Managing for Change

The Present and Future State of the Marshes of Southern Iraq

Produced by the

www.iraqimarshlands.org

Project undertaken with the financial support of the Government of Canada provided through the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA).

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NoncommercialShare Alike 2.5 Canada License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.5/ca/

pa r t n e r s

the c anada - iraq marshlands initiative

g o v e r n o r at e o f b a s r a h , i r a q g o v e r n o r at e o f may s a n , i r a q g o v e r n o r at e o f t h i q a r , i r a q marine science s center, universit y of ba srah, iraq marshe s re search center, universit y of thi q ar m ay s a n t e c h n i c a l i n s t i t u t e , i r a q m i n i s t ry o f e n v i r o n m e n t , i r a q m i n i s t ry o f stat e f o r t h e ma r s h l a n d s , i r a q m i n i s t ry o f w at e r r e s o u r c e s t h e i r a q i ma r s h l a n d s

( cimi )

The goal of CIMI was to contribute to the development of a stable and prosperous southern Iraq and to support the social, economic, institutional and environmental sustainability of the Iraqi Marshlands, with due respect for gender equality and human rights. CIMI worked with a broad cross-section of Iraqi society to help manage, develop and restore the Marshes in a sustainable manner. CIMI began in 2005 as a project devoted to training Iraqi wetlands scientists and working with the universities in the three southern governorates of Iraq to enhance their scientific capabilities. The University of Waterloo directed the Canadian component of the project. A second phase of the project was initiated in 2007, led by the University of Victoria in cooperation with the University of Waterloo, the Fraser Basin Council of British Columbia and Iraqi partners. Funding for the initiative comes from the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA).

c e n t e r f o r t h e r e sto r at i o n o f

( cr i m ),

iraq

s h e i k h a b b a s o ma r a l eb a d i , t r i b a l l e a d e r , t h i q a r , i r a q s h e i k h m o h a m m ed a l i a l a s a d , t r i b a l l e a d e r , may s a n , i r a q s h e i k h ya r eb j a r i a l e ma r a h f r a s e r b a s i n co u n c i l u n i v e r s i t y o f v i c to r i a u n i v e r s i t y o f w at e r lo o

tribal leader, basrah, iraq

Contents

e x e c u t i v e s u m m a ry vi p r e fac e vii

A note on wording and language

introduction 1

viii

Data limitations

the marshe s: a unique area of the world 3

Draining the marshes

5 6

Marsh restoration and rehabilitation The boundaries of the marshes Current conditions Government policy
11 12 10

t h e h e a lt h o f t h e ma r s h e s 13

Using the Marsh Classification System as a planning and decision-making tool Implementing the Marsh Classification System
t h e f u t u r e o f t h e ma r s h e s 18
17

15

SCeNArIo 1: SCeNArIo 2: SCeNArIo 3:

Achieve CrIMs proposed boundaries extend boundary to 2008 level Transition to a smaller marsh
20 20

18

k e y fac t o r s a f f e c t i n g t h e s i z e a n d h e a lt h o f t h e ma r s h e s 22

Guiding principles
Key FACTor 1: Key FACTor 2: Key FACTor 3: Key FACTor 4: Key FACTor 5: Key FACTor 6: Key FACTor 7: Key FACTor 8: Key FACTor 9:

22 24

Upstream withdrawals, storage and discharge (Syria and Turkey) Upstream withdrawals, storage and discharge (Iran) Upstream withdrawals, storage and discharge (Iraq) Tidal flow
30 32 26 28

Waste water and pollution Competition

34

Drought and climate change Community stewardship

38

36

Population and economic growth

40

Key FACTor 10: Land use and protected areas 42

co n c l u s i o n 44 b i b l i o g r a p h y 46 n o t e s 53 p h o t o cr e d i ts 54

e x e C u t i v e s u M M a ry

Managing for Change: The Present and Future State of the Marshes of Southern Iraq represents one component of a five-year project funded by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) to support international efforts to restore the important wetlands ecosystem that was drained by the Iraqi government in the early 1990s. The report summarizes the drastic changes in the Marshes since 1973, both in terms of Marsh extent and Marsh health. It also identifies the key factors that need to be addressed to ensure the longterm sustainability of the Marshes and outlines recommendations needed to stabilize and restore these valuable wetlands. The Managing for Change report contains four key themes that are central to the CanadaIraq Marshlands Initiative (CIMI) and to the sustainability of the Marshes. These are: the importance of a formal mechanism among Turkey, Syria, Iran and Iraq to facilitate discussions on transboundary water issues.

the need for continued learning and

capacity building in wetlands management. This would include an ongoing assessment of activities that impact the Marshes, further development of CIMIs Marsh Classification System to estimate ecosystem health, assistance with planning and decision-making and continued training in water quality monitoring and measurement. the importance of designating the healthiest Marshes as a Category IV Protected Area under international guidelines to allow for the maintenance of existing habitat and the protection of biological communities including existing human settlements. the need to put in place and maintain a collaborative decision-making model that is capable of taking action on all ten key factors outlined in this report. Managing for Change is only one of CIMIs key outputs. More information about project activities and products can be found at: www.iraqimarshlands.org.

vi

p r e fa C e

Managing for Change: The Present and Future State of the Marshes of Southern Iraq provides a scientific basis for the creation and adoption of management strategies for the sustainable development of the Marshes. The report was jointly prepared with the assistance of the individuals and institutions listed on the inside front cover. A critical step in implementing the recommendations from this report is the collaboration from the various ministries, governorates, universities and organizations working on the Marshes. This report: highlights recent evidence on the extent of the Marshes of southern Iraq and the changes that have occurred since 1973; presents an assessment of the health of the Marshes, using data and information gathered as part of the CIMI project; develops future scenarios for the Marshes and the activities and practices needed to achieve these scenarios; and identifies key recommended actions for national, regional and local governments, and other organizations, along with examples of how similar actions have been implemented elsewhere in the world. Managing for Change: The Present and Future State of the Marshes of Southern Iraq documents the results of the second phase of CIMI, a project designed to partner with local, regional and national organizations to better understand, restore and manage an ecosystem that was devastated during the last 12 years of Saddam Husseins rule in Iraq. The first phase of CIMI focused on enhancing the scientific capacity of Iraqi researchers and universities in the areas of environmental monitoring and analysis; the second phase emphasized wetlands planning and management, and meeting the basic needs of Marsh residents. The title of

the report was chosen to emphasize that the Marshes are undergoing a period of rapid ecological, social and economic change and that development planning in the region must take into consideration the dynamic nature of this system. The disruption of the past two decades has had a significant negative impact on all aspects of life in the Marshes and many areas presently exhibit poor environmental quality. The evidence suggests that in the absence of significant management interventions at local, national and international levels the ecological health of the Marshes will continue to decline. This, in turn, will adversely affect options for future development. The report also recognizes the considerable effort by the national and regional governments in addressing the current water crisis in Iraq as well as the work of UN agencies and other countries including Canada, Italy, Japan and the United States. The activities of the second phase of CIMI (or CIMI-II) were agreed to by an Advisory Committee to the project consisting of sheikhs from the three Marsh governorates (Basrah, Maysan and Thi Qar), the chair of each vii

respective Governorate Council, university researchers, and key representatives from the Ministry of Water Resources, the Center for the Restoration of the Iraqi Marshlands (an inter-agency center), the Ministry of Environment and the Ministry of State for the Marshlands. Managing for Change is the first of two reports presented to the Iraqi Government on behalf of the Canada-Iraq Marshlands Initiative. The second is an Atlas of the Marshes, comprising

satellite photos, maps and pictures used in or developed by the project. Both documents are available online at: www.iraqimarshlands.org. In addition to the printed reports, eight different organizations including three ministries, three universities and two UN agencies were provided with computer hard drives containing all data, maps, reports and other information gathered by the project so that the work initiated by CIMI will proceed well into the future.

A Note oN WordiNg ANd LANguAge

The story of the Marshes of southern Iraq is centuries old and detailed descriptions of the region and its peoples dates back over 100 years. During this time, different terms and/or spellings have been used for place names, tribes, people and even the Marshes themselves. This leads to some confusion when comparing articles, particularly when they have been written by people of different nationalities. Wilfred Thesiger, in his classic 1964 book, refers to the Marsh Arabs and, synonymously, the Madan. Both terms are technically incorrect, since Arabs are not the only ethnic group living in the Marshes, and the term madan was initially a disparaging one used to denote the poorest of the Marsh residents. In this report, we have used the terms and spellings provided either by recent Iraqi government documents or by Iraqis themselves, particularly those who have written in english. This does not imply that all terms are correct or accurate; only that we have tried to use the terms and spellings most common to people working on or living in the Marshes. In addition, there are other terms that may be unfamiliar to the reader or somewhat ambiguous. For these, a short glossary is provided. The terms Marshes and Marshlands are used interchangeably in the document. The CIMI Advisory Committee chose to use the term southern Iraqi Marshes (or just Marshes) to denote the region, with Marsh dwellers the term used for former or present residents (as opposed to Marsh Arabs). The spelling of the three governorates that incorporate the Marshes is, as follows: Basrah (or Al Basrah), Maysan and Thi Qar. other place names have been taken from recent government maps or academic articles by Iraqi authors. Terms that may cause some confusion to readers: Best Management Practices: Proven ways of protecting and rehabilitating ecosystems such as the Marshes. These practices are based on both science and local knowledge and have been applied throughout the world to help restore damaged ecosystems. When adapted to the local situation, these proposed behaviours/actions allow individuals, groups and communities to act as responsible stewards of their land and water. Brackish Water: Water that is slightly salty (less than seawater but more than fresh water; generally from 0.5 -0.30 parts per thousand). Capacity Building: Developing skills or competencies, either through internal activities or external assistance. Ecosystem Health: Natural systems perform certain functions or services that are used by humans (as well as other plants and animals). Healthy ecosystems have the capacity to absorb (and sometimes treat) pollution. The level of ecosystem health reflects both the size of the ecosystem and its capacity to absorb wastes/pollution. Ecological Restoration: Intentional activity that initiates or accelerates the recovery of an ecosystem with respect to its health, integrity and sustainability. Flood Pulse: A periodic flooding of a region that helps cleanse the area of salts and other pollutants. Reconstruction: Denotes rebuilding a previously existing structure. Generally refers to the built environment rather than the natural environment. Riparian States: Countries that have at least part of their territory within a particular river basin.

viii

introduCtion

The Marshes of southern Iraq often referred to as the Iraqi Marshes or the Mesopotamian Marshlands were once among the largest wetlands in the world, covering an area more than 10,500 km2 and supporting a diverse range of flora and fauna and a human population estimated to be as high as 500,000 persons. Fresh water for the Marshes was supplied almost entirely from two major river systems: the Tigris and the Euphrates. At the southern end of the Marshes, these two rivers come together to form the Shatt-al-Arab, which then flows through Basrah and into the Gulf. In late 1991, the government of Saddam Hussein began a systematic effort to destroy the Marshes and the people living there. Based on a British plan developed in 1951 to drain the Marshes for agricultural purposes, the government constructed major impoundments and drainage canals so that by 2002, the size of the Marshes had been reduced to less than 10% of their original size. During this period, the population of the Marshes declined to 80,000 persons or less. Satellite photos show the extent of the destruction, and reports from refugee camps document the hardships endured by local residents. In 2003, the UN and the World Bank identified the draining as a major environmental and humanitarian disaster. Despite some restoration of the Marshes after 2003 at least in terms of their size and overall biodiversity the Marshes continue to suffer from a lack of water, poor health in some areas, and a lack of economic opportunities once provided by the ecosystem services from the wetlands (e.g. fishing, reeds for weaving and construction, and sustenance for buffalo). There is an identified need to improve our understanding of the dynamics

of this valuable ecosystem in order to allow restoration to its original or possibly a new state. This report provides the basis for this improved understanding by: visually presenting new information on the present state of the Marshes; developing an index of ecosystem health to better understand the spatial variability in water and soil quality in the Marshes; identifying key factors that influence the restoration of the Marshes; and using these factors and the data on ecosystem health to present possible scenarios for the future. The report is divided into five substantive sections, not including this introduction. The first section provides an overview of the ecology and society of the Marshes and describes the changes that have occurred in the past two decades. This narrative is supplemented by maps, satellite images and photos to provide a better understanding of the massive ecological changes that have occurred. The second section

looks at the health of the Marshes and discusses the Marsh Classification System, an index based on measurements of water quality, soil, and biodiversity, along with local knowledge, to identify which areas of the Marshes remain healthy and which areas have deteriorated. Both issues of quantity and quality must be addressed in Marsh restoration activities. The third and fourth sections of the report focus on the future of the Marshes. Based on the identification of ten key factors influencing the extent and the health of the Marshes, a series of future scenarios was generated and discussed with colleagues in Iraq. The first of the scenarios presented is one proposed by

the Center for the Restoration of the Iraqi Marshlands (CRIM) in the Iraqi Ministry and is based on present and future land uses rather than on Marsh restoration per se. Two other scenarios are outlined based on how many of the ten key factors are addressed. The key factors range from the development of international agreements to the adoption of best management practices at the local level. For each of the key factors there are recommendations on how best to meet or achieve the factors along with international examples to be used as guidelines for future action. The final section of the report is the conclusions section, based on five years of active involvement in Marsh restoration.

dAtA LimitAtioNs
The data needed to undertake a comprehensive management plan anywhere in the world are extensive, and compiling and analyzing the data require coordination among all levels of government and other key sectors such as the universities. The upheaval in Iraq during the past two decades, the destruction of many national ministries in the aftermath of the US and coalition forces invasion in 2003 and the limited capacity to collect and manage information since then make working on the southern Iraqi Marshes a particularly difficult problem. Throughout the Middle east data on water are affected by a variety of factors, including a lack of capacity in data collection and analysis and inadequate reporting. This is also true for socio-economic data, particularly when there are political or sectarian conflicts within a country. Added to these problems, the security situation in Iraq between 2003 and 2010 made it almost impossible for non-Iraqis to visit the Marshes and undertake primary data acquisition. The data used in the creation of this report are from a variety of primary and secondary sources. In 2004, CIMI and its Iraqi partners established a network of monitoring sites based on international standards to assess the biodiversity and water quality of the Marshes. These data were then transferred into a Geographic Information System (GIS) for management and analysis. The GIS was then used to develop a Marsh Classification System that classified or identified sections of the Marshes based on the quality of the water, soil and biota. The GIS was also coupled with an analysis of key development factors to produce possible scenarios of the Marshes for the future. Along with space-based (satellite) data, surveys and ground-level observations undertaken by Iraqi partners, and data published in scientific journals, this information provides a basis for a more thorough scientific understanding of the dynamics of the Marshes. Social and economic data were based on surveys (both questionnaires and open-ended questions) conducted in villages during the CIMI workshops or during meetings with Iraqis outside of Iraq. These data were supplemented by information from other published sources, including the survey of 219 villages undertaken by the United Nations environment Programme (UNeP) and Thi Qar University in 2007. The reliability of the secondary data is uncertain and information on some key issues such as population displacement and numbers of returning residents is very subjective and possibly inaccurate. This means that our present understanding of the Marshes and its people is only partial, based on some excellent scientific data on water quality as well as some extremely unreliable information on issues such as population displacement.

the Marshes: a unique area of the world

The Marshes of southern Iraq, referred to in this document as simply the Marshes, once covered an area of approximately 10,500 km2, almost the exact size of Lebanon. The Marshes lie just north of the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, where they meet to form the Shatt-al-Arab (Figures 1 and 2). The wetlands were a major stopping point for migratory birds and supported a diverse range of flora and fauna. Due to the remoteness of the region,

only rough estimates are available for the size of the human population. By the latter half of the twentieth century there were between 300,000 and 500,000 persons living in and around the Marshes.1 The extent of the Marshes varied by season, with high water occurring after the winter rains. The flood waters of the two great rivers provided a pulse of water that cleansed the Marshes, much like the Everglades in the State of Florida in the United States.

FIgure 1. Location of the Marshes

of southern Iraq.

FIgure 2. Tigris and euphrates

river Basins: hydrology and precipitation.

Runoff contributing to the flow of the Euphrates originates almost entirely within Turkey (88%), with the remainder from Syria. Turkey contributes 42% of the flow of the Tigris, with Iraq contributing 32%, and Iran 26% (a small amount is also from Syria).2 Iraq is almost entirely dependent on these two river systems for its water needs as is the Marshes. As noted above, the ecology of the Marshes requires periodic flushing (often called a flood pulse) from floodwaters to remove pollutants and sustain the wetlands. Historically, there were three separate marshes that were connected during times of high water: Hawizeh Marsh in the northeast; the Central Marsh (between the two rivers) and the Hammar Marsh in the southwest (Figure 3). The livelihoods of the Marsh dwellers were directly based on a healthy Marsh ecosystem. Fishing, agriculture (including livestock) and

even material for dwellings, as well as drinking water and transportation, were, and are, intricately linked to fresh water. The Marshes were also home to a variety of plants, birds and animals, including endangered species of migratory birds and numerous fish species that provided sustenance for both Marsh dwellers and the broader Iraqi population. Prior to 1990, 60% of the fish consumed in Iraq came from the Marshes.3 As has been the case historically, an adequate supply of fresh water to the Marshes is critical to the well-being of the human population in the region. In addition to its historical and ecological significance, the Marshes have been of strategic interest to the national government in Iraq, particularly since 1980. During the 1980s, much of the fighting in the Iran/Iraq War was in the Marshes, and subsequent invasions from the US and coalition forces in 1991 and

2003 went through the Marshes. Basrah, Iraqs second largest city, located just south of the Marshes, was the site of anti-Saddam protests in the early 1990s and pro-Iranian sympathies on the part of many residents upset the government in Baghdad.4 drAiNiNg the mArshes Plans to drain the Marshes to reclaim land for agricultural purposes originated in 1951, but it was only in the 1980s when Turkey, Syria and Iraq began a series of irrigation and hydroelectric projects that human activities started having a substantial negative impact on the region. Despite the potential for decreased water flow in the Euphrates from these activities (less so in the Tigris), the concern for the Iraqi government in the 1980s was the Iran/Iraq War. During this time, the Marshes

remained relatively healthy and were allocated ample water in an effort to make it difficult for Iranian troops to enter Iraq. Following the 1991 Gulf War, however, this situation changed dramatically. After 1991, the government of Saddam Hussein began a systematic effort to destroy the Marshes and the people living there, initially through aerial bombing and burning of villages. When this met with considerable UN resistance, the government brought forth a plan to drain the Marshes and displace the population, ostensibly for reclamation as agricultural land. With the construction of major drainage canals linked to the Euphrates and the Tigris, the Marshes were reduced to less than 10% of their original (pre-1990) size by the year 2000 (Figure 4). During this

FIgure 3. Marshes of southern

Iraq, 1973.

period, the population of the Marshes declined to 80,000 persons or less. Satellite photos show the extent of the destruction and reports from refugee camps document the hardships endured by local residents. The UN and the World Bank identified the draining as a major environmental and humanitarian disaster.5 mArsh restor Atio N ANd rehAbiLitAtioN The fall of Saddam Husseins regime in 2003 brought an opportunity to assess the damage to the Marshes and begin restoration efforts. With assistance from the US, Japan, Italy and Canada, along with the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and, subsequently, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Iraqi government initiated restoration projects that ranged from promoting ecological restoration to funding new development projects to providing for basic services. In all cases, the focus was on helping to build a sustainable peace through Marsh restoration. This included efforts to promote multi-stakeholder processes, engage the international community through environmental agreements and develop broader dialogue with other riparian states, particularly Turkey and Iran. Initial assessments showed that the reduced size of the Marshes, poor water quality, saline soils and pollution (from industries or leftover military ordnance) would make it difficult, if not impossible to expect a full restoration of the Marshes. The conversion of marsh to agricultural land, the presence of oil under the Marshes and significant growth in upstream water impoundments (e.g. dams, dykes and reservoirs) in Turkey, Syria and Iraq added to the difficulties. Nevertheless, through ad hoc efforts on the part of local residents (destroying some of the earthen dams) and ample rain and snowfall in the mountains in Turkey and northeast Iraq, the Marshes experienced a marked improvement by 2006, both in terms of the Marsh extent and water volume (Figure 5). Many of the migratory

FIgure 4. Marshes of southern Iraq, 2000.

FIgure 5. Marshes of southern Iraq, 2006.

bird species returned, and there was some cause for optimism that ecological restoration would be successful.6 However, at least five troubling issues remain. First, very few former residents have returned to the Marshes (or what once had been the Marshes). The evidence is anecdotal drawn largely from discussions with sheikhs and local government officials but the ongoing security problems in the region plus the lack of economic opportunities have made return an unattractive option. In addition, there continues to be a lack of basic services including drinking water and many former residents established their families in urban centers such as Basrah or Nassriyah in the 1990s and are reluctant to leave. Many of the young generation have never seen the Marshes. From these discussions, we estimate that the number of returnees to the region is no more than 40,000 persons, or fewer than 10% of those originally displaced. Second, what had been three marshes linked during times of high water has now been reduced effectively to two, since the Central Marshes have disappeared (with the exception of the Glory River the large drainage canal seen in satellite photos - and periodic flooding) and there is no longer a connection between the remaining wetlands, Hawizeh and Hammar, even during times of high water. In addition, the health of the remaining Marshes is very poor in certain areas, particularly in the Hammar Marsh southeast of Nassriyah. Salt water from the soil and increased tidal flow from the Gulf has polluted much of this area. Third, agricultural land now occupies a significant portion of the former wetlands and re-flooding these lands would have an initial negative economic impact. Once the Marshes were drained in the early 1990s, the government encouraged agricultural development and often ceded land to political supporters.* Agricultural land now occupies approximately 22% of the

FIgure 6. Agriculture land in southern Iraq in 1973 and 2009.

former Marshes. Crop yields vary widely due to soil conditions Government plans to restore the Marshes will exclude this land from any future re-flooding (Figure 6). Fourth, issues surrounding oil exploration and production add uncertainty to the development situation in the Marshes. There are oil reserves in and near the Marshes, some of which are already being exploited (see Figure 7). Some Marsh residents feel that increased oil production will bring both jobs and revenue to the region and enhance regional prosperity, but this is unlikely. The national government is still negotiating

* In the early 1990s, the government gave drained land to political supporters from the Marshes region. In 2003 and 2004, some of this agricultural land was re-flooded, and this caused tensions among residents since the landholders were against any re-flooding of the land. remarkably, there does not appear to be a conflict over land ownership at present, since the small numbers of people moving back to the Marshes found little economic opportunity available and most have decided not to return permanently. However, if the security situation stabilizes and the economic situation improves, there may be conflict in the future over land tenure/rights.

FIgure 7. Location of oil reserves in southern Iraq.

with the regions on revenue sharing from oil production despite mild protests from Basrah that the entire southern region wants to secede from Iraq and control its own oil resources and revenues. Additionally, the oil sector is very capital intensive and the few jobs available require specialized training. Moreover, there is potential for damage to the remaining Marshes from oil drilling and pipeline development.

Last, and most important, development activities upstream and the increased withdrawal of water to meet competing demands elsewhere in Iraq have severely reduced the flow of water to the Marshes (Table 1; Figure 8).7 Government officials and wetlands experts now acknowledge that there will be less water flowing to the Marshes in the future and the Marsh residents need to accept this new reality and plan accordingly.

Table 1. Dams built, planned, and under construction in the

Tigris and euphrates river Basins, 2008

Country Dams Dams under construction Planned dams

Iraq Iran Turkey Syria

total

9 6 15 6
36

3 4 1 0
8

2 6 5 0
13

FIgure 8. Dams built, planned, and under construction in the Tigris and euphrates river Basins.

FIgure 9. Permanent, edge, and seasonal marshes from 2007 to 2009.

FIgure 10a. Marsh extent, 19732010.

the bouNdAries of the mArshes The boundaries of the Marshes are commonly referred to as the extent of water covering the surface of southern Iraq in May of 1973, simply because this was the date of the first satellite photograph of the region that accurately depicted the extent of the wetlands. However, wetlands are dynamic systems and their size varies by season, the amount of rainfall, runoff upstream and longer-term climatic and physiographic changes. Therefore, specifying the exact boundaries of a wetlands ecosystem like the Marshes is more a governmental decision than a scientific one. For the purposes of this report, the boundaries of the Marshes are considered to be the average of the high water levels for the years 2007-2009 (Figure 9). Many areas that were wetlands in 1973 have now been converted to agricultural use or left as unproductive land, and, coupled with reduced water flow from upstream, it is unlikely that the spatial extent of the wetlands will ever return to 1973 levels.

FIgure 10b. Marsh water volume, 19732010.

10

FIgure 11. Marshes of southern Iraq, Winter, 2009 / 2010.

Despite the increase in Marsh size between 2003 and 2008, the size of the Marshes was severely impacted by the drought in 2009. Coupled with reduced water flow from Iran, both the volume and the extent of the wetlands decreased almost to 2003 levels. Figures 10a/b depict the total Marsh area and total water volume between 1973 and 2010. Although levels have begun to rise (as of early 2010), the reduced flow of water from upstream and the possibility of greater evaporation rates and longer and more severe droughts caused by climate change pose additional problems to the future size of the Marshes.

CurreNt CoNditio Ns The draining of the Marshes by Saddam Husseins regime had a catastrophic impact on the ecology, hydrology and people of the Marshes. Although the re-flooding of the Marshes after 2003 provided some optimism that at least a partial restoration was possible, the severe drought of 2009 and an increase in infrastructure projects along the Tigris and Euphrates (and their tributaries) have led to a reassessment of the potential for a return to conditions of the 1980s. By the winter of 2009, the size of the Marshes approached the lowest levels of 2003, as severe drought encompassed the entire country (Figure 11). Perhaps more importantly, new information

11

that the drilling for oil on the Iranian side and the desire to reduce water flowing into Iraq may also have played a role. There were no discussions with Iraq prior to building the dyke, and Figure 12 also shows evidence of guard towers at various points along the dyke. Three issues are apparent from looking at Figure 11. First, the extent of the Marshes is approaching its extent in the lowest recorded period of 2002, as noted above. This is no longer strictly due to political factors, but to infrastructure development, land use change, and climatic variation and change. Second, the Marshes have become very fragmented. Ecological fragmentation has a negative impact on the survival of many species, on the health of the Marshes and on the people whose livelihoods depend on the environmental services provided by the Marshes. Third, even the Hawizeh Marsh, now a designated site under the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (the Ramsar Convention), is being affected and this will worsen with the impact of the Iranian dyke along the border. goverNmeNt PoLiCy The present Iraqi government continues to talk about the importance of restoring the Marshes for ecological and humanitarian reasons. In 2008, $300 million was allocated to improve infrastructure and support basic services for March residents, and an additional $180 million has been allocated for 2010. The land use strategy for the Marshlands developed by the Ministry of Water Resources (see below) has been to use the 1973 boundaries of the Marshes as a baseline, remove existing and future uses such as agriculture and oil development and then label the remaining land and wetlands the Marshes, while acknowledging that there may never be enough water to actually restore this region to the wetlands habitat it once was.

FIgure 12. Dyke along the Iran/Iraq border in Hawizeh Marsh, 2009.

on infrastructure development in Iran came to light. Over the past three years, Iran has dammed up many of the small rivers that provided water to the Hawizeh Marsh. In a normal year, flow from Iran contributes roughly 25% of the water to Hawizeh. More devastating has been the Iranian construction of a six metre high dyke along the border with Iraq, effectively dividing the Hawizeh Marsh into two. The dyke was completed in the spring of 2009. Figure 12 shows the dyke along the border and clearly shows the impact of restricted water flow into the Hawizeh Marsh. The justification used by Iran for constructing the dyke was security, in an effort to stop the flow of drugs across the border (coming from Afghanistan). It is likely

12

t h e h e a lt h o f t h e M a r s h e s

Data collected since 2005 by CIMI indicate that the health of the Marshes ranges from poor to healthy, depending on location. The drying up of most of the Marshes in the 1990s affected the size of the wetlands, the quality of the remaining water, the habitat for plants and animals and the livelihoods of local residents. However, the draining did not result in the total destruction of the wetlands, because flow from the Tigris River and runoff from Iran ensured that northern sections of the Hawizeh Marsh continued to thrive. Using data collected since 2005, CIMI developed a Marsh Classification System (MCS) to provide a general assessment of the health of different sections of the Marshes and to assist decision-

makers in their future management and development plans.* The MCS categorizes the Marshes into four classes (A, B, C, D) according to their level of overall health, with the A class being the highest (Table 3). These classes are ranked according to the highest level of quality within the marshes and not according to any national or international standard. The health of the

* The classification of wetlands is not a new management tool. Different types of classification (based on ecosystem health or ecosystem function) have been incorporated into wetlands restoration and monitoring systems in many regions of the world.

FIgure 13. Marsh Classification System General Marsh Health, 2008-2009.

13

mArsh CLAssifiCAtioN system

Aggregating data to form indicators is a way to simplify complex and detailed information, particularly for help in decision-making. Social, economic and environmental systems are inherently complex and are closely interlinked. In the Iraqi Marshes, human livelihoods have been fundamentally based on a healthy Marsh ecosystem. Prior to the middle of the last century, this meant that Marsh populations were dependent on fluctuations in rainfall and runoff upstream in both the Tigris and euphrates Basins and also on the flood pulsing that helps cleanse the wetlands. It has only been in the past 60 years that development projects and political initiatives have affected the health of the Marshes. Today, there are two main problems with the health of the Marshes. First, there is simply not enough water for the Marshes to return it to the type of ecosystem that existed prior to 1950. Second, human activities have affected the quality of the remaining wetlands and this, in turn, has adversely affected the health of animals, plants and people. Although there is a very good understanding of the dynamics of wetlands in general, there is a lack of data on the Iraqi Marshes, particularly in terms of water and soil quality. CIMI, in conjunction with universities in the region and the Ministry of Water resources Center for the restoration of the Iraqi Marshlands (CrIM) sought to rectify this problem by establishing water quality monitoring and training activities starting in 2005. The data that were collected provide an accurate depiction of the health of the Marshes at specific locations and at specific times. To be useful in decision-making, however, the data must be aggregated into an indicator that can depict the general health of the Marshes. An indicator is simply a value or a number that describes a characteristic such as the state of the environment that cannot be measured directly. For example one cannot measure community. Therefore, one needs to combine different data social, economic, political and even environmental to develop an indicator of what one means by community. ecosystem health is another term that requires more information than can be provided by a specific variable.
Although specific data are the basic component of indicator development, sometimes the lack of data causes problems in terms of using the indicator for decision-making. This is the case with the Iraqi Marshes. However, an indicator can also be used as a general guide to making decisions and, as more data become available, the indicator can be refined to make it more useful. examples include the Index of Human Development developed by UNDP; the Index of Human Insecurity, and the Index of Sustainable economic Welfare. Indicators are also widely used to provide an estimate or approximation of ecosystem health. The CIMI Project measured 30 variables in order to assess the health of the Marshes. eight of these were combined to develop an indicator of the general health of the Marshes. The variables were included not only because of their practical and theoretical contributions to wetlands health, but with a consideration for data quality, consistency and reliability (Table 2).
Table 2. Water quality data used to develop

the Marsh Classification System

water quality data

Nitrite pH Salinity Total cell count

So4 electrical conductivity Chlorine Turbidity

The resulting indicator is an unweighted average of these eight variables, normalized to a range of 0 < INDICATor < 1. Statistical analysis was conducted to ensure that no single variable dominated the other seven or was highly correlated to others. These values were then divided into four equal sets and assigned the letters A (highest quality) to D (lowest quality) and then mapped. In other words, the data were placed into four classifications and hence the use of the term Marshes Classification System.

Marshes at any given location may change from season to season as a result of water levels, water volume or extreme events such as fire or drought. A number of variables were used to develop each classification. These include the quality of drinking water, soil and water salinity, and vegetation cover. The healthiest regions include sections of the Hawizeh Marsh in Maysan, a small section of the Central Marsh along the Gharraf River in Thi Qar and a primarily brackish-water marsh in Basrah. Discontinuous or fragmented patches of 14

wetlands even though they may be healthy at present are a major cause of species extinction and the loss of biodiversity. As a result, the health of these smaller marsh areas is very vulnerable to future stress. Figure 13 depicts the health of the Marshes in 2008-2009. Further testing will refine this method of assessment and give a more accurate picture of the health of the Marshes and how they change over time. Accordingly, the MCS maps should be used as a general indicator of marsh health

Table 3. Marsh Classification System

area a
Water Quality Water is drinkable (generally)

area B
Water may be drinkable

area C
Water is not drinkable without treatment

area d
Water is not drinkable (major treatment required or transportation from other areas is needed) Fish and game are generally not present Area is not suitable for agriculture

fishing and hunting Agriculture

Higher valued fish and game are available Area is suitable for agriculture

Lower valued fish and game are available Area is marginal for agriculture

Fish are scarce Area is not suitable for most crops. only the hardiest and most resistant crops will grow Low or seasonal plant cover

vegetation Cover

Dense phragmites and high diversity of plants High reproduction rates and relatively high milk production rates

Moderate phragmites cover

No or minimal plant cover

Animal Production

Moderate reproduction rates and moderate milk production

Low reproduction rates and low milk production

Very few or no animals

and not interpreted as depicting the exact line where a wetlands area switches from healthy to unhealthy. Table 4 shows the amount of healthy marsh by governorate for 2009. usiNg the mArsh CLA ssifiCAtioN system As A PLANNiNg ANd deCisioNmAkiNg tooL The Marsh Classification System provides an initial sense of what sections of the Marshes are the healthiest. The indicator is supported or verified, at least in a general sense, by measurements of the amount and quality of vegetation within each category, bird counts and fish catches, and personal observations from residents living in the Marshes. While it is not an exact tool, the MCS can help guide decisions. However, there is no implication that the sections of the Marshes classified as

D (or in the poorest health) cannot support economic activities; only that activities based on the health of the Marshes per se should be directed elsewhere. Two examples where the Marsh Classification System would be helpful are in the development of protected areas and the location of water treatment facilities. 1. establishing a National Protected Areas strategy for the marshes Most of the Hawizeh Marsh has been designated wetlands of international importance under the Ramsar Convention, as noted above. In addition, Iraq has recently become a signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). This provides a formal mechanism for the country to assign Protected Area Status to part, or all, of the Marshes. Depending on the level of protection

Table 4. Marsh Classification System: General Marsh Health by Governorate, 2008-2009*

Governorate Km2: AB Km2: CD % of healthy marsh % of unhealthy marsh

Basrah Maysan Thi Qar

705 1112 489

961 1243 1840

42 47 21

58 53 79

* Note that the table combines areas A/B and C/D for the purposes of having two classes: healthy and unhealthy.

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desired, creating a Protected Area will limit the types of land use allowable in that region. Given the changes in extent and quality of the Marshes over the past two decades, what sections should be protected? The MCS provides some guidance in answering this question. The first priority should be to protect areas of the Marshes that exhibit the best health; in other words, the areas designated as A on the MCS map. This implies that a large section of the Hawizeh Marsh should be protected, although the boundaries of the protected area would not, necessarily, be consistent with the Ramsar site boundaries. Fragmented areas of the wetlands in other regions that continue to exhibit high quality might also be protected. The purpose in protecting a small section of the Marsh that is the healthiest is that it allows the stressed ecosystem to stabilize and, quite possibly, grow in the future.

2. Water treatment A second example of the use of the MCS relates to the need for water treatment facilities. The distribution of the human population over a broad area, coupled with the salinity of the groundwater makes the provision of fresh water to Marsh residents difficult. Historically, many residents drank water directly from the Marshes or boiled the water before drinking or preparing food. The contamination of the Marshes with salt or other pollutants make this a dangerous proposition in all areas except those designated as A, and even in these areas there is no guarantee that water is of drinkable quality. Three other options exist: treating water at a central location and then piping it to residents (which is expensive given the low population density); desalinating water (which would allow for decentralized treatment, but this only works with water of a certain salinity

16

FIgure 14. Health of the Marshes,

2009.

and cannot remove all pollutants) or bringing water by truck to remote villages (which is also expensive). While there are other options such as conservation and rain-water capture (when it rains), these three are the only ones for supplying a large amount of potable water to the Marsh population. Assuming that centralized treatment and distribution is the most expensive alternative, then areas classified a D are likely restricted to using water that is brought in by truck. The water is too polluted to desalinate or consume directly (even with boiling). Areas C and B are better suited for desalination plants, but the cost of plants will limit their number and decisions on where to place the plants within those two areas should be made on other factors, such as the population served. In area A, desalination should not be necessary, as long as water is boiled before consumption. However, there are exceptions. The eastern

Hammar Marshes are salt or brackish-water marshes that are otherwise of high quality. In this case, water must be either brought in from elsewhere or desalinated. imPLemeNti Ng the mArsh CLAssifiCAtioN system As the size of the Marshes changes, the health of different sections of the Marshes also changes. Polluted water entering the Marshes may result in the degradation of previously healthy Marshes and, conversely, an influx of clean water might improve conditions in an unhealthy region. Accordingly, the health of the Marshes needs to be monitored on a continuous basis. From these data, the Marsh Classification System can be updated and refined for use in planning. Figure 14 depicts the health of the Marshes in 2009, reflecting the loss of wetlands due to the drought.

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the future of the Marshes

To better assess the future of the Marshes and to help identify important management priorities, CIMI developed a series of scenarios for the future. While there are an infinite number of possible scenarios, we focus on three possibilities that correspond to ongoing policy developments within Iraq, international discussions and the scientific data gathered by the Canada-Iraq Marshlands Initiative (CIMI) and other projects. Following this, ten key factors are presented that directly influence both marsh size and health. The way in which these key factors are addressed over the next two decades will determine the future of the Marshes. the three sCeNArios Table 5 summarizes the three scenarios that are used in this report. These three scenarios represent clear decisions about the future of the Marshes. Arguments can be made to support any of these approaches and strategies can be developed that apply to each. CIMI believes that the livelihoods of the people and the plants and animals in the Marshes are entirely dependent on a healthy ecosystem.

This does not mean that economic activities cannot take place in the absence of a healthy marsh ecosystem, but it would mean a very different type of development than the one that has existed for millennia. scenario 1: Achieve Crims proposed boundaries The Center for the Restoration of the Iraqi Marshlands (CRIM) is an inter-agency centre that was established in 2003 and is located in the Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR). The Center is heavily influenced by the activities and policy direction of the MoWR. It is the responsibility of the MoWR to allocate water among competing uses in the country. At present, over 80% of the water available to Iraq is consumed by the agricultural sector.* The national government has requested that CRIM provide a land-use plan for the Marshes, based on existing land uses and the amount of water that might
* This figure was 88% in 2000. recent data are unavailable, but CrIM estimates that slightly more than 80% was used by the agricultural sector in 2009.

Table 5. Three possible scenarios for the future of the Marshes

sCenario 1 sCenario 2 sCenario 3

CrIM used the 1973 boundaries of the Marshes as a starting point to develop a land use scenario for the future. CrIM then subtracted existing land uses such as agriculture, oil lands and settlements from the original boundaries and then designated the remaining area as Marshlands. Depending on the amount of land designated as agriculture (the CrIM strategy is still being formulated), the amount of Marshland could be up to 70% of the 1973 level, regardless of whether there is enough water to actually restore this area to a wetlands. (Figure 15)

Figure 16 shows the high water levels for 2008. In 2009, the extent of the Marshes decreased due to drought conditions throughout Iraq, so maintaining even the 2008 levels will require a concerted effort to increase water flow to the Marshes. Marsh extent would be 38% of 1973 levels during times of high water. Key factors to address include agreements with upstream countries, regulations on discharge to the major rivers and redirecting treated water from the Main outflow Drain (MoD) into the Marshes (this has begun). The overall extent of the Marshes will continue to fluctuate based on yearly rainfall and the health of the region will remain variable.

existing levels of effort would be maintained, but the size and health of the Marshes would continue to deteriorate. The lack of upstream flow and periodic flood pulses would result in the eventual drying of the Marshes. Although there might be some fresh-water marshes present following winter rains, the only permanent marshes would be brackish-water marshes in Basrah Governorate.

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FIgure 15. Scenario 1: CrIMs proposed Marsh boundaries.

be available in the future.8 Because of the importance of the CRIM proposal for the Marshes, it has been included here as Scenario 1. The CRIM scenario involves starting with the 1973 boundaries of the Marshes (see Figure 3) and then removing or subtracting land used for agriculture, industry and settlements from the 1973 map. The remaining land has been designated Marshlands, regardless of whether this is wetlands at present or might be in the future. The amount of remaining Marshland is almost 70% of the 1973 extent of the Marshes and, therefore, CRIM claims that 50 to 70% of the Marshlands may be restored, while acknowledging that there

may not be enough water to re-flood many of the areas labelled as Marshlands. The CRIM scenario is depicted in Figure 15. Achieving the CRIM scenario if the area designated Marshlands is to contain water will require addressing all of the key factors outlined in the next section. More water must be made available from the Euphrates, involving greater flow volumes from Turkey and Syria and less water withdrawn from upstream activities in Iraq. Similarly, water flows from Iran would need to return to 2000 levels and restrictions on agricultural runoff and waste discharge from upstream would need to be developed and enforced.

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FIgure 16. Scenario 2: extend boundary to 2008 level.

Table 6. Marsh size for each scenario, by governorate

Governorate Scenario 1: CRIM Plan Area Km2 Scenario 2: Maintain 2008 Marshes Area Km2 Scenario 3: A Smaller Marsh Area Km2

scenario 2: extend boundary to 2008 level Substantial rainfall in 2007 and 2008 in northern Iraq, coupled with the ad hoc removal of earthen dams by local residents, resulted in an increase in the extent of the Marshes from its 2003 low. By 2008, marsh extent had reached 38% of its 1973 levels even though the health of the Marshes differed widely across the region (Figure 16, p. 20). If the key factors of water flowing from Turkey and Iran were addressed, the Marshes could again return to the 2008 level. If flood pulsing was re-introduced and wastewater entering the Marshes was reduced, the health of these remaining Marshes could also improve. We feel this is a very optimistic scenario, but is also one that occurred in 2008 (at least in terms of water quantity). The extent of the Marshes would be less than in the CRIM scenario, but much greater than a scenario where no management interventions occurred. scenario 3: transition to a smaller marsh In this scenario, it is assumed that only basic management interventions are implemented such as waste water management and conservation and the Marshes are left to cope with the various natural and human pressures, as they have for their entire history before the late twentieth century. The amount of water reaching the Marshes will continue to decrease as a result of upstream withdrawals and climatic change and the wetlands will eventually become much smaller, except for parts of Hammar Marsh in Basrah, which will be a brackish-water marsh. Figure 17 depicts the virtual drying up of the Marshes as the amount of water available to the region diminishes. Even the healthiest areas of the Marshes at present will be affected in this scenario.

Basrah Maysan Thi Qar totAL

1307 2589 2384 6280

705 1294 1291 3290

291 <50 <50 391

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FIgure 17. Scenario 3: Transition to a smaller marsh.

summary Table 6 shows the total amount of marsh remaining in each of the three governorates under each scenario (regardless of health). These three scenarios are representative of a wide range of possible outcomes, and other scenarios can be developed based on addressing a different number of key factors (or even by variations within factors). All of the scenarios were presented to CIMI colleagues in Iraq and discussed in detail. What the data and the scenarios indicate, at the very least, is that some areas of the Marshes are

unhealthy at present and they cannot support ecological or economic activities of the types that occurred prior to 1991. Government plans to re-flood or preserve the Marshes should incorporate issues of both water quantity and water quality. Unquestionably, there is a need for more data to better understand the conditions of the Marshes, but the evidence gathered in the past few years, plus information provided by those living in or near the Marshes indicate a system that is under stress and in great need of increased management intervention. 21

k e y fa C t o r s a f f e C t i n g t h e s i z e a n d h e a lt h of the Marshes

land use & protected areas

Turkey & Syria

upstream withdrawals, storage & discharge

Iran

Population & economic growth

Iraq

Community stewardship

healthy Marshes
Tidal flow

Drought

Waste water & pollution Competition

FIgure 18. Key factors affecting the size and health of the Marshes.

guidiNg PriNCiPLes for reCommeNded ACtioNs

The following Guiding Principles were developed by the Canada-Iraq Marshland Initiatives (CIMI) Advisory Committee to help influence and guide the development of the recommended actions in this document. Quality of life is improved and basic services are provided. Development is sustainable and sensitive to cultural and social considerations. restoration and development are based upon best scientific and traditional knowledge. Archaeological and heritage sites are preserved.

ecological integrity is healthy and maintained. economic opportunities are pursued within the limits of the carrying
capacity of the natural resources. Coordinated and collaborative decision-making processes are respected and applied. Capacity of individuals, governments and other interests are developed to enable them to participate effectively in decisionmaking processes.

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Managing for Change recognizes that addressing these key factors is crucial for the sustainability of the Marshes. Each of these is summarized below, followed by a more detailed discussion of each and recommendations/actions needed to address each factor. International examples that can be used as the basis for action are also included. The key factors influencing Marsh size and health are:

drought/climate change. The present

drought may be indicative of the longerterm effects of global warming, which is expected to cause greater variability in climate (longer and more severe droughts, for example) and high rates of evaporation.

Community stewardship. Actions at the local

level also impact the Marshes, whether they relate to fishing practices or sewage disposal. Adopting best practices based on the Marsh Classification System and principles of community sustainability is important.

upstream withdrawals, storage and discharge

(turkey and syria). The construction of dams on the Euphrates River by Turkey and Syria has affected the flow of water to Iraq, and expectations are that this situation will worsen in the future.

Population and economic growth.

Population growth, economic growth and urbanization rates will all influence the demand for water. Conservation at community and local levels will be very important.

upstream withdrawals, storage and discharge (iran). Dams and dykes constructed by Iran in the past three years have reduced the water flowing into the Hawizeh Marsh. Further development in Iran that will reduce water flowing to the Marshes is expected. upstream withdrawals, storage and discharge
(iraq). The construction of dams and dykes in Iraq has restricted the amount of water flowing to the Marshes.

Land use and protected areas. A comprehensive land-use plan is needed for the Marshes. Sections of the Marshes should be designated as Protected Areas. These key factors along with others pose tremendous challenges to the future health of the Marshes. Despite the re-flooding of certain areas of the Marshes and an increase in plant and animal species, the wetlands are extremely vulnerable to further disruptions in water flow, chemical pollution and saltwater intrusion. In addition, re-flooding of the Marshes does not, necessarily, translate into a restoration of the wetlands environment. In some cases, re-flooding has caused the release of toxins in the soil, the result of chemical pollution and military ordnance. This has resulted in lower water quality and a decline in ecosystem health.

tidal flow. Movement of brackish water

from the Shatt-al-Arab back into the Marshes has increased the salinity in many areas of the Hammar Marsh.

Waste water and pollution. Agricultural

runoff and the discharge of industrial waste upstream are contributing additional chemicals to the Marshes. Re-flooding has also released toxins from soils that have been contaminated by chemicals from military ordinance.

Competition. The demand for water

from cities and the agricultural sector is increasing rapidly in Iraq and these must be reconciled with the need for water in the Marshes.

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k e y fa C t o r s , C u r r e n t C o n d i t i o n s a n d reCoMMended aCtions

K e y fA C to R 1

upstr e a m w i t h draw al s , stora g e and d i s ch ar g e (tur ke y a n d s yri a)

ManageMent oB j e C t i v e

To have an agreement with Turkey and Syria to ensure an adequate flow of water entering Iraq in the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.
Context There is a clear need for better cooperation among riparian states on the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. This could take the form of a formal river basin commission that would allow for direct talks on water management including the Marshes. A related but extremely important solution would be to establish a technical institute for research on basin issues, linking government researchers, universities and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) from the four basin states. The initiative for these activities might come from other countries or organizations, such as the Global Water Partnership or the UN. The 1979 Treaty (Joint Minutes) with Syria provisionally divided the waters of the

Ataturk Dam, Turkey

24

Euphrates between Syria and Iraq, providing Iraq with 58% of the water entering Syria on the Euphrates. The Treaty also established a joint committee to discuss technical and administrative details. There have been ongoing discussions between Iraq, Turkey and Syria regarding transboundary water issues. In the fall of 2009, the Prime Minister of Turkey agreed to sign a number of Memorandums of Understanding (MOUs) with Iraq on economic issues, but the Iraqi Parliament responded that any agreement must include a component on water. Turkey has informed Iraq that further discussions would be based on a detailed assessment of existing water use in Iraq.
reservoir behind Ataturk Dam, Turkey

reCo MMen ded a C t i ons

1.1 Establish a Tigris/Euphrates River Basins Commission with representation from Turkey, Iran, Iraq and Syria. 1.2 Establish a multi-national research institute for the Tigris and Euphrates River Basins to focus on monitoring, data collection and analysis, data sharing and water management issues. 1.3 Encourage multi-national organizations such as the EU, the Global Water Partnership and the World Bank to advocate a transboundary water agreement between Turkey and Iraq.

examples
NiLe bAsiN iNitiAtive
The Nile basin initiative (NBI) is a partnership of the riparian states of the Nile river. The NBI seeks to develop the river in a cooperative manner, share substantial socioeconomic benefits, and promote regional peace and security. It aims, through a participatory dialogue process, to achieve sustainable socioeconomic development of the Nile Basin water resources. For more information, please see http://www.nilebasin. org/.

the iNterNAtio NAL Commissio N for the ProteCtioN of the dANube river
The international Commission for the Protection of the danube river (iCPdr) is a transnational body that ensures the sustainable and fair use of the Danube Basin water resources. Its mandate is to implement the Danube river Protection Convention, which is the framework for transboundary water cooperation and management in the Danube Basin. The members of the ICPDr are the parties to the Convention. The ICPDr also benefits from the cooperation of relevant ministries, civil society organizations and the scientific community. For more information, please see http://www.icpdr.org/.

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K e y fA C to R 2

upstr e a m w i t h draw al s , stora g e and d i s ch ar g e (i r a n )

ManageMent oB j e C t i v e

To have an agreement with Iran on upstream withdrawals, storage and discharge from tributaries of the Tigris River and on wetlands management of the Hawizeh Marsh.

Context Similar to Key Factor 1, it is vital that the issue of water flow from Iran to the Hawizeh Marsh be addressed as soon as possible. Both countries are signatories to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, but the agreement cannot compel parties to act when there are disagreements over wetlands management. A more formal mechanism such as the commission noted above could provide such a mechanism. The sustainability of the

Marshes might also be an opportunity for peace building between the two countries and the UN Environment Programme could establish an initiative promoting cooperation. In 1975, an agreement between Iran and Iraq was reached on the use of shared waters. The agreement defined the international boundary between the two countries but did not include the Hawizeh Marsh or water uses. There have been ongoing discussions between Iraq and Iran, and the Minister of Water Resources visited Iran in late 2009 to discuss water issues. A technical committee has also been established between Iraq and Iran to discuss water issues. In 2009, the Maysan Governorate met with the Iranian consul in Amara to initiate discussions between the governor of Maysan and the head of the adjacent province in Iraq in an effort to address transboundary water issues and, more specifically, the Hawizeh dyke and rivers that the Iranians have dammed. CRIM is currently studying the impact of the Iranian dyke on Hawizeh Marsh.

26

reCo MMen ded a C t i ons

2.1 Reach agreement with Iran on the joint management of Hawizeh Marsh (Iraq) and Hawr Al-Azim Marsh (Iran) by using the provisions of the Ramsar Convention. 2.2 Identify the short- and long-term impacts of new dams and impoundments on tributaries feeding Hawizeh Marsh. 2.3 Request Iran pursue options to allow for water to flow freely between Hawr Al-Azim Marsh and Hawizeh Marsh by, for example, placing culverts in the Iranian dyke or demolishing all or part of the dyke. 2.4 Support and assist the governorates of Maysan and Basrah in their discussions with the neighbouring Iranian province on transboundary water issues.

examples
multilateral: Promoting the Wise use of Wetlands C oNveNtioN oN Wet LANds of iNterNAtioNAL imPortANCe
The Convention on Wetlands of international importance (also known as the ramsar Convention) commits its signatories to ensure the conservation and wise use of Wetlands of International Importance, to include wise use of all wetlands in national environmental planning and to consult with other signatories with regard to transboundary wetlands, shared water systems and shared species. The ramsar Convention is of particular importance to Iraq on account of the recent designation of Hawizeh Marsh as a Wetland of International Importance For more information, please see http://www.ramsar.org/.

bilateral: managing Canada and the united states Joint Water resources iNter NAtio NAL Joi Nt CommissioN for the greAt LAkes
The international Joint Commission (iJC) was set up under the 1909 Boundary Water Treaty to assist Canada and the United States in resolving problems with regard to their joint rivers and lakes. The IJC has investigative powers with regard to water and air pollution and also assists Canada and the United States in the wise management of their water resources. The IJC has also helped establish conditions for dams with transboundary effects as well as helping to set water sharing rules on transboundary rivers. For more information, please see http://www.ijc.org/.

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K e y fA C to R 3

upstr e a m w i t h draw al s , stora g e and d i s ch ar g e (i r a q )

ManageMent oB j e C t i v e

To guarantee an adequate annual supply of water reaches the Marshes.

Context A key issue facing Iraq is the growth in demand for water from all sectors of the economy (see also Key Factor 6). Although dams in Turkey have had a major impact on water flow in the Euphrates, there are also upstream impoundments within Iraq that affect the flow of water to the Marshes. More dams are planned and the result is that even during times of ample rainfall, the water flowing to the Marshes is moderated by these dams, eliminating the flood-pulsing mechanism that is so important in cleansing the wetlands. The issue is more than one of simply the amount of water, but also timing, the strength of floods and water quality. There are currently multiple dams upstream from the Marshes with more planned, including on Hawizeh Marsh tributaries. MoWR is in the process of building regulators to control input and output of water in order to conserve or restore the environmental and hydrologic status of the Marshes. A 30-year strategy for water and land resources in Iraq is being developed, and monitoring stations are being installed throughout the Marshes to measure water flows at various times of the year. MoWR has a target for the marshes of 50% to 70% of the 1973 extent (see page 18).

28

reCo MMen ded a C t i ons

3.1 Adopt legislation that guarantees an adequate annual supply of water for the Marshes, especially during drought years. 3.2 Restructure diversions and impoundments in order to optimize water flow into the Marshes. 3.3 Increase the number of water control regulators to better manage water flow into the Marshes. 3.4 Require Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) for all major proposed developments in the area, especially new dam construction and oil developments. 3.5 Continue the ongoing assessment of the impacts of discharging Main Outfall Drain waters into the Marshes. 3.6 Identify the minimum and average annual flows needed to protect key areas of the Marshes. 3.7 Develop additional scenarios in order to describe Marsh size and health under different water-flow regimes, including scenarios where: (1) no additional water is discharged into the Marshes; (2) some additional water is discharged into the Marshes; and (3) discharge is sufficient to restore the Marshes to 70% of 1973 extent.

example
tuNisiA : reform of irrigAtioN PoLiC y ANd WAter CoNservAtioN
As another arid country with limited water resources, tunisia faces many of the same water challenges as Iraq. Tunisia implemented a National Water Saving Strategy in order to improve irrigation and promote water conservation. The Strategy introduced reforms to promote water users associations, increase the price of irrigation water and provide incentives to adopting better irrigation technology. This was done through the creation of a supporting legislative framework, the strengthening of capacity in all water management sectors and increasing water prices to act as an incentive to adopt water saving techniques. For more information, please see http://www.gwptoolbox.org/images/stories/cases/en/ cs%2019%20tunisia.pdf.

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K e y fA C to R 4

ti da l f lo w

ManageMent oB j e C t i v e

To reduce the amount of salt reaching the Marshes.

Context Various salts enter the Marshes in three ways: from agricultural runoff, from continued desiccation and wetting of soil and from salt water moving upstream from the Gulf during high tide. Decreased amounts of water from north of the Marshes coupled with less discharge from the Karun River in Iran have allowed salt water to move farther upstream on the Shatt-al-Arab River and without an increased flow of freshwater, this

situation will worsen (Figure 19). Salt water has already polluted some of the Marshes, making the water unfit for human and animal consumption. Historically, the average flow in the rivers was 70 cubic metres per second. By 2009, the flow had decreased to 20 cubic metres due to the drought and upstream dams. The MoWR has a committee looking at reducing tidal flow on the Shatt-al-Arab.

FIgure 19. Shatt-al-Arab river.

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reCo MMen ded a C t i ons

4.1 Develop all possible strategies to flush salts from the Marshes. 4.2 Develop all possible strategies to restrict salt water moving up the Shatt-alArab River. 4.3 Encourage Iran to release flow from the Karun River back into the Shatt-al-Arab River.

example
usA: m ANAgiNg LAke okeeChobee
Lake okeechobee in the Florida everglades suffered from saltwater intrusion such as is now seen in the Shatt-al-Arab and salination of some of the marshes. While the Governors Commission for a Sustainable South Florida determined that the future of the everglades depended on more sustainable development and water use in South Florida, it largely neglected Lake

okeechobee. The non-governmental organization World Wildlife Fund recognized this and responded with a comprehensive basin-wide management and restoration plan that included the lake. This example highlights both the necessity of engaging in iterative planning processes and the positive impacts NGos can bring to environmental planning processes. For more information, please see http://www.gwptoolbox. org/index.php?option=com_case&id=142&Itemid=42.

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K e y fA C to R 5

w a ste w ate r and p ol lu t i on

ManageMent oB j e C t i v e

To reduce waste water and pollution, construct efficient sewage treatment facilities (or update existing ones), and reduce non-point sources of pollution such as agricultural runoff.

Context Untreated waste water from industrial and domestic sources and runoff from agricultural lands (so-called non-point source pollution) are increasing problems in terms of deteriorating water quality in the Marshes. The growth in population and the economy will further exacerbate this problem, as periodic flushing of the Marshes no longer occurs. There is a crucial need to limit point and non-point source pollution from reaching the Marshes.

Existing treatment plants are inefficient and/ or beyond capacity, and regulations are not enforced consistently. Many cities, including Amara, Nassriya and Najaf, discharge untreated wastewater directly into marsh tributaries. Current research shows some heavy metal contamination of marsh waters (e.g., lead and nickel). There is also pollution from agricultural sources (e.g. pesticide runoff) as well as from past military operations in the area.

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reCo MMen ded a C t i ons

5.1 Develop, adopt and enforce a National Clean Water Act for Iraq. The Act should include drinking/industrial/agricultural water quality protection guidelines. 5.2 Minimize non-point sources of pollution through good agricultural practices. 5.3 Adopt best practices for water conservation and waste-water management. 5.4 Encourage the use of phytotechnology to treat waste water (using phytoplankton to absorb pollutants). 5.5 Examine the use of grey water and/or treated recycled water for agricultural uses, toilets, etc. 5.6 Establish sewage treatment facilities in cities and villages that impact the Marshes.

example
south Afri CA: effe Ctive mANAgemeN t of iNdustriAL WAste WAter
The town of robertson in south Africa had the issue of three wineries and a grape juice concentration plant that produced effluent that did not meet legislative requirements. In addition to this, the municipal effluent treatment plant was already at full capacity. The wineries and plant discharged their effluent through an irrigation system, creating water and environmental pollution due to the high salt and organic content of the effluent. A project was set up to encourage all key stakeholders to implement better

water conservation and demand management measures. The project did this by providing incentives for the reuse of grey water for other purposes. The project included an assessment of the technical, commercial and environmental viability of water recycling and reuse and the results will be used to develop appropriate water management policy. The case highlights the importance of engaging all key stakeholders in project planning and implementation as well as the need to include social, economic and environmental considerations in evaluation criteria. For more information please see http://www.gwptoolbox. org/index.php?option=com_case&id=96&Itemid=39.

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K e y fA C to R 6

co mpe ti ti o n

ManageMent oB j e C t i v e

To reduce the extent and nature of water-management conflicts in the Marshes.

Context Economic growth in Iraq, particularly in the agricultural sector, will create greater demand for the limited water available. Already, upstream withdrawals severely limit the amount of water reaching the Marshes. Unless water to the Marshes becomes a priority relative to water for other uses, there simply will not be enough water to sustain these valuable wetlands.

Agriculture uses over 80% of available water. In 2000, the figures were: 88% agricultural, 7% domestic and 5% industrial. No modern irrigation techniques, e.g., drip irrigation, are used. An estimated 120,000 km of waterways provide increased opportunities for water loss due to evaporation and seepage.

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reCo MMen ded a C t i ons

6.1 Adopt best management practices in agriculture (e.g. drip irrigation technology). 6.2 Encourage the adoption of less water intensive agriculture through crop substitution. 6.3 Allocate more water to the Marshes to improve the regions economic and social conditions (e.g. this could revitalize the offshore fishery in the Gulf that was devastated by the drying of the Marshes). 6.4 Introduce impartial forums at which various users of the Marshes can resolve potential water resource conflicts.

example
the North ChiNA PLAiN
The fertile North China Plain is one of the most densely populated regions in the world and water scarcity is an ever-increasing issue. Groundwater is overused and adding further hydraulic infrastructure can no longer meet growing agricultural demands. The agricultural water supply must compete with demands for other uses. Water scarcity is worsened by the pollution resulting from heavy industrialization and the rapid growth of the urban population. The North China Plain Water Conservation Project addressed these issues by improving existing irrigation technology, introducing new and improved agricultural methods to conserve water, and developing institutional capacity for water and soil conservation. The project, among others, increased water productivity, reduced consumptive use and reduced groundwater depletion to negligible levels. This case highlights the importance of providing appropriate incentives to modify water use practices as well as the need for ongoing monitoring and evaluation in order to verify the efficacy of water-saving measures.

For more information, please see http://www.gwptoolbox. org/index.php?option=com_case&id=236&Itemid=13 or http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWAT/ resources/4602114-1203518899290/China_IV.pdf.

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K e y fA C to R 7

dr o ug ht a nd cl i mat e ch ang e

ManageMent oB j e C t i v e

To reduce the negative impacts of drought in the Marshes.

Context Drought poses an increasing threat to not only the Marshes, but to the entire agricultural sector in Iraq. Droughts are likely to increase in both frequency and magnitude with global warming and the country needs to implement a drought-management strategy as soon as possible. There are many examples of how to reduce the risk of natural disasters through work done by the UN and its member states. Iraq needs to draw on these examples to limit the debilitating effects of drought in the future. In 2008-09, rainfall and runoff were 40% below average for Iraq, and the size of the Marshes was reduced almost to 2003 levels. Under climate change, future droughts will be more frequent, longer and more extreme. During the drought of 2009, water in the marshes became more saline, as salts remained

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on the soil surface or moved from below due to capillary action. In addition, there was an increase in microorganisms such as e. coli; the levels of chloride, magnesium and calcium increased; the water became more acid; the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water decreased; and plant diversity also decreased. Some of these changes have led to increased levels of illness in people and animals as well as negative impacts on economic activities like fishing.

r e C oM M e nd e d a C t i ons
7.1 Adopt and implement a drought-management strategy that will include forecasting, impact assessment, preparedness and mitigation measures. 7.2 Adopt a plan for disaster risk reduction, including supporting the UNs Hyogo Framework for Action.

example
iNdiA: guJArAt JAL-dish A 2010: CommuNity WAter mANA gemeNt iN the CoNtext of drought
In india, gujarat faces recurring problems of drought, water shortages, fluorine contamination and coastal saltwater intrusion. The government built the Narmada Dam to deal with these issues, but the problems persisted. As a result, a dialogue between governments, local communities, civil society and other stakeholders was initiated (via round tables, village meetings and creating local water management committees) and culminated in the adoption of a long-term strategy for water management, Jal-Disha 2010. The strategy involved an assessment of water resources; adopting low-cost, appropriate and local drought-management solutions; community investments in basin-wide drought management initiatives; and sharing community experiences in dealing with the issues. This case highlights the effectiveness of a participatory approach to developing community-based, basin-wide integrated water resource management strategies. For more information, please see http://www.gwptoolbox. org/index.php?option=com_case&id=29&Itemid=45.

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K e y fA C to R 8

co mm un i t y st e w ard s h i p

ManageMent oB j e C t i v e

To improve traditional methods of dealing with resources and the environment by incorporating new and effective resource management methods.

Context There is currently minimal focus on community level initiatives for water and waste-water management, resource use and environmental stewardship. Unsustainable practices at the community level, such as fishing using poisons and explosives, and disposal of domestic and livestock waste have resulted in increased pollution of marsh waters and fewer fish, among other unwanted outcomes.

In light of the changing health of the Marshes, it maybe necessary to revise and rethink traditional community practices and draw upon other experiences in order to improve local conditions. The term best management practices has been applied throughout the world to ecological restoration and revitalization. Many of these practices have proven to be cost effective in restoring the health of other marshes and wetlands.

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reCo MMen ded a C t i ons

That all levels of government: 8.1 Work collaboratively to develop and adopt best management practices for application in the Marshes in the following key areas: water quality, fishing, farming, animal production and biodiversity. 8.2 Build capacity in the areas of best management practices that include education and awareness; treatment; regulation; and enforcement. 8.3 Adopt strategies to ensure that local residents become knowledgeable of best management practices and of their benefits to the community.

example
moroCCo: CommuNity mANAgemeNt of WAter resourCes iN the imLiL vALLey
In moroccos imlil valley, communities faced water shortages, seasonal fluctuations, and long distances to water sources. Five communities worked with a Moroccan NGo to develop a water code based on the local tradition of community-based water organization. The code outlined the conditions for access to, and use of, water.

Furthermore, it prioritized water uses, laid out rights and responsibilities, and set fines for violations. This case highlights the importance of setting up clear regulations (the water code), integrating local traditions/institutions, and approaching water management from a basin-wide perspective. For more information, please see http://www.gwptoolbox. org/index.php?option=com_case&id=42&Itemid=15.

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K e y fA C to R 9

po pul ati o n and e conom i c g row t h

ManageMent oB j e C t i v e

To establish sustainable livelihoods based on a healthy population and a healthy marsh ecosystem.

Current conditions The number of displaced people returning to the Marshes and their impact on the ecosystem is unknown. With a drastically different Marsh, opportunities for returnees are limited and the risk of illness and disease has increased. A demographic and economic profile of the Marshes is needed, along with a comprehensive strategy to assist Marsh residents whose livelihoods have been impacted by the changes to the Marshes. The population of the Marshes decreased drastically after the draining of the early 1990s. 40

Some residents have returned since 2003, although exact numbers are not available. Local, regional and national governments, local nonprofit organizations and international agencies are carrying out projects in the Marshes for the benefit of the local population. The Ministry of State for the Marshes, in cooperation with other levels of government, is funding infrastructure, health, education and community services in the Marshes. In addition, the Ministry of State for the Marshes is establishing an economic development plan for the Marshes.

reCo MMen ded a C t i ons

9.1 Develop a demographic and economic profile of the Marsh peoples and their movements within the Marshes and in other parts of Iraq. 9.2 Develop a five-year urgent community services plan that addresses the immediate crisis affecting the areas of potable water, food, housing, health, education and personal safety. This could include such actions as: 9.2.1 Implementing an effective literacy strategy to improve the education of all men, women, boys and girls; 9.2.2 Implementing effective actions to prevent ongoing violence in the home and ensure safe conditions for women, men, girls and boys; 9.2.3 Undertaking a coordinated plan to remove land mines and unexploded ordnance; 9.2.4 Adopting best practices for preventing illnesses and treating diseases. 9.3 Develop a long-term economic development strategy for the Marshes that is integrated into district and government plans. This could include such actions as assessing the potential for intensive aquaculture as well as examining alternative investments or businesses that are not dependent on the Marshes.

example
fergANA vALLey of Ce Ntr AL A siA: imProviNg LoCAL LiveLihoods
In the fergana valley of Central Asia, water infrastructure deteriorated after the break-up of the USSr and had a negative effect on agricultural yields. The governments decided to initiate reforms in the water sector, largely based on a partial transfer of responsibility for operations and maintenance to water users. Water users collected fees and gained greater rights to manage the water services and ensure improved access to irrigation water. The idea was to improve the efficiency and reliability of water service through directly involving farmers in the decision-making and management. This case shows the importance of establishing appropriate user fees and ensuring a favourable benefit-to-cost ratio in order to engage local water users. results have been mixed thus far, and research on the project has provided recommendations to improve its effectiveness. For more information, please see http://www.gwptoolbox. org/images/stories/cases/en/cs%20362_%20 ferghana_full_vs.pdf.

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K e y fA C to R 1 0

l a n d use a nd p rot e ct ed are a s

ManageMent oB j e C t i v e

To develop and implement a comprehensive land use plan that identifies protected areas in the Marshes.
Current conditions Linked to Key Factor 9, there needs to be a comprehensive land-use strategy for the Marshes, focusing on protecting the healthiest Marshes and minimizing the impact of other land uses on the wetlands. The strategy should build upon the work by CRIM on existing land uses and the designation of Hawizeh Marsh as a Ramsar Wetlands of International Importance. The Marsh Classification System presented earlier could benefit the process of identifying and designating a national protected area. CRIM has a draft land use plan for the Marshes, including areas designated for agriculture, oil exploration, and the Marshes (see Figure 15). The Ministry of Environment, UNEP and UNESCO are investigating the possibility of designating the Marshes a World Heritage Site. One option available to inhibit further degradation of the Marshes would be for the national government to establish a Protected Area under guidelines set forth by IUCN and the World Commission on Protected Areas. This area would be smaller than the area under the Ramsar designation, but would be subject to more stringent requirements regarding use and management. The goal would be to protect the healthiest marshes, particularly sections of Hawizeh and small areas of the Hammar Marsh known as the Al-Islah Marshes. These areas would be designated a Category IV Protected Area (Habitat and Species Management Area) to allow for the maintenance of existing habitat and the protection of biological communities. The purpose of designating a protected area is to secure the natural habitat and deliver benefits to the local population. Figure 20 identifies possible areas for Protected Area IV status, based on the Marsh Classification System.

FIgure 20. Areas of the Marshes recommended for protected area status based on the Marsh Classification System.

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reCo MMen ded a C t i ons

10.1 Legislate specific protected areas within the Marshes that complement the Ramsar boundaries along with the proposed site(s) for the World Heritage Site. 10.2 Use the Marsh Classification System and guidelines set forth by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) to delineate a protected area for the Marshes. Figure 20 shows one possible configuration.

example
CANAdA : eCosystem-b Ased mANAgemeNt ANd shAred deCisio N- mAki Ng iN hAid A gWAii, british CoLumbiA
In 2007, the province of British Columbia and the Haida Nation (the indigenous people of the Haida Gwaii islands), signed the Land Use Plan for Haida Gwaii. The Plan included provisions for protecting approximately 50% of the islands forests as well as certain animal species that are either endangered or endemic to the islands and controlling the number of tourists visiting the area to maximize profit while minimizing environmental impact. The remaining land base is governed by a new form of ecosystem-based management and shared decision-making between the Haida Nation and British Columbia. The case highlights that managing economic and environmental interests need not be an either/or scenario, but rather that both can be accommodated with some creativity, hard work and the involvement of the local population. For more information, please see http://www.haidanation.ca/Pages/Programs/ Land_Use_Planning/Land_Use_Plan.html.

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ConClusion

Managing for Change promotes an integrated approach to wetlands management by stressing the importance of having a strong scientific basis coupled with local knowledge in making decisions on the Marshes. A science-based approach provides the necessary condition for all future decisions on the Marshes, but it must be supplemented by addressing questions of the optimal extent of the wetlands, the quality of the remaining wetlands and the well-being of Marsh residents. Iraqi scientists, government

leaders, and even Marsh residents accept that the Marshes will not in the foreseeable future at least return to their 1973 size (see Figure 21 for the most recent satellite image of the Marshes). Water availability, conversion of marsh to agricultural land, oil drilling and expanded settlements will all constrain the size of the Marshes. Given this situation, three questions provided the basis for much of this report.

FIgure 21. MoDIS image of the Marshes of southern Iraq, February, 2010.

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 What is the size of the Marshes (and what

should the size be)? What is the health of the remaining Marshes? What factors need to be addressed to ensure the sustainability of the Marshes? As explained in this report, the Canada-Iraq Marshlands Initiative concluded that there are ten key factors that need to be considered in order to answer these questions. These range from reaching agreement with other countries on water flowing into Iraq to adopting best practices for water resource management at the local level. The degree to which each of these factors is addressed will, to a great extent, determine the size and health of the Marshes in the future and the livelihood and security of the people living in or near the Marshes. The report also presents three possible futures among many based on both government policy and the degree to which the ten factors

above are addressed. To a great extent, the future of the Marshes will depend on whether they are given high priority within the national government. As an initial step in ensuring a sustainable Marsh, this report recommends the establishment of a Protected Area in the healthiest sections of the Marshes (notably parts of Hawizeh and the Al-Islah Marshes). It is also imperative for the international community to continue support for Marsh restoration and to encourage neighboring countries to enter into constructive dialogue on preserving parts of the Marshes. While a complete restoration of the Marshes to the level of 1973 might not be possible, there are actions that can be taken to reduce the possibility of and environmental and humanitarian disaster. The history of the Marshes and the Marsh dwellers is one of survival through millennia; it is important for both Iraq and the international community to work together to ensure the long-term sustainability of this unique region.

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notes

Coast, Ernestina (2003). Demography of the Marsh Arabs. In Emma Nicholson & Peter Clark (Eds.), The Iraqi Marshlands: A Human and Environmental Study (2nd ed.). London: Politicos Publishing. Altinbilek, Dogan (2004). Development and Management of the Euphrates-Tigris Basin. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 20(1), 15-33. Ochsenschlager, Edward L. (2004). Iraqs Marsh Arabs in the Garden of Eden. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archeology and Anthropology. Sluglett, Peter (2003a). The Marsh Dwellers in the History of Modern Iraq. In Emma Nicholson & Peter Clark (Eds.), The Iraqi Marshlands: A Human and Environmental Study (2nd ed.). London: Politicos Publishing. Partow, Hassan (2001). The Mesopotamian Marshlands: Demise of an Ecosystem. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme. Richardson, Curtis J., & Hussain, Najah A. (2006). Restoring the Garden of Eden: An Ecological Assessment of the Marshes of Iraq. BioScience, 56(6), 477-489. CRIM (Center for Restoration of the Iraqi Marshlands) (2009). A land-use plan for the Iraqi Marshlands. Presentation at the CIMI-Beirut Meeting, November. Ibid.

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photo Credits

All photos used with permission.

Front cover Nik Wheeler/CORBIS p. iv MOHAMMED SAWAF/AFP/Getty Images p. vi ESSAM AL-SUDANI/AFP/Getty Images p. vii ESSAM AL-SUDANI/AFP/Getty Images p. 20 ESSAM AL-SUDANI/AFP/Getty Images p. 24 Ed Kashi/CORBIS p. 25 NASA p. 26 CIMI p. 28 Raheem Salman/Los Angeles Times p. 29 Ghaith Abdul-Ahad/Getty Images p. 31 Nik Wheeler/CORBIS p. 32 Nik Wheeler/CORBIS p. 33 Cheryl Diaz Meyer/Dallas Morning News/Corbis p. 34 Nik Wheeler/CORBIS p. 35 CIMI p. 36 Raheem Salman/Los Angeles Times p. 37 Nik Wheeler/CORBIS p. 38 epa/Corbis p. 39 CIMI p. 40 CIMI p. 41 CIMI p. 43 CIMI p. 45 ESSAM AL-SUDANI/AFP/Getty Images p. 53 CIMI p. 53 CIMI Back cover CIMI

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Printed copies of this report in either english or Arabic are available from: Dr. Steve Lonergan Department of Geography Po Box 3060 Stn CSC Victoria, BC, V8W 3r4 Canada email: lonergan@uvic.ca Dr Abbas Balasem Consultant Ministry of State for the Marshes 5th floor, General Secretariat of the Council of Ministers Baghdad, Iraq email: balasem.a@gmail.com

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