6.

Conclusion The new teaching is to arrange situations to enable learning Teaching, as an activity, can be either effective or not when students learning is concerned. If the teaching act is student-directed, it should adequately influence learning process that is happening in the learner. For desired learning to take place, all teaching functions (effects) should be realized. Six basic functions of teaching should be considered: Students motivation. Motivation is essential for learning to take place. The learner has to be ready to receive the presented information. Adequate input of information. Input of information is essential in order to teach something. The incoming information must not overload short-term memory, because the informational flow has to allow making the relationships between old and new bodies of information and within the new one. Securing time and space for information processing. The implicitly given information has to be made explicit, so the construction of learners original body of information can take place. Storing and retrieving of information. Some information will be stored and made retrievable for later use. Memorization is achieved by rehearsing and by linking new information with already stored information. Securing applicability of knowledge. The reason for learning is the application of knowledge in solving problem in future practice. Transfer of knowledge to new problem engages generalization of general principles to a pertinent problem, and competence of comparisons between different situations. So the students should be given the chance, early in their study, to practice arts of generalization and comparison in solving problems. Monitoring of students activities. Finally, the learners activities need to be controlled and, if necessary, directed. Combination of different teaching methods can produce quality in fulfilling all teaching functions. Basic teaching sequence is successively repeated and in designing the teaching process different students needs should be taken into consideration. The optimal amount of elaboration and need for decision making differs between students. Engaging of different teaching methods for achieving the same teaching objective is recommended. Teaching methods can be classified from low to high structured according to their levels of elaboration (amount of teaching acts) and the number of decisions to be made by the students. High structured settings are usually more favorable for students low in aptitude and with low prerequisite knowledge, while students high in aptitude learn more efficiently under low structure settings then under high structure settings. Keeping high structured situation, in which everything is determined by the teacher, can prolong students dependence on the teacher. Time consuming lectures can provide situation of big input without adequate output. Sandwich principle is designed in order to coordinate way of presentation of information with different students needs in target group of students. Consequently, the teaching efficacy

will be better. Interchange of phases of collective and individual learning takes place, with especial concerns given to securing students attention in the beginning phase and fostering applicability of knowledge in the finishing phase of sandwich. Design of the sandwich can be made according to teachers own preferences and specific needs of the material that will be presented. Every learner learns on his/her own unique way and strategy. The learning is taking place with an individual speed, depending on students attitude and level of prerequisite knowledge. In designing the teaching process, teacher should take into consideration differences among the students in the target group. Enough of space must be provided for processing and memorizing the presented information. Paradoxically, when this is not enabled learning success can be less satisfactory even with bigger input of information in the same time. Picture 1: The structure of a sandwich-architecture. 5. One example of a sandwich architecture lecture of the Sarajevo Medical Faculty up 7. References

Learning and Teaching should be Inclusive and Enjoyable: Motivation

Fostering pupils motivation towards learning is an essential feature of the teaching skills involved in establishing a positive classroom climate. Motivation may be achieved in any of three ways. The pupils natural interest intrinsic satisfaction Motivation by the teacher Success in the task Points Arising from Research Young people are intrinsically motivated to a high degree; many elements of the environment constitute challenges for them. Unfortunately after a number of years in education this intrinsic motivation is dampened. Intrinsic motivation is more easily undermined than created. Teachers need to be aware of the purpose of any extrinsic methods that they use for motivating their pupils and have a clear rationale about how they foster intrinsic motivation. Tasks which best elicit pupil motivation are those seen by pupils to be challenging, difficult but achievable. Teaching poorly motivated pupils is a major source of stress for teachers. Role of home and parental encouragement is of major importance in influencing the level of pupils academic motivation. The opportunity to learn from each other in the classroom is becoming recognised as a viable approach to increase pupil motivation and learning. extrinsic rewards satisfaction and reward

Praise to criticism in the ratio of 4:1 will develop a more welcoming and positive climate for learning. Key Elements of Motivation Intrinsic motivation Involves an interest in the learning task itself and also satisfaction being gained from task Effective teaching must win the hearts and minds of pupils if the learning experience is to involve intrinsic motivation, curiosity, interest and a proper educational engagement useful way of eliciting pupils interest is to pose a question or a problem at the start of the lesson A task can afford a way of working that is satisfying, such as learning as part of a group in a social context. Active involvement and co-operation between pupils fosters enjoyment Project work can act as a very important source of motivation through the degree of choice and control it offers to pupils in undertaking the work Select topics that are likely to interest pupils, particularly if they relate to pupils own experiences Offering a choice can also elicit interest Provide pupils with regular feedback concerning how their skills and competence are developing. Review: Show what you know, understand and can do rehearse, practice and memorise Draw their attention to what they can do and understand now compared with before the course of work began Extrinsic motivation (See Toolkit paper on Praise ) Teacher praise is a powerful motivator although its effect depends on skilful use Praise should be linked to pupils effort and attainment, conveying sincere pleasure on the teachers part and should be used with credibility Well judged, consistent, frequent and targeted use of praise that identifies the individual or groups specific behaviour or attributes and celebrates them with positive unconditional language is very powerful

Indicate to pupils the usefulness, relevance and importance of the topic or activity to their needs Expectation for success Teacher expectations can influence their behaviour towards pupils in ways that promote greater progress and produce a self-fulfilling prophecy effect Ensure the tasks are challenging and offer pupils a realistic chance of success, taking into account their ability and previous learning Hook what is to be learned to existing experience or knowledge to aid memory, help assimilate new learning and raise expectations Expectations need to convey that the activities are worthwhile and of interest Monitor pupils progress closely providing quick and supportive feedback when a pupil has encountered major difficulties High expectations which are too demanding will not foster greater progress

Reflection and Discussion To what extent does pupil motivation play a part in effective learning? How might a teachers expectations influence pupils efforts to learn? Do you make good use of both intrinsic and extrinsic sources of pupil motivation? Some Activities Relating To the Issue of Motivation Key element Objective Action Some examples and suggestions Intrinsic motivation Provide pupils with regular feedback concerning how their skills and competence are developing. The teacher and/or the pupils reconnect with the lesson overview and specific objectives and with agreed personal goals and targets. Extrinsic motivation Indicate to pupils the usefulness, relevance and importance of the topic or activity to their needs.

Begin with some unconditional positive praise: You did that well Then give the constructive educative feedback: This part could be improved if you Finish with unconditional positive praise: I really enjoyed marking that.. Expectation for success Hook what is to be learned to existing experience or knowledge to aid memory, help assimilate new learning and raise expectation. Engage pupils in working through what relevance the learning has to their own lives and realities, own goals and aspirations Connect new learning to prior experience: How are we involved in this? How can we use this? Encourage learners to identify their own reasons for taking part in the lesson. Selected References Further Reading Elliot, S. N. & al (1996) Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Madison:Brown and Benchmark. Kyriacou, C. (2001) Effective Teaching in Schools, Nelson Thornes Kyriacou, C. (1995) Essential Teaching Skills, Stanely Thornes Smith, A. & Call, N. (1999) The ALPS Approach (Accelerated Learning in the Primary Schoool),Network Educational Press LTD

THIS document is being reconstructed; it is not coherent; it may not be finished till January. Junk Contents Steve's question on learner confidence Steve's first reply Steve's second reply Motivation and learning - Steve's synthesis Preface

Introduction General classification of "motivation" types Types of motivation Extrinsic Intrinsic Hybrid Deep and shallow learning Costs as well as benefits Time scales Experimental demand characteristics Missing points not to be lost Summary References Preface /Introduction This essay is about issues of learners' confidence, which turned out to be closely connected to the topic of motivation. Some introductory commonsense. Must have motivation: he learning depends upon conscious and actions and effort. Signs of a problem: the phenomenology This section aims to do two things together: to say what the problem is, what the warning sings or puzzles were that lead, or at any rate led me, to look for understanding; and to describe (briefly) what each problem feels like from inside. Knowing what something feels like is part of understanding it. my students rationality paradox baird bev the nutter It has been argued that giving learners confidence was all that matters. Student feedback In a focus group with students asking them about the feedback they were getting on a course (in tutorials on their programming exercises) they said that what mattered to them was getting some confidence from the tutor. This makes a nonsense of my concepts about levels of feedback, and indeed about all the theories of teaching and learning I usually attend to. The question for me came from a context of students learning how to program computers on a conversion MSc course, where a) there is a big range of prior ability, so I see many students who don't need any confidence boosting, but also many that do. b) programming gives the intrinsic feedback of whether the program runs which seems to me (from of course a perspective of confidence) to be enough. Your answers give me a somewhat better grasp on that difference. For me part of the puzzle is or was that by "motivation" I usually mean a decision on how to spend one's time e.g. if coursework is for credit, then effort, in not then none. And these students do not lack motivation in the sense of desire for success and

willingness to make an effort. So it isn't obvious to me that confidence is at all a related issue. But some of the reminders you sent it in fact are making a connection across that gap from deciding I could do it but don't think it's worth my time, to deciding that it's not worth my time because I couldn't do it successfully. xxxx I have failed to learn, therefore I feel I don't want to learn. xxxx I will avoid trying to learn, because if I then fail it will be evidence that I am incompetent at learning i.e. failure to try is less painful than failure to learn after trying. xxxx Some theories of motivation define it in terms of behaviour. This leads to some consequences that sound silly e.g. you are tempted to steal a million pounds you find lying in a bag, but instead hand it into the police. This would be described as you not having enough motivation to be rich, as would failing to claim a million that is rightfully your because you can't be bothered to fill in a claim form. Or in a learning context, such theories would equate someone who failed an exam because they lay around watching TV instead of studying, with someone who was prevented from studying by having to care for a sick relative. xxxx On the other hand, many people respond to having a bad time learning something (e.g. mathematics) by ceasing to wish to learn it. This is a real psychological phenomena that happens frequently (but not always), yet is essentially irrational: confounding how desirable something is with how hard it is to get. xxxx xxxx Initial solutions Must have motivation: HE effort. Both value and feasible cost: multiply / AND. Affective LObjs. A synthesis Types of 'confidence' The meanings of "confidence" I identify are: a) Self-estimate (by the learner) of how well they HAVE learned /mastered a topic b) Strength of desire to achieve knowledge of a topic (in the future) c) Estimate by learner of the likely cost of this (in the future) d) Estimate by learner of likely success of this i.e. the likely effectiveness of their study methods for this topic. e) Feeling of "ownership" (which perhaps means attachment to other personal goals) Three more types of confidence [taken from a message by Brian Whitworth] The review I have done suggests there are three types of confidence:

Individual confidence based on intellectual analysis - "My thinking convinces me this is true" not as common as one might think, since how many of us are truly independent thinkers? Confidence which is conveyed from another person whom we trust and believe in - such as a teacher. "I believe this because the teacher said so, and I trust them". This requires a person-to-person interaction. Confidence arising from holding the same position as a group we identify with. "Everyone believes this, and so do I". When my subjects found that they were in agreement with the group, confidence went up, even though the computermediated interaction was anonymous, so personal trust could not be a cause. Types of 'motivation' xxx There are basically two classes of theory of "motivation". There are theories that define motivation in terms of behaviour or need alone (e.g. Maslow): these theories only talk about the net result of mental calculations. The other class (cognitive or process theories e.g. Vroom) talks separately about the strengths of desire or reason for and against acting. xxx A rationalistic theory would see an agent, such as a person, calculating both costs and benefits and probability of success. In HE (higher education), all three seem to be important variables in practice: learning takes effort, a considerable part of that effort does not depend directly on the teaching, but on time and effort put in out of class by the learner. But there is no certainty of success: in most courses, some fail thus wasting all their effort and other costs. [not just prob. benefits are certain, success is not.] Motivation and learning: Steve's synthesis Preface The exchange in itforum above was notionally on the topic of learner confidence. One of the major links pointed out was the relationship of learner confidence to "motivation". Here is a provisional personal synthesis on the issue of motivation and learning, based partly on some earlier notes of mine, but also on a side discussion I had at this time with Bev Taylor. Bev is just completing a PhD on learner motivation and an attempt to construct an intervention that modifies it. On the measurement side, she used a questionnaire instrument to measure levels and types of learner motivation, the AMS devised by Vallerand (see references). Introduction There are several distinct issues here: General classification of motivation types Need to look at costs as well as benefits. I.e. most motivation is about beneficial outcomes, but fails to treat costs separately. Yet a lot of the issue is the amount of effort and whether this is sufficient. Time scales. Things that persist, things that can be instantly changed.

Experimental demand characteristics that may change the motivation e.g. Hawthorne effect. General classification of "motivation" types Types of motivation The most important distinction to make in types of motivation is between extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation. E.g. wanting to pass an exam or to please one's family are extrinisic motivations to learn, and wanting to know why the sky is blue for its own sake in an intrinsic one. Extrinsic I would subdivide extrinsic motivation into desiring the goal of having learned from willingness to make an unpleasant effort. Vallerand and others subdivide extrinsic motivation (differently) into external, introjected, identified and integrated regulation. These are increasing degrees of self-determination and of integrating the motivation into one's own other goals and attitudes. Intrinsic I would subdivide intrinsic motivation into prior interests e.g. gold attracts most people in a museum exhibition, and links to personal experience. Whatever the topic, linking it to the learner's personal experience will almost always increase the interest (i.e. the intrinsic motivation) on the spot. Museums and magazines show how important intrinsic interest is. In a different subdivision, interest is a function of connections to the already known and surprise. So the greater the number of connections of the new item to existing knowledge, the greater the interest; but surprise can only occur when you already have a predictive theory of that item/event. Enthusiasts will examine lots of data, probably looking for and building patterns. So the final theory is, it is the relation of the new item to rules. The more rules you have, the better the chance new items have of testing them; and perhaps scoring highly as interesting by disconfirming them; or equally, allowing a new pattern to be noticed. So perhaps the pleasure of interest depends on new rule formation. Hybrid In my view the self-efficacy and learned helplessness literature show a third hybrid type between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Basically they are to do with how experience and the attitudes derived from personal experience affect the desire to act: if you don't think making an effort leads to success at this goal, then desire for it and willingness to make an effort both go down. While the latter is rational, the former is not: but it seems our minds do both together. A different hybrid is used by Vallerand and others, called "amotivation". This apparently refers to some impulse to do an activity (e.g. attend a class) without any belief that this will lead to a desired outcome for the learner of any kind. This is important as discussed below: basically because a necessary (and so important)

aspect of learning is a degree of trying and learning things before you know why they are worth knowing: trusting teachers or other people, attending to what you see others attending to, before you know why they are attending to them. This is learning by imitation, but at the level of attention or motivation (perhaps the only or main level at which it can work). Put another way, the motivation is not to learn but to do the surface activities that in others may be done as instrumental in learning (e.g. attending a class), although in other cases (such as chatting to people at a party), it may not be normally conceived of as related to learning, even though learning often occurs as a side effect. On the one hand we must expect reduced learning because the motivation does not extend to the mental processing required for learning, but on the other hand we should recognise that learning can and even must sometimes occur without such intentions but simply as a consequence of surface actions undertaken for other motives. Deep and shallow learning Some may think there is a close association between deep and shallow learning on the one hand, and intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on the other. In my view there is no systematic or necessary association. Shallow learning is characterised by focussing on what the test task is expected to be, and learning only what is needed for that. Because the test is external, you might think this has to be extrinsic motivation. However someone might want to learn first aid for its own sake, not because this brings any external reward, but because their own values tell them this is desirable. Nevertheless their learning will be focussed on a specific test task, not on understanding medicine. Deep learning, in my interpretation of the literature, is focussed not on learning at all but on a desire to understand. Although that desire may usually be due to intrinsic motivations, it is quite possible to imagine extrinsic ones. For instance, one day your child comes home looking terrified and refusing to talk about it. You want to understand, not to pass some specific test such as getting your child to talk. Not understanding would be dangerous, you think, but you do not know what it is you have to learn, nor do you have any intrinsic interest about child psychology for its own sake. This would be extrinsically motivated deep learning. (I think this is quite general: understanding may be driven by an extrinsic fear of something going on that should be investigated, without any prior knowledge of what it is that is to be uncovered.) Basically, motivation is about the will and choosing to act. Learning is partly about involuntary effects (some learning is involuntary e.g. do you remember talking to your friend today? did you have to try to memorise that fact as a willed goal?), partly about voluntary learning especially in formal education, and partly in between. The in-between is inescapable as many (Piaget, Bruner, ...) have remarked. In the end you cannot explain to a learner exactly why it is worth learning a particular topic: they can only decide that after they have learned it, because knowing what a topic is exactly is to learn it. To a greater or lesser extent this is a large part of our lives; it is why we listen to the news (to learn what we don't know to ask about, but quite often agree afterwards we are glad to have

learned), why we have peer-reviewed journals (to raise the chances that it is worth our reading those papers before we know what they are like), and so on. So motivation can never wholly control learning: important amounts of learning are involuntary. And also, deep learning may always be involuntary in the sense that the motivation was for something else: understanding, not learning. In fact there may be three levels here: a) deep learning, where the motivation is for understanding, b) shallow learning, where the motivation is for learning, and c) amotivation, where the motivation is for some surface behaviour such as doing or looking at what others are doing or looking at. Costs as well as benefits The motivation literature seems to treat motivation purely as about rewards or punishments received by the agent as a result of the effects of their actions. In fact in deciding to do something, an agent normally weighs up the payback from the final result against the costs of taking the action. Here, a learner may consider consequences of learning, but also how much effort and other unpleasantness the process (rather than the outcome) may bring. It seems to me a different topic, yet one that is very important to most learners most of the time, to consider costs of process, not just benefits of product. The issue is in part whether costs and benefits are separately present in the mind, or only a net balance called "motivation". The motivation literature seems to deal only with the latter, while it would seem rational to take the former position. In favour of my argument, to deny the distinction between costs and benefits and to use only the net result would lead to the following. Imagine that you could retire now very rich if only you sold your children into slavery. The motivation literature would describe your failure to do this as "low motivation". This fails to distinguish cases where very large costs and benefits co-exist from cases where both are low (e.g. wanting some chocolate, but not enough to go to the store just for that). On the other hand, self-efficacy and related constructs correspond to the fact that, especially in the case of learning, we humans do seem to experience it as a single psychological variable. An extreme theory would be: motivation ("do you want to learn?") makes no difference, it is really a side-effect, a synonym for attitudes in the learner ("do you like math?"). But a commonsense view is that motivation causes effort, which causes learning. However we naturally adjust our interest according to perceived reward i.e. we look at the success:effort ratio. What matters about motivation, behaviourally, is effort. (If you learn as a side-effect then effort doesn't matter.) Behaviour probably depends on the ratio or difference of 2 variables: expected reward, and expected cost (effort, discomfort). Does this cost-benefit analysis make sense, given that a) the effort of attention and thinking seem so small, or at any rate different in kind from external rewards; b) the rewards of being interested i.e. the pleasure in understanding and knowing do not seem comparable to other

kinds of reward? Still, in the end cost-benefit analysis seems sensible because behaviour requires a (1-dimensional) choice, so somehow things are compared. N.B. I fall asleep over TV documentaries when tired, but not when alert. Nevertheless I choose and feel better after viewing them. This implies that the tradeoff does not just depend on externals, but on internal body state. So there are no constants in motivational design! The costs and benefits change from hour to hour, and are not personality characteristics. Time scales An important issue that should be discussed at the same time (but often is not), is that of time scale. Some aspects vary, if at all, on the scale of decades. Others (e..g self-efficacy) over episodes. Others can be turned on or off in a second e.g. telling students that this topic will be examined. In fact this latter time scale is more common than we may realise. Once I was going to have to tutor a "lab" using a piece of software, and ran through the worksheet my fellow tutor had written for that week. I went through the first 4 items, then suddenly the fifth demanded that I think about the meaning of the values I had been calculating. With a jerk, I realised that I had not been thinking at all about the meaning, but been fully occupied with finding the commands and following the recipe. The task demands can control the level of processing: I no longer think there is much truth in ideas about "learner characteristics" and deep and shallow learners. These can be changed in a second by the demands of a worksheet. If you ask for a phone number but fail to notice whether it is odd or even, prime or non-prime, does that mean you are a shallow learner? (Great number theorists do notice these things, normal people don't but can.) Many of these things are treated in the literature as if they are long-time-scale features, but this is not usually tested, and in fact is often untrue. If you administer a questionnaire such as the AMS asking students to fill it in w.r.t. the semester-long course that is one thing; but you could also ask them to fill it in after each little learning activity, and you might find something different. Decisions about action are made all the time, and some (perhaps much) motivation changes just as fast. Experimental demand characteristics This is also an issue experimentally. The Hawthorne effect is a standing warning about the difficulties of any investigation of motivation, or of any phenomenon where motivation is a significant causal factor. So, Bev, how do you know in your study what is due to your software and what is due to the effect of a concerned researcher taking a personal interest in the participants? Missing points not to be lost There are some important points made in the discussion that I have not absorbed into this synthesis. These are:

1) Joe Beckman's idea that teaching, leadership, and salesmanship are identical in that they depend on "inspiration" which is to do with transferring ownership of an idea from teacher to learner. 2) The overwhelming importance of confidence in language learning. To do with social interaction, and perhaps confidence at succeeding at the surrounding task of communication even with very low technical skills. Summary The top level distinction is between intrinsic, extrinsic and hybrid motivations. Intrinsic may be divided into prior personal experience prior interests "Interest" motivation may be a function of new rule formation: itself a combination of novelty and connection to prior knowledge i.e. surprise (understood as a contradiction of some rule) the number of connections to what is already known, Extrinsic may be divided into desiring the goal of having learned willingness to make an unpleasant effort. Vallerand and others subdivide extrinsic motivation (differently) into external, introjected, identified and integrated regulation. Hybrid motivation: two different senses: The psychological phenomenon of self-efficacy and other ways in which learners see themselves as not interested in topics they have found difficult. Amotivation: motivation to go through the motions, not to learn Deep and shallow learning is logically independent of the intrinsic/extrinsic distinction. In fact there is a 3-way distinction: Deep learning = motivation to understand Shallow learning = motivation to learn (to perform a test task) Amotivation and directing attention by imitation = motivation to act (as others act) Motivation should, rationally, depend on a favourable ratio or difference of expected reward and effort.

But if we use "motivation" to refer to the net balance, then we can't use it to refer to a separate knowledge of the rewards and costs, nor a separate knowledge of those due to process and those due to final outcome. Although we can think of examples where this seems crazy, it does seem that learners often do just retain a net attitude. Bodily state can change the effort function a lot, and varies from hour to hour (at least). Any statement about motivation should be explicit for the typical timescale it applies to. It is likely to be false for other time scales. The Hawthorne effect warns us that the experiment itself is very likely to change motivation by itself. Dangerous words One important aspect that has emerged from this encounter with a difficult area, is that some of the words you meet or naturally use are dangerous: cause you to make conceptual errors. One view of this is that they are ambiguous. Another view is that each such word has a number of independent dimensions. But this is dangerous because we almost always assume, unless explicitly warned and reminded, that one word in English corresponds to exactly one thing. If in fact there is no such thing (e.g. perpetual motion, inteligence, etc.) then we fall into the fallacy of reification: believing there is a real thing there because there is a word for it. If there are several things there (the main problem in this topic), we fall into confusing them. The words are: Confidence Motivation Cost Benefit Relevance Attention (2 types) Satisfaction Feedback