyzer Counter Timer Oscilloscope Micrometer Aluminum disk set
90

Procedure:
1. Operation of Proportional Counter (a) Inspect the setup of the proportional counter system in the same way as was done in lab #2. Again make careful note of all instruments their function and operation and all connections. (b) Determine the proper operating conditions for your system by measuring, recording, and plotting a high-voltage plateau curve for counting - rays. Follow the instructions previously given on proportional counters. - ray range (a) Using the Katz and Penfold expression, estimate the practical range in A1 ( = 2.7 g/cm3) expected for 0.546 MeV - particles. The energy 0.546 MeV is the maximum energy of the - rays emitted by 90Sr. (b) Determine the number of Al disks that should be stacked between - ray counting periods for a reasonable experiment by first measuring the thickness and comparing it to the range predicted by the Katz & Penfold expression (Equation 4 of the theory section). Measure the thickness of the Al foils using a micrometer. (c) Take a background measurement for 5 minutes at the high-voltage plateau settings. (d) Measure and record a transmission curve (Count Rate vs. Thickness in g/cm2) for 90Sr - rays and an Al absorber using the stacked disks method. Place the source far enough below the proportional counter so that ample space is allowed for multiple foils. When stacking foils be sure to maintain source geometry (position) very carefully. Any movement of the source may alter your results. Place the shiny side of the foil down dull side up. Make sure you count for long enogh to establish good counting statistics. Plot your results on a semi-log graph. (e) From your transmission curve, determine the maximum range of 90Sr - rays in Al. Compare with your estimate from part 1. Be sure to assign an error to your experimental result. BR-L-1

2.

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Analysis and Questions

1. 2. 3. 4. Do your results for the maximum range of 90Sr - rays in Al agree with the range calculated using the Katz and Penfold formula? If not give some plausible reasons why. What is an anti-neutrino and how do we know it is involved in a - decay? Explain. Using your experimental results for Al estimate the range in air at STP for 0.546 MeV - particles. Assume this range depends only on the number of electrons per unit volume of the absorber.

Beta-Ray Range

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Radiation Sources, Interactions and Detection

Beta-Ray Range
1.1 Introduction
One of the early radiations observed was the beta particle. It was later shown that the beta particle carried the same charge and the same charge to mass ratio as electrons. Indeed they are exactly the same as electrons. We retain the name 'beta particle' to denote the origin of the electron as the nucleus not from the atomic electrons surrounding the nucleus. But with the Heisenberg uncertainty principle we can show that electrons cannot exist in the nucleus. Where is this electron coming from then?

1.2 Beta Decay

What happens inside a nucleus to create a beta particle is that a neutron changes into a proton, electron and an antineutrino
1 0

n 1 p + + e + + Q 1

(1)

which we observe as
A Z
-

A X Z +1 Y + + + Q

(2)

This is referred to as beta-minus, , decay. The energy can be found by

= m Q

A Z

X m

A Z +1

Y c2

(3)

The electron cannot stay inside the nucleus and is ejected. The energy from this reaction, Q, is shared between the three products and therefore there is not a unique energy given to each of the products. Due to its large mass, hardly any of the energy goes to the nucleus and so we can consider that the energy is shared by only the electron and the antineutrino. The antineutrino has no charge and is postulated to have near zero mass. Experiments have been attempted to detect them only to find that the cross section for neutrinos is at most 10-42 cm2. Evans calculates to attenuate neutrinos by l/e would require 100 light-years of lead. Since the energy is shared between two particles the beta particle can emerge from the nucleus with an energy between zero and Q with the rest going to the neutrino. This energy distribution is illustrated in Figure 1.

Fig 1 (Knoll 1-1). The decay scheme of 36Cl and the resulting beta particle energy distribution.

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Fig. 2 (Evans 3-2). The extrapolated range Ro for originally monoenergetic electrons, is at the intersection of the extrapolated ionization or counting curve with the estimated contribution of background due to gamma rays, bremsstrahlung in the absorber and other causes.

1.3 Beta Interactions

The interactions of beta particles are very complex. As they move through a material they are interacting with many atoms and electrons at the same time. Their small mass makes them easier to deflect. As they go along, they have thousands of interactions with several that are likely to change their direction of travel by a large amount. Unlike alpha particles that travel in nearly straight lines the concept of an electron range is less clear. We can however, measure the transmission of electrons through a material to find the maximum range. This would result in a transmission curve similar to Figure 2. Using an isotopic source of electrons (beta rays), we will not have a monoenergetic source like Evans Figure 2. The transmission curve from an isotopic source is illustrated in Figure 3. The penetration of the electrons is a strong function of the electron density of the material. This is dependent on the density of the material and to a lesser degree, the atomic number of the material. To describe a material that the electron passes through we can use a density thickness which is just the material density multiplied by the thickness. Note the units of the absorber thickness in the graph of Figure 3. From the graph, we can say that the 1.17 MeV electrons have a range of 0.450 g per cm2 in aluminum. From this, we can calculate the range in cm. To add the effect of several absorbers that the electron passes through, the density thicknesses of each adsorber can just be summed together. Experimental range-energy relationships have been made for electrons of a wide variety of energies. Katz and Penfold give a relationship for the maximum range as

= 0.412 E1.2650.954ln E Rmax Rmax 0.530 E 0.106 =

0.01 1.0

<E< 3 E < 20

(4)

with E in MeV and the computed Rmax in g/cm2. To measure the maximum range, we can measure the thickness of a material (or the density thicknesses if several materials) that the electrons pass through and find where none get through. Evans points out that this is difficult since it corresponds to the point of zero transmission.

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Radiation Sources, Interactions and Detection

Fig. 3 (Cember 5-2). Absorption curve (aluminum absorbers) of 210Bi beta particles, 1.17 MeV. Example: Suppose we are measuring the range of betas from a carbon-14 source. The detector window has a density thickness of 0.0017 g/cm2. How much aluminum can we put between the source and the detector and still get beta counts? Solution: The energy of the betas can be looked up and found to be 0.155 MeV. This corresponds to a Rmax of 0.0280 g/cm2. The density thickness of the aluminum and the window should add to Rmax. Therefore the density thickness of the maximum Al is then 0.0280 0.0017 = 0.0263 g/cm2. Knowing the density of aluminum is 2.7 g/cm3, we can calculate the thickness to be 0.0097 cm.

References
1. 2. 3. Herman Cember Introduction to Health Physics, Pergamon Press New York 1983. Robley D. Evans, The Atomic Nucleus, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1955. Glenn F. Knoll, Radiation Detection and Measurement, 3rd Edition, 2000.

Beta-Ray Range

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