X.

25 packet-switched networks
X.25 packet-switched networks is one of packet switch networks concept. X.25 is the original ITU-T standard network access protocol that defines the interface between the DTE and a X.25 packetswitched network. It is a set of protocols corresponding to the first three of the OSI layers. As it is an access protocol it covers the DTE to DCE interface. Therefore an X.25 network is only defined as this interface and the internal working of the network is up to the service provider; all that is required is that X.25 data entering the network also leaves it as X.25 data. A typical packet-switched network consists of a number of packet switches which are linked to form a mesh as shown in Figure 12.2. Some computers are connected directly to the network but smallvolume users are connected via a Packet Assemble/ Disassembler (PAD). A PAD takes asynchronous traffic and converts it into packets which can then be sent through the packet-switched network. Large-volume users may have a PAD on their own premises where the volume and type of traffic demands it. The X.25 standard contains three layers of functionality:

The physical layer is equivalent to the OSI physical layer and lays down the rules necessary to establish a physical link between a DTE and the packet-switched network. The interface is specified by either of the ITU-T recommendations X.21 or X.21bis. X.21bis has been defined for use with analogue networks (modems). It is a subset of EIA 232D/V.24 (which is described in Chapter 6); hence analogue equipment can be readily interfaced by use of this standard, plus the use of additional software. The link layer is equivalent to the OSI link layer and its function is to provide reliable transmission of data on the link between packet switches. It achieves this by transmitting the data as a sequence of frames. The link layer standard is referred to as LAP-B (Link Access Protocol-Balanced). The packet layer is broadly equivalent to the OSI network layer and is the higher level protocol that establishes the packet formats and the control procedures required to set up a call and exchange information with other terminals or computers.

The packet level

X.25 packet-switched networks has some component.
Most computers tend to send data in bursts, rather than in a steady constant flow. In many cases, unlike telephone calls, it is not essential to have a constant and short propagation time. The advantages of breaking the data into packets is that other computers can send data down the same high-speed link between packet switches. Packet switches use the virtual circuit technique. A special call request packet is sent initially which carries the Network User Address (NUA) of both the caller and the destination in addition to a unique reference number called a logical channel number (LCN). The LCN and the incoming link it comes from are noted by the packet switch, which then replaces the LCN with a new number and sends it forward on an outgoing link in the direction of the destination DTE. This process is repeated at every switch until the call request packet reaches its destination DTE. Then, assuming the call is accepted, an appropriate response packet is returned to the calling DTE. At this point a virtual circuit is said to exist between the two DTEs. All subsequent packets relating to this call are assigned the same LCN values and travel over the same channel.

Each packet switch now contains a routing table, an example of which is shown in Table below for the packet switch of Figure PacketSwitched link. The routing table is simply a lookup table. From Table below it can be seen that a packet received from link A with LCN 3 will be sent down link B with a new LCN 5 attached to it. With this method the routing intelligence is held in the switch rather than in the packet as in a datagram system. Whenever a call request packet is received by a switch it determines the best.

Typical routing table

currently available route, and updates its routing table to accommodate the new call. The path followed by a call is called a virtual circuit as each packet with the same LCN will travel over the same path. Note that virtual circuits are also bidirectional. However, a number of virtual circuits could be set up over the same physical link and the packets from these virtual circuits would be multiplexed together. The format of a packet is specified by the ITU-T X.25 recommendation. Each packet consists of two parts: the header and the payload. The header consists of three octets and the number of octets in the data field depends on the packet type. Figure below shows the format of a call request packet:

Octet 1 contains the general format identifier which indicates, among other things, whether the ARQ sequence count will be either modulo-8 or modulo-128. It also contains the logical channel group number indicating the type of call. Two types of call are possible:

- Permanent virtual circuit (PVC), which is established on a permanent basis, typically for a period of months. - Switched virtual circuit (SVC), of which there are three versions: incoming only (SVC), both-ways SVC and outgoing only SVC. SVCs are established

Format of a call request packet The X.25 standard allows up to 15 logical channel groups for each physical X.25 connection.

Octet 2 contains the LCN and this can change as the packet passes through each switch. The logical channel group number and the LCN are normally combined to create a 12-bit field. Octet 3 is the packet type identifier (PTI). Note that the designation changes according to whether the packet is being sent from DCE to DTE or vice versa. For a call request packet the PTI takes the value 00001011. When a packet with this PTI arrives at a packet switch the information in the data field is analysed, and a route is selected. The link is then chosen and a free logical channel is assigned to the call request packet. The new LCN is placed in octet 2 as described above. Octet 4 specifies the number of digits in the address of the calling and called DTEs. Octet 5 specifies the calling and called DTE addresses. Octet 6 (assuming only one octet is used for the calling and called DTE addresses) gives the length in octets of the facilities used. Octet 7 gives the facilities to be used; for example, reverse charging may be specified. Finally, the caller may include in the call request packet up to 16 octets of user data which, for example, could carry some userlevel identification for login purposes.

this concept is used by X.25 packet-switched networks and will be increase somehow when information technology growth

The link level

The packet level is concerned with setting up virtual circuits from one end of the connection to the other; that is, between DTEs. The link level is concerned with transporting packets from one switch to the next, with an acceptably low error rate. It is not concerned with logical channels, call set-up packets and so on. It just receives the packets and transports them to the other end of the link. When packets are sent down a link there must be a means of indicating when one packet finishes and the next one starts. This is done by sending each packet in a frame and each frame starts with a flag. The flag has a unique pattern 01111110 which enables the ends of the frame to be identified. As there is a possibility that this pattern may occur naturally in a data stream, bit stuffing is used to prevent its occurrence (see Section 5.4). The sending end ensures that it never sends a string of six binary ones unless it is a flag. If six binary ones appear in any of the other fields then a binary 0 is inserted after the fifth bit. At the receiver a string of five consecutive binary ones is recognized and the sixth bit binary 0 is automatically removed. The format for an LAP-B information frame is shown in Figure below.

Frames

In a similar manner to the packet level there are different frame types in the link level. There are three frame types: information, supervisory and unnumbered. These frames are identified by the control field which is the second octet. The information and supervisory frames are concerned with error and flow control and use a similar principle to the go-back-n ARQ protocol used at the packet level. Information frames carry sequence numbers N(S) and N(R) in the control field to implement the go-back-n ARQ protocol. The unnumbered frames are used to set up and clear down the link and do not contain sequence numbers. However, as most links are in operation continuously, the frame-level set-up and clear is only rarely used. The address field identifies the destination.

There are five unnumbered frames which carry out the following functions:

The set asynchronous balanced mode (SABM) is used to activate the link when it has not been previously in operation. If the receiving end is able to accept activation of the link it replies with an unnumbered acknowledgement (UA). If the link needs to be made non-operational it is deactivated by sending a disconnect frame (DISC). Once the link is deactivated, disconnect mode (DM) frames are sent to indicate that the link is logically disconnected. The FRMR frame is concerned with an extended format operation. LAP-B has an extended format mode which has 7-bit sequence numbers and allows a window size of 128. The FRMR frame is sent by a receiver unable to comply with a request to set up an extended format link.

Packet Assembler/Disassembler
The prime function of a PAD, is to connect asynchronous terminals to an X.25 data network. The PAD must therefore perform all the X.25 protocol functions on behalf of the terminal, its aim being to make the packet-switching network transparent to the user. There are a number of ITU-T standards that define the operation of the PAD and the associated terminals. ITU-T recommendation X.3 defines the basic operation of the PAD. Recommendation X.28 defines the interface requirements between the terminal and the PAD. Finally, X.29 defines the interface between the PAD and a remote packet device such as another PAD or a packet mode DTE. A common mode of operation between computer and terminal is called echoplex. In this mode a character transmitted from the terminal is not displayed on the screen until it has made the round trip to and from the host computer. This can cause problems for the packetswitching network as follows:

The round-trip time delay may be relatively long. It may be expensive as PTTs sometimes charge on volumeoriented traffic and if the character transits the network twice the user is charged more for it. It generates more traffic which increases loading and delay in the network.

A function of the PAD is therefore to provide local echoing of characters rather than requiring the characters to be echoed end to end by the host. The most efficient way of operating a packetswitching system is to ensure that every packet is full. To facilitate the use of a PAD, all the parameters associated with the terminal have default values, so that only those parameters whose values differ from these need to be changed