Definition of computer?

A machine for performing calculations automatically A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates data, and provides output in a useful format. Before electronic computers became commercially available, the term "computer", in use from the mid 17th century, literally meant "one who computes": a person performing mathematical calculations. ... A programmable device that performs mathematical calculations and logical operations, especially one that can process, store and retrieve large amounts of data very quickly; A person employed to perform computations. An electronic machine that receives, processes and presents data. A computer can be programmed to perform complicated tasks, like solving complex mathematical equations or controlling a flight simulator. ... Electronic machine capable of performing calculations and other manipulations of various types of data, under the control of a stored set of instructions. The machine itself is the hardware; the instructions are the program or software. ... Technically, a computer is a programmable machine. This means it can execute a programmed list of instructions and respond to new instructions that it is given. A computer is a device or machine for making calculations or controlling operations that are expressible in numerical or logical terms. A computer can be made to represent some aspect of a problem or part of a system. If a computer configured in this way is given appropriate input data, then it can automatically solve the problem or predict the behavior of the system.

Characterstics of a computer: Speed: Computers work at very high speed and are much faster than humans. A second is very large time period time for computer. A computer can perform billions of calculations in a second. The time used by a computer to perform an operation is called the processing speed. Computer speed is measured in Mega Hertz (MHz). Storage: A computer can store a large amount of data permanently. User can use this data at any time. We can store any type of data in a computer. Text, graphic, pictures, audio and video files can be stored easily. The storage capacity of the computer is increasing rapidly. Processing: (of Arithmetical and Logical Operations): A computer can process the given instructions. It can perform different types of processing like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. It can also perform logical functions like comparing two numbers to decide which one is the bigger etc. Accuracy: Accuracy means to provide results without any error. Computers can process large amount of data and generate error-free results. A modern computer performs millions of operations in one second without any error. Communication: Most computers today have the capability of communicating with other computers. We can connect two or more computers by a communication device

such as modem. These computers can share data, instructions, and information. The connected computer are called network. Programmable-Devices: Controlled by set of instructions to do user specified tasks. Retrieving data and programs: The data and program stored on the storage media can be retrieved very quickly for further processing. It is also very important feature of a computer. Automation: A computer can automatically perform operations without interfering the user during the operations. It controls automatically different devices attached with the computer. It executes automatically the program instructions one by one. Versatility Versatile means flexible. Modern computer can perform different kind of tasks one by one of simultaneously. It is the most important feature of computer. At one moment your are playing game on computer, the next moment you are composing and sending emails etc. In colleges and universities computers are use to deliver lectures to the students. The talent of computer is dependent on the software. Diligence A computer can continually work for hours without creating any error. It does not get tired while working after hours of work it performs the operations with the same accuracy as well as speed as the first one. No Feelings Computer is an electronic machine. It has no feelings. It detects objects on the basis of instructions given to it. Based on our feelings, taste, knowledge and experience: we can make certain decisions and judgments in our daily life. On the other hand, computer can not make such judgments on their own. Their judgments are totally based on instructions given to them. Consistency People often have difficulty to repeat their instructions again and again. For example, a lecturer feels difficulty to repeat a same lecture in a class room again and again. Computer can repeat actions consistently (again and again) without loosing its concentration:

To run a spell checker (built into a word processor) for checking spellings in a document. To play multimedia animations for training purposes. To deliver a lecture through computer in a class room etc.

A computer will carry out the activity with the same way every time. You can listen a lecture or perform any action again and again. Precision Computers are not only fast and consistent but they also perform operations very accurately and precisely. For example, in manual calculations and rounding fractional

values (That is value with decimal point can change the actual result). In computer however, you can keep the accuracy and precision upto the level, you desire. The length calculations remain always accurate. Computer applications(examples) The first electronic digital computers, with their large size and cost, mainly performed scientific calculations, often to support military objectives. The ENIAC was originally designed to calculate ballistics firing tables for artillery, but it was also used to calculate neutron cross-sectional densities to see if the hydrogen bomb would work properly. This calculation, performed in December, 1945 through January, 1946 and involving over a million punch cards of data, showed the design then under consideration would fail. (Interestingly, many of the most powerful supercomputers available today are also used for nuclear weapons simulations.) The CSIR Mk I, the first Australian stored-program computer, evaluated rainfall patterns for the catchment area of the Snowy Mountains Scheme, a large hydroelectric generation project. Others were used in cryptanalysis, for example the world's first programmable (though not general-purpose) digital electronic computer, Colossus, built during World War II. Despite this early focus of scientific applications, computers were quickly used in other areas. From the beginning, stored program computers were applied to business problems. The LEO, a stored program-computer built by J. Lyons and Co. in Britain, was operational and being used for inventory management and other purposes 3 years before IBM built their first commercial stored-program computer. Continual reductions in the cost and size of computers saw them adopted by ever-smaller organizations. And with the invention of the microprocessor in the 1970s, it became possible to produce inexpensive computers. In the 1980s, personal computers became popular for many tasks, including book-keeping , writing and printing documents, calculating forecasts and other repetitive mathematical tasks involving spreadsheets. The Internet: In the 1970s, computer engineers at various research institutions throughout the US began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. This effort was funded by ARPA, and the computer network that it produced was called the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network),. The technologies that made the Arpanet possible rapidly spread and evolved. In time, the network spread beyond academic institutions and became known as the Internet. In the 1990s, the development of World Wide Web technologies enabled ordinary, non-technical people to use the internet, and it grew rapidly to become a global communications medium. Advantages and disadvantages (generation of computers): Computers can be divided into five generations depending upon the technologies used. These are: 1. 2. 3. 4. First Generation (1942 1955) Second Generation (1955 1964) Third Generation (1964 1975) Fourth Generation (Since 1975)

5. Fifth Generation (Since 1980) 1. First Generation Computers (1942 1955) The vacuum tube technology was used in first-generation computers. Mark-1m, ENIAC, EDSAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC-1 etc. machines belong to the first generation of computers. The machine language only was used in first-generation computers. Advantages The main advantages of first-generation computers were: 1. These computers were the fastest of their time. 2. They were programmed using machine language. 3. The electronic digital computers were introduced due to the vacuum tube technology. Disadvantages The main disadvantages of first-generation computers were: 1. Very big in size 2. Not reliable 3. Consumed large amount of energy 4. Constant maintenance required 5. More heat generated and air-conditioning was required 6. More costly 7. Very slow in speed (data processing) 8. It was difficult to programmed, because they used only machine language 9. Non-portable 10. Limited commercial use 2. Second Generation Computers (1955 1964) The transistor technology was used in second-generation computers. The electronic component transistor was invented in 1948 at Bell Laboratories. The transistor is smaller in size and more reliable than vacuum tube. Therefore, the transistor technology was used in computer in place of vacuum tube technology. The programming assembly language was also introduced in second-generation of computers. Advantages The main advantages of second-generation computers as compared to first-generation computers are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Low in cost Smaller in size Fast in speed Less heat generated More reliable and accurate in calculations Consume low power etc. Used for commercial purposes Portable

8. Assembly language was introduced. This language is easy to write program than machine language Disadvantages The main disadvantages of this generation computers were: 1. 2. 3. 4. Air-conditioning required Commercial production was difficult and these were very costly Constant (or frequent) maintenance required Only used for special purposes

3. Third Generation Computers (1964 1975) The IC (Integrated Circuits) technology was used in third-generation computers. In a small IC chip (5 mm square size) a circuit is designed having large number of electronic components like transistors, capacitors, diodes, resistors etc. Initially, an IC contained only about ten to twenty components. Thus the IC technology was named as Small Scale Integration (SSI). The third-generation was based on IC technology and the computers were designed using this technology. Advantages The main advantages of third-generation as compared to previous generations of computers were: 1. Smaller in size 2. Production cost was low 3. Very fast in computational power 4. More reliable 5. Low power consumption 6. Maintenance cost was low because failure rate of hardware was very low 7. Magnetic disk, used for external storage 8. More storage capacity 9. Easily portable 10. Easy to operate 11. Upgraded easily 12. Widely used for various commercial applications all over the world 13. Lower heat generated 14. High-level languages were commonly used 15. Many input/output devices were introduced such as mouse and keyboard etc. Disadvantages The main disadvantages of third-generation computers were: 1. Air-conditioning required 2. Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturer chips

4. Fourth Generation Computers (1975 onwards) The microchip technology was introduced in this generation of computers. With the advancement in IC technology, LSI (Large Scale Integration) chips were developed. It was possible to itegrate over 30,000 or more components on to single LSI chip. After LSI, the VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) was developed and the development of microprocessor possible. It is expected that more than one million components will be integrated on a single chip of VLSI. Using VLSI technology, the entire CPU is designed on a single silicon chip. The use of microprocessor as CPU introduced another class of computers called the microcomputers. Thus fourth-generation may be called Microcomputer generation. IBM introduced its personal computer for use in 1981. Advantages The advantages of fourth-generation as compared to previous generation computers are: 1. Smaller in size 2. Production cost is very low 3. Very reliable 4. Hardware failure is negligible 5. Easily portable because of their small size 6. Totally general purpose 7. Air conditioning is not compulsory 8. Very high processing speed 9. Very large internal and external storage capacity 10. Used advanced input & output devices such as optical readers, laser printers, CDROM/DVD-ROM drives etc. Disadvantages The main disadvantages of fourth-generation computers is: 1. Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturer of microprocessor chips 5. Fifth Generation Computers (In process) The main drawback of first to fourth generation computers is that the computers have not their own thinking power. These are totally depending upon the instructions given by the users. Fifth generation computers are supposed to be the ideal computers, but do not exist. The scientists are working to design such computers that will have the following features. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Having their own thinking power Making decisions themselves Having capabilities of learning Having capabilities of reasoning Having large capacity of internal storage Having extra high processing speed

7. Having capabilities of parallel processing In these computers following technologies will be used:

ULSIC (Ultra Large Scale Integrated Circuits) technology Artificial Intelligence (AI) technology also called the knowledge Processor. The AI means automatic programs that let the machines to think and decide themselves. The programming languages LISP (List Processor) and PROLOG (Programming with Logic) are used for artificial intelligence. The scientists at ICOT in Japan use the PROLOG to develop the Artificial Intelligence software.

Types of computers: Computers can also be divided into three categories depending upon their instruction and form of input data that they accept and process. These are: 1. Analog Computers 2. Digital Computers 3. Hybrid Computers (analog + digital) Differentiate between Analog and Digital Computers ANALOG 1. Accept input data in continuous form and output is measured on a scale. 2. It may have some errors in output. 3. Have low internal memory. 4. Have fewer functions. 5. It is used only in scientific, industrial and medical fields. 6. It is costly. 7. It is not easily programmed. Classification of computers(four main groups.) 1. 2. 3. 4. Supercomputer. Mainframe computer. Mini computer. Microcomputer. DIGITAL 1. Accept input data in digital form and output is received in digital form. 2. Output is accurate. 3. Have large internal memory. 4. Have large number of functions. 5. It is general purpose in use. 6. It is low in cost. 7. It is easily programmed.

1. Supercomputer Supercomputer is the most powerful and fastest, and also very expensive. It was developed in 1980s. It is used to process large amount of data and to solve the complicated scientific problems. It can perform more than one trillions calculations per second. It has large number of processors connected parallel. So parallel processing is

done in this computer. In a single supercomputer thousands of users can be connected at the same time and the supercomputer handles the work of each user separately. Super computer are mainly used for:

Weather forecasting. Nuclear energy research. Aircraft design. Automotive design. Online banking. To control industrial units.

The supercomputers are used in large organizations, research laboratories, aerospace centers, large industrial units etc. Nuclear scientists use supercomputers to create and analyze models of nuclear fission and fusions, predicting the actions and reactions of millions of atoms as they interact. The examples of supercomputers are CRAY-1, CRAY2, Control Data CYBER 205 and ETA A-10 etc. 2. Mainframe Computers Mainframe computers are also large-scale computers but supercomputers are larger than mainframe. These are also very expensive. The mainframe computer specially requires a very large clean room with air-conditioner. This makes it very expensive to buy and operate. It can support a large number of various equipments. It also has multiple processors. Large mainframe systems can handle the input and output requirements of several thousand of users. For example, IBM, S/390 mainframe can support 50,000 users simultaneously. The users often access then mainframe with terminals or personal computers. There are basically two types of terminals used with mainframe systems. These are: i) Dumb Terminal Dumb terminal does not have its own CPU and storage devices. This type of terminal uses the CPU and storage devices of mainframe system. Typically, a dumb terminal consists of monitor and a keyboard (or mouse). ii) Intelligent Terminal Intelligent terminal has its own processor and can perform some processing operations. Usually, this type of terminal does not have its own storage. Typically, personal computers are used as intelligent terminals. A personal computer as an intelligent terminal gives facility to access data and other services from mainframe system. It also enables to store and process data locally. The mainframe computers are specially used as servers on the World Wide Web. The mainframe computers are used in large organizations such as Banks, Airlines and Universities etc. where many people (users) need frequent access to the same data, which is usually organized into one or more huge databases. IBM is the major manufacturer of mainframe computers. The examples of mainframes are IBM S/390, Control Data CYBER 176 and Amdahl 580 etc.

3. Minicomputers These are smaller in size, have lower processing speed and also have lower cost than mainframe. These computers are known as minicomputers because of their small size as compared to other computers at that time. The capabilities of a minicomputer are between mainframe and personal computer. These computers are also known as midrange computers. The minicomputers are used in business, education and many other government departments. Although some minicomputers are designed for a single user but most are designed to handle multiple terminals. Minicomputers are commonly used as servers in network environment and hundreds of personal computers can be connected to the network with a minicomputer acting as server like mainframes, minicomputers are used as web servers. Single user minicomputers are used for sophisticated design tasks. The first minicomputer was introduced in the mid-1960s by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). After this IBM Corporation (AS/400 computers) Data General Corporation and Prime Computer also designed the mini computers. 4. Microcomputer The microcomputers are also known as personal computers or simply PCs. Microprocessor is used in this type of computer. These are very small in size and cost. The IBMs first microcomputer was designed in 1981 and was named as IBM-PC. After this many computer hardware companies copied the design of IBM-PC. The term PCcompatible refers any personal computer based on the original IBM personal computer design. The most popular types of personal computers are the PC and the Apple. PC and PCcompatible computers have processors with different architectures than processors in Apple computers. These two types of computers also use different operating systems. PC and PC-compatible computers use the Windows operating system while Apple computers use the Macintosh operating system (MacOS). The majority of microcomputers sold today are part of IBM-compatible. However the Apple computer is neither an IBM nor a compatible. It is another family of computers made by Apple computer. Personal computers are available in two models. These are: 1. Desktop PCs 2. Tower PCs A desktop personal computer is most popular model of personal computer. The system unit of the desktop personal computer can lie flat on the desk or table. In desktop personal computer, the monitor is usually placed on the system unit. Another model of the personal computer is known as tower personal computer. The system unit of the tower PC is vertically placed on the desk of table. Usually the system unit of the tower model is placed on the floor to make desk space free and user can place other devices such as printer, scanner etc. on the desktop. Today computer tables are available which are specially designed for this purpose. The tower models are mostly used at homes and offices.

Microcomputer are further divided into following categories. 1. 2. 3. 4. Laptop computer Workstation Network computer Handheld computer

1. Laptop computer Laptop computer is also known as notebook computer. It is small size (85-by-11 inch notebook computer and can fit inside a briefcase. The laptop computer is operated on a special battery and it does not have to be plugged in like desktop computer. The laptop computer is portable and fully functional microcomputer. It is mostly used during journey. It can be used on your lap in an airplane. It is because it is referred to as laptop computer. The memory and storage capacity of laptop computer is almost equivalent to the PC or desktop computer. It also has the hard dist, floppy disk drive, Zip disk drive, CD-ROM drive, CD-writer etc. it has built-in keyboard and built-in trackball as pointing device. Laptop computer is also available with the same processing speed as the most powerful personal computer. It means that laptop computer has same features as personal computer. Laptop computers are more expensive than desktop computers. Normally these computers are frequently used in business travelers. 2. Workstations Workstations are special single user computers having the same features as personal computer but have the processing speed equivalent to minicomputer or mainframe computer. A workstation computer can be fitted on a desktop. Scientists, engineers, architects and graphic designers mostly use these computers. Workstation computers are expensive and powerful computers. These have advanced processors, more RAM and storage capacity than personal computers. These are usually used as single-user applications but these are used as servers on computer network and web servers as well. 3. Network computers Network computers are also version of personal computers having less processing power, memory and storage. These are specially designed as terminals for network environment. Some types of network computers have no storage. The network computers are designed for network, Internet or Intranet for data entry or to access data on the network. The network computers depend upon the networks server for data storage and to use software. These computers also use the networks server to perform some processing tasks.

In the mid-1990s the concept of network computers became popular among some PC manufacturers. As a result several variations of the network computers quickly became available. In business, variations of the network computer are Windows terminals, NetPCs and diskless workstations. Some network computers are designed to access only the Internet or to an Intranet. These devices are sometimes called Internet PCs, Internet boxes etc. In home some network computers do not include monitor. These are connected to home television, which serves as the output devices. A popular example of a homebased network computer is Web TV, which enables the user to connect a television to the Internet. The Web TV has a special set-top box used to connect to the Internet and also provides a set of simple controls which enable the user to navigate the Internet, send and receive e-mails and to perform other tasks on the network while watching television. Network computers are cheaper to purchase and to maintain than personal computers. 4. handheld computer In the mid 1990s, many new types of small personal computing devices have been introduced and these are referred to as handheld computers. These computers are also referred to as Palmtop Computers. The handheld computers sometimes called MiniNotebook Computers. The type of computer is named as handheld computer because it can fit in one hand while you can operate it with the other hand. Because of its reduced size, the screen of handheld computer is quite small. Similarly it also has small keyboard. The handheld computers are preferred by business traveler. Some handheld computers have a specialized keyboard. These computers are used by mobile employees, such as meter readers and parcel delivery people, whose jobs require them to move from place to place. The examples of handheld computers are: 1. Personal Digital Assistance 2. Cellular telephones 3. H/PC Pro devices 1. Personal Digital Assistance (PDAs) The PDA is one of the more popular lightweight mobile devices in use today. A PDA provides special functions such as taking notes, organizing telephone numbers and addresses. Most PDAs also offer a variety of other application software such as word processing, spreadsheet and games etc. Some PDAs include electronic books that enable users to read a book on the PDAs screen. Many PDAs are web-based and users can send/receive e-mails and access the Internet. Similarly, some PDAs also provide telephone capabilities. The primary input device of a PDA is the stylus. A stylus is an electronic pen and looks like a small ballpoint pen. This input device is used to write notes and store in the PDA by touching the screen. Some PDAs also support voice input. 2. Cellular phones

A cellular phone is a web-based telephone having features of analog and digital devices. It is also referred to as Smart Phone. In addition to basic phone capabilities, a cellular phone also provides the functions to receive and send e-mails & faxes and to access the Internet. 3. H/PC Pro Devices H/PC Pro dive is new development in handheld technology. These systems are larger than PDAs but they are not quite as large as typical notebook PCs. These devices have features between PDAs and notebook PCs. The H/PC Pro device includes a full-size keyboard but it does not include disk. These systems also have RAM with very low storage capacity and slow speed of processor. Uses of Computer? There are so many applications of computers, that it is impractical to mention all of them. This is the Computer Age and these machines are beginning to affect out lives in many ways. Computers are now becoming faster, more reliable, effective and whole lot cheaper than they had been ever before. Computers are all around us and avoiding them is virtually impossible. We have been exposed in the world of computer hype, computer advertisements and computer headlines. We interact with computers computers in our daily lives - whether we are at the cinemas, the school, or the public library. The beginnings of computer literacy are already apparent. The main fields where computer is playing very important role are: 1. Education Education is the process of developing knowledge through instructions. The instructions are received from people such as parents, teachers etc. and from printed material such as books, journals etc. Today, the modern technique to get knowledge is by using computers. All schools use computers in classrooms and labs to teach students. Many educators prefer to deliver their lectures by computer-based presentations. In schools, colleges and universities, students use software packages to complete their assignments. The computer-based training (CBT) or presentation is also called computer aided instruction (CAI). In this method, computer is used as an aid to teach the students in the classroom. The instructions of particular subject are received from the instructions that uses a program presented by a computer as learning medium. The web-based training (WBT) is another type of CBT that uses internet technology. It means that many websites provides online education. A lot of material of different topics is available on these websites. They also provide online lectures and tutorials for the students. The CBT and WBT are used in business education centers to educate people. People can get knowledge at very low cost as well as in very short period of time. Most of the WBT is free of cost.

Eductainment is another type of CBT. It is a type of educational software that combines the education with entertainment. These software are available on CD-ROMs and DVDROMs and teach children in a fun and in exciting way. Similarly typein is learnt through these types of software. 2. Entertainment Computer has also played a very important role for the entertainment of humans. Computer has become need of humans for entertainment at their home. Form example, to play video games at home, different game software are available to play games. Similarly, software are available to see movie films and to listen music. Today the movie files and famous songs are mostly available on CDs or on the web at very low cost. You can listen music while you work on the computer. On the web, you can view fine art images in online museums and galleries. Some artists sell their works online and others display them for your viewing pleasure. 3. E-Commerce E-commerce (electronic commerce) of e-trade or e-business is a financial business transaction conducted electronically between business partners over computer network (such as on Internet). With e-commerce, transactions can occur instantaneously and globally. This saves time for participants on both ends. The users can buy, sell and exchange of products or services via computer network. Today, many mobile computers can also access the internet on wireless. There are many applications of e-commerce such as home banking, buying stocks, collaborating electronically with business partners around the globe, marketing and advertising products, providing services to the customers etc. There are several types of e-commerce like collaborative commerce business-tocommerce, consumer-to-consumer, mobile commerce etc. The following services are mostly used in e-commerce or e-business. (i) E-Mail It is the most popular service through which we can electronically send and receive messages anywhere in the world. The spoken messages are sent and received through voice mail. (ii) Video Conferencing A video conference is a meeting between two or more people residing at various places. They can watch and talk with each other. They use a network (i.e. Internet). To participate in a video conference, you need a video camera, a microphone, speaker and software (special video conferencing software). Video conferencing also need a computer with a large memory and fast processor. Video conferencing provides a complete simulation of a normal meeting environment, enabling both parties to see, hear and present material, just as if they are in the same room.

(iii) Electronic Shopping (E-Shopping) Many businesses now have websites that allow internet users to buy goods or services. Shopping can take place using a computer at home, or at a cybercafe. The e-shop can be anywhere in the world and it remains open 24 hours a day. You can purchase any goods such as books, software, movies, computers, cars, airline tickets etc. on the web. (iv) Electronic Banking One of the most popular uses of e-commerce is electronic banking. An electronic banking is also known as cyber-banking. It includes various banking activities conducted from home, a business, or on the road instead of a physical bank location. In all over the world, about 95 percent banks are online. 4. Health Care Nearly every area of the medical field uses computers, such as laboratories, researches, scanning, monitoring, pharmacy etc., which are helping the doctors to diagnose diseases and many other purposes. The main uses of computer in medical field are described below: (i) Maintaining Patient History and Other Records The complete bio-data as well as medical history of patient is recorded into the computer before check up of patient. The complete medical history (current and previous) is delivered to the related doctor for the check up of patient. In this way, much of the doctors time is saved. In addition to patient history, other information about doctors, medicines, chemicals and equipments is also maintained. It is very easy and efficient way to organize records than paper-based records. Any information about patients, doctors, equipments etc. can be retrieved veryb easity and quickly. In hospitals, mostly all the medical wards are interconnected through network. For example, if a patient is allocated a specific ward but being examined by a consultant and receiving treatment in other areas (wards) of the hospital, his detail can be viewed and updated at any terminal on the hospitals LAN network. (ii) Patient Monitoring The electronic scanning units (medical equipments) used in hospital can also be attached to computers. These are very expensive and are used to monitor the patient continuously. Thus computers are normally used in the following medical units of hospitals.

ICU (Intensive Care Unit) Operation Theater Recovery Room Medical Ward EGG (Electrocardiograph)

The medical equipment with sensors attached to the patient that detects changes of heart rate, pulse rate, blood pressure, breathing and brain activity. If any unbalancing situation occurs, computer activates the alarming device, which creates sound and alerts the

medical staff. The data is also logged and used to analyze the change in a patients condition over a period of time. (iii) Diagnosis of Diseases Computer is also used in hospital for diagnosis. For example, laboratory tests on blood and tissue chemistry have become dependent on computer analysis. One common use of computer is hospital is to scan the body of patient. A special scanner is used for this purpose. A scanner sends electromagnetic rays through a patient body and sensors detect that how much patients body have affected to any type of cancer (or disease). For example, the CAT (Computerized Axial Topography) scanner passes rays over the patient. A CAT scanner takes many X-rays around the body. It displays an image that enables physicians to look beneath the patients skin. As the scanner passes over the patient, it displays and image of bone and tissue structure of patient on a computer screen. (iv) Telemedicine Another improvement in the medical field is the telemedicne. In telemedicine, you can access medical care centers using computers videoconferencing. (v) Computer-Aided Surgery (CAS) Many surgeons also use computer aided surgery while they are in training. It is used to learn surgical techniques. The physicians and dentists also use the computer aided learning (CAL) program. Many websites also provide up-to-date medical, fitness, etc. information. These websites also maintain databases about various problems and their solutions. There are also medical chat rooms on the internet. 5. Science Computer is used in all branches of science to collect and analyze data. The scientists also use internet to collect the latest information around the world. Today, it is impossible to carry out scientific researches without use of computers. In all branches of science, it is mainly used to get accurate experimental results, for example to get accurate forecasting of weather etc. Data analysis of Researches (in medical, pharmacy ,drug administration, bio-informatics..etc)is done by computers. 6. Publishing In the field of publishing, computer is playing very important role such as to publish the books, magazines and newspapers etc. The publishers use computer and word processors and graphics software to design pages of the books or magazines. Many writes and publishers use Internet to collect information that is used for compliling a new book of magazine. Some websites allow you to download and entire book, called an electronic book (e-book). The journalists also use the notebook computers and digital cameras to capture and record news. 7. Traveling

Computer is also playing very important role in traveling by car or airplane to arrive easily and safely at your destination. Today many vehicles manufactured use special electronic equipments in the car that controls various activities of the car. These cars have GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver that reports your vehicles location. These cars also have Onboard Navigation Systems that have the following featuers.

Track the vehicle if it is stolen Provide emergency services Provide directions Provide roadside assistance Perform remote diagnostics if a warning light appears on the dashboard To make hotel and restaurant reservations

Today many vehicles also include options such as screens with e-mail and internet access, printers, fax capability etc. Airlines also provide online access. The passengers can connect their notebook or hand held computer to the web during their flights. Some airlines also provide web surfing devices to their passenger during their flights. Computer are also used in cars to monitor fluid levels, temperatures, electrical systems etc. It is also used to monitor the air traffic etc. 8. Government A government runs the country by making policies and provides citizens with up-to-date information. Most of the government departments have their own websites. The computers are used in all government departments have their own websites. The computers are used in all government offices to perform various activities. The government agencies use computers as part of their daily routine. Among other tasks, the federal government uses computers to forecast the weather, to manage parks and historical sites, to process immigrants, to produce social security checks and to collect taxes. The most important use of the computer 9. Home Like other electronic devices used in home such as T.V. set, washing machine etc. computer has also become the need of every person at home. It is used at home as an educational tool for children. But it is also used at home to keep records, write letters, prepare budgets, connect with others to send and get information on the internet, to watch films and to listen music or other entertainment etc. 10 Agriculture In agriculture field also, computer is playing very important role. The agricultural scientists are computer for analyzing the agricultural data. The students of agriculture also uses computer to get latest information about agriculture on the internet. The farmers also use computer to get information about crops and to calculate bills and cost per acre as well as to get information about crops market prices. 11. Energy

Energy companies use computers to locate or search oil, coal, natural gas and uranium. Similarly electric power companies use computers to monitor the power networks. In addition, meter readers use hand held computers to record the units consumed in homes and business. 12. Industry In industry, computers are used to control the manufacturing system and continuous running of the machinery. These also help in monitoring temperature [pressure, check the quality and accuracy and measurement needed in the manufacturing process. In industry, robots are used to perform most of the activities as mentioned above. A robot is an automatic programmable machine that moves and preforms mechanical tasks. It means that a robot acts like human beings. Robot can work in environment that is dangerous for human being such as opening chemical packages and packages believed to contain bombs. It can perform repetitive tasks continuously without any break, at very high accuracy than human. Robots can also be used in hundreds of applications such as:

Assembling & spray-painting cars Lifting of heavy equipments, power cables etc. Testing blood samples Performing experiments in artificial satellites and radioactive environment etc.

13. Banking: - Before when there was no computer, every where manual system was followed which was a very complicated and hard work but now with the coming of computer every thing is in a very systematic way. Every bank is now using a computerized system because it is very fast and user friendly. ATM cards are used every where now which let us bank any time we want. PC banking (Personal Computer banking) let us view our bank balance, request transfers between accounts and pay bills electronically etc 14. Traffic light control: - In traffic light control the computer is being employed to drive the traffic light. There are some programmed codes like " turn off the red light" or "turn on the red light" to control the traffic light and to carry out the instructions that follows. Another most important application of computer in real life is: 15.Sports: - In sports computers are used wildly in conjunction with video cameras. These are used to record the motion of all the sports men. 3D programs are used later on to help the trainers see there movements and could improve there styles of playing. 16.Schools and Colleges: - Every student details need to be stored so a computer program could help in this way. Multimedia, animations, graphics and charts could be used to teach the students and many boring topics can be made interesting using multimedia. Students could access internet for online help and courses for more information. 17. Businesses. Businessmen make bar graphs and pie charts from tedious figures to convey information with far more impact than numbers alone can covey. Furthermore, computers help businesses to predict their future sales, profits, costs etc. making companies more accurate in their accounts. Computers may also play a vital role in aiding thousands of organizations to make judgmental and hard-provoking decisions concerning financial problems and prospective trends.

18. Buildings. Architects use computer animated graphics to experiment with possible exteriors and to give clients a visual walk-through of their proposed buildings. The computers provide architects a numerous amount of facilities to create different buildings with greater accuracy, better designing and editing tools, and work done at the fastest speed possible. Finally, a new kind of artist has emerged, one who uses computers to express his or her creativity. 19. Law Enforcement. Recent innovation in computerised law enforcement include national fingerprint files, a national file on the mode of operation of serial killers, and computer modeling of DNA, which can be used to match traces from an alleged criminal's body, such as blood at a crime scene. In addition, computers also contain a complete databases of all the names, pictures and information of such people who choose to break the law. 20. Transportation. Computers are used in cars to monitor fluid levels, temperatures and electrical systems. Computers are also used to help run rapid transit systems, load containerships and track railroads cars across the country. An important part is the air control traffic systems, where computers are used to control the flow of traffic between airplanes which needs a lot of precision and accuracy to be dealt with. 21.Money. Computers speed up record keeping and allow banks to offer same-day services and even do-it yourself banking over the phone and internet. Computers have helped fuel the cashless economy, enabling the widespread use of credit cards, debit cards and instantaneous credit checks by banks and retailers. There is also a level of greater security when computers are involved in money transactions as there is a better chance of detecting forged cheques and using credit/debit cards illegally etc. 22. Agriculture. Farmers use small computers to help with billing, crop information, and cost per acre, feed combinations, and market price checks. Cattle ranchers can also use computers for information about livestock breeding and performance. 23. Health and Medicine. Computers are helping immensely to monitor thee extremely ill in the intensive care unit and provide cross-sectional views of the body. This eliminates the need for hired nurses to watch the patient twenty-four hours a day, which is greatly tiring and error prone. Doctors use computers to assist them in diagnosing certain diseases of the sort. This type of computer is called the Expert System, which is basically a collection of accumulated expertise in a specific area of field. Computers are now able to map, in exquisite detail, the structure of the human cold virus - the first step towards the common cold. Furthermore, computers are used greatly in managing patients, doctors, wards and medicine records, as well as deal with making appointments, scheduling surgeries and other likes. 24. Manufacturing Industries. Computers have made their way towards jobs that were unpleasant or too dangerous for humans to do, such as working hundreds of feet below the earth or opening a package that might contain an explosive device. In other industries, computers are used to control the production of resources very precisely. All robots and machinery are now controlled by various computers, making the production process faster and cheaper. All the stages of manufacturing, from designing to production, can be done with the use of computer technology with greater diversity.

25.The Human connection. The computers have evolved in such prosperity that it is now able to assist or aid with humans who are disabled - both physically and mentally. The handicapped are now able to express their missing sense with the aid of computer technology. For example, a deaf and dumb person is able to communicate extensively with other people by using a specially designed computer system. This gives the disabled a chance to live out life and gradually catch up with the other fortunate people living on earth. 26. Scientific Research. This is very important for mankind and with the development of computers; scientific research has propelled towards the better a great deal. Because of high-speed characteristics of computer systems

27.Training. It is much more cheaper and effective to teach pilots how to fly in a computerised cockpit or simulators, than is real airplanes. This is because the learning pilots will feel much more relaxed and confident due to the fact that no life is at risk at that moment. Railway engineers can also be given some kind of training on how to run a train with the help of a computerised system. Training simulations are relatively cheaper and are always available on one-to-one basis making way for personal training. 28. Paperwork. Computer systems will increasingly cut down the paperwork that is involved in millions of industries around the world. If a business is run on a manual system, then the amount of papers or registers involved is a great deal, making the administration process more tedious and error prone. If it is replaced by a computer system, then all the necessary data and information is transferred into the memory of the computer. This makes managing various tasks easier, faster and more effective than the manual system. Organisations that involve administrative tasks such as a hotel, school, hospitals, clubs, libraries etc. will become more efficient if a computer system is implemented. 29. Real Time systems. Many computers provide an environment, which is completely based on real time. This means processing of one entity is done so quickly and effectively, that another entity is not effected. For example Airline systems and Banking systems will come under this category. These systems are immensely huge because they interact with all other airlines or banking systems in the world. A computer system, therefore, becomes more than just necessary in daily uses. The basic functions of computer: The original function of the personal computer was to help the End-User to do Basic Accountant Processing, and or Book Keeping for the busy Home Person that was normally employed with the proper finances. you can do with it like on line educational things and or play video game for entertainment or begin to learn more of what you can if you are just starting out with them. Other computer functions are: To run user application programs

to do repetitive tasks or compute mathematical equations very fast (to compute a mandlebrot set by hand it would take 3yrs, with a computer it would take a fraction of a second). to convey store and manage information. to accomplish automated tasks; trivial (flipping traffic lights back and forth) or advanced (integrating a calculus function).

Before learning how to use a computer, you must first learn the different functions that a computer can perform. Basically, there are four functions, input, output, storage, processing. Functional composition of a digital computer: (Diagram1)

Basic four function of computers are: Input Computer can keep track of any different types of information. With software like microsoft word, notepad. it makes inputing any data such as words, articles relatively easy. Examples of input devices include, your keyboard, computer mouse, microphone etc. Processing Computer can rapidly solve all types of numerical problems. Solving numerical problems can be considered as an example of computer processing. With the ability of data manipulation of company, task can be completed efficiently with effectively. Saving lots and lots of time and effort, compared to human work. Also, computer are accurate and

error free, they can process huge amount of information at the same time and they inexpensive. Storage Imagine you have a collections of ten thousand photos. You are going to london to meet your relative and were told to bring that ten thousands photos over. Guess what? That is alot of things. So with the advent of computer, you can just save that ten thousand photos and bring your laptop over. Thats that simple!. Example of computer storage include, harddisk, cd rom, dvd rom and others. Output Output is one of the most commonly used function in computer. It may refers to the graph that is being plotted in microsoft excel, the song that you are playing from media player, the powerpoint slide,example: I am plotting a graph in microsoft excel, i am entering the values (input), the computer will calculate the values and plot the graph for me (processing), then display the graph (output), and after that, i will save it (storage) in my hardisk. (Diagram2):

Components of Computer :

Main components are software (memory and programs to process data) and hardware (devices used for the storing and processing of that data). And, lastly, an array of components for humans to interact with the electronic data 'machine.' Modern personal computers usually contain the following components:

CPU (Central Processing Unit) - The Central Processing Unit that is usually attached directly to the motherboard. It is comprised of a chip with usually dozens of pins which are connected to the motherboard. They are usually obscured by a large heat sink (large metal components which divert heat away from chips, which may or may not have an attached fan, depending on if it is a PC or a Mac). RAM (Random Access Memory) - Usually Dual-Inline Memory Modules (DIMMs), they are plugged directly into the motherboard as well. Some highperformance versions are cased in metal which help cool the chips on them. There are usually 8 chips on a stick of RAM (random access memory), sometimes there is a 9th "parity" chip, which helps check for errors within the memory. ROM (Read Only Memory), usually on a Hard drive - This is usually a large metallic rectangular prism-shaped device about 3.5 inches wide. It stores data onto metal discs within the device and have recently come out with capacities as large as 1 TB (Terabyte, or 1000 Gigabytes, 1,000,000 Megabytes etc). In the 'old days' these were cards, ticker tape, or magnetic discs labeled as A drive or B drive. Now most computers have C drive, which is the hard drive mentioned earlier. The OS - This is the programmed Operating System that is the 'brain' of the computer. If it is a PC it will be a Microsoft derivative of the common Windows systems. It began its earlier days as DOS (Disk Operating System) which was developed by Bill Gates for IBM. If it is an Apple Mac (Macintosh) computer it will likely be using a Mac OS system developed by Apple Inc., which first developed the graphical user interface-based operating systems that we all use today. The other alternative operating systems include UNIX, and some others. A case to hold all the components, usually in a tower. Human Interface Devices (HID) - These are the components that allow a human being to interact with the computer and access and/or process data. These can include a keyboard, mouse, monitor (digital video screen, usually now an LED monitor), video cam, microphone, headphones/speakers, graphics tablet, or other devices.

1. Case with hardware inside: 1. Power Supply - The power supply comes with the case, but this component is mentioned separately since there are various types of power supplies. The one you should get depends on the requirements of your system. This will be discussed in more detail later 2. Motherboard - This is where the core components of your computer reside which are listed below. Also the support cards for video, sound, networking and more are mounted into this board.

It is the backbone of the computer, designed to transfer information and power to and from all of the major components. Other components are usually plugged into this device, and it is almost always the largest board in the computer. Also called a "Mainboard" or "mobo". The motherboard contain the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) that allows all the components to communicate with each other. 1. Microprocessor - This is the brain of your computer. It performs commands and instructions and controls the operation of the computer. 2. Memory - The RAM in your system is mounted on the motherboard. This is memory that must be powered on to retain its contents. 3. Drive controllers - The drive controllers control the interface of your system to your hard drives. The controllers let your hard drives work by controlling their operation. On most systems, they are included on the motherboard, however you may add additional controllers for faster or other types of drives.

3. Hard disk drive(s) - This is where your files are permanently stored on your computer. Also, normally, your operating system is installed here. 4. CD-ROM drive(s) - This is normally a read only drive where files are permanently stored. There are now read/write CD-ROM drives that use special software to allow users to read from and write to these drives. 5. Floppy drive(s) - A floppy is a small disk storage device that today typically has about 1.4 Megabytes of memory capacity. 6. Other possible file storage devices include DVD devices, Tape backup devices, and some others.

2. Monitor - This device which operates like a TV set lets the user see how the computer is responding to their commands. 3. Keyboard - This is where the user enters text commands into the computer. 4. Mouse - A point and click interface for entering commands which works well in graphical environments.

Accessories and Peripherals include: Optical Devices - It has become common for a computer to contain CD-ROM, DVDROM, BLU-RAY ROM or writing devices of the aforementioned types. LAN CARD - Known officially as a Network Interface Card (NIC), these devices connect a computer to a network, usually to a router or modem which establishes connectivity to the Internet. These are usually PCI expansion cards or built into a motherboard and output in RJ-45 format. The cable tips (RJ-45) look similar to a phone cable (RJ-11), but are larger. They are commonly called Ethernet Cables. USB ports - /printers/flashdrives. Various Diagrams with Components and peripherals: (a)

(B)Computer Components(Anatomy): Computer components are the parts of the computer which are collectively used to offer smooth, fast and accurate operating. Each and every component has a significant feature which makes your computer work better. The basic components are the computer case, CPU, power supply, hard drive, disk drive, video cards, mouse, monitor and many more. The most popularly and readily available in the market and online stores are Frontech external miracle TV box,8 port VGA video splitter, All in one card reader, Crimping

tool ,USB fan for laptops, Vista compatible Bluetooth,USB 4 port mini hub and many others . PC Buses: PCI USB Hyper-transport AGP ISA EISA VLB Media: CD-Rom DVD-Rom Combo box Joystick BD-Rom drive Internal storage Hard disk (ATA & SATA) Data array controller Floppy disk Other Peripheral Devices Mouse Modems Digital Camera Sound, Video Cards Printer Output Devices Printer Scanner Monitor Speakers Headset Video output devices CPU (Central Processing Unit): CPU or central processing unit relates to a specific or processor. The performance of the computer is determined by the CPU chip (processor speed) and the other computer circuitry. Currently, the Pentium chip (processor) is the most popular even though there are other chips available in the market today such as AMD, Motorola and others. The clocks speed becomes most important factor in determining the performance of a computer. The motherboard contains the hardware circuitry and connections that allow the different hardware components of the PC to interact and communicate with each other. Most computer software is being developed for the latest processors so it would be difficult to use the older systems.

Hard Disk Drives Disk drive is the mechanism to run the disks. All disks need a drive to get the information, read it and put it back to the disks. Hard disk is used to store the data permanently. Often the terms disk and drive used to describe the same thing but it should be clear that a disk is a storage device. Modem A modem is used for the modulation and demodulation of the data that is transferred through the modem and the telephone lines. Modem translates the data from digital to analog from analog to digital. Because on the telephone lines data can travel in the form of the analog signals and in the computer data transmits in the form of digital signals. Modems are measured by the speed which is called baud rate. The typical baud rate is 56Kb. Keyboard The keyboard is used to type something or input information to the computer. There are different designs and models of the keyboards in the market. The most common layout of the keyboard is QWERTY layout. A standard keyboard has 101 keys and embedded keys. Video cards-Video cards allow computer to display video, graphics and animation. Some video cards allow computers to display television. A video card with a digital video camera allows users to produce live video. A high speed broadband internet connection is required to watch the videos on net. Network cards: Network interface cards allow PCs to connect with each other and communicate. Every network computer is required to have a NIC card. NIC cards are required both in wired and wireless networking. Cables: There are two broad types of cables internal cables, which are embedded on the mother board circuit that performs the communication between the devices and CPU. The other types of the cables are the network cables like coaxial cable, CAT 5, Ethernet cables. These cables are used for the communication purposes between the devices or computers. Memory Memory is the one of the important piece of the hardware. Sometimes memory chip memory is confused with the hard disk memory. Sometimes unallocated space of the hard disk is used as virtual memory also known as page file. This type of memory is a temporary memory and is used actual memory is less and requires some additional memory to perform a specific task. RAM (Random Access Memory) RAM is a memory that is being used by the computer to store the information temporarily. For example when some work is performed on some applications that work is temporarily stored in the RAM. More RAM in the computer more faster computer works. Today at least requirement of a modern PC is 64 RAM. RAM is in the form of a chip and different vendors have developed the RAM of different capacities. Mouse Every modern computer requires a mouse for faster operations. Generally a mouse has two buttons left and right to perform different functions. One type of the mouse has a round ball under the bottom. Another type of the mouse use optical system to track the movement of the mouse.

Monitors The monitor is used to display the information on the screen. All the activities of a computer, functions and tasks are seen on the computer screen and this is called outputting information. Monitors come in many sizes and shapes, monochrome or full colors. Today most computers use LCD screens. It is light weight and consumes less power as compared to the monitors. Printers The printer takes the information from the PC and transfers it to the paper of different sizes, which are placed in the printer device. There are three basic types of a printer such as dot matrix, inkjet and laser. Scanners- Scanners allow you to transfer pictures and photographs to your computer. A scanner is used to scan the images and pictures. You can then send the image to someone, modify it or take a print out of it. With optical character recognition software you can convert printed documents into the text that you can use in the word processor. Digital camera- You can take the digital photographs with the digital cameras. The images are stored on the memory chip of the digital cameras and you can transfer them to your computer with the USB drive. Case Case or casing covers the whole computers circuitry. There are two types of casings desktop and tower casing. There is room inside the casing to add or remove components. Cases come in many sizes like desktop, mini, midi and tower. There are some additional empty slots inside the cases such as IDE, USB, ASI, PCI and firewire slots. Cards Cards are the hardware components that are added to the computer to increase their functionalities and capabilities. Sound cards produce the sound like music and voice. The older cars were 8, 16 and then 32 bits. Color cards allow computers to produce colors. Initially there were 2, 4 and then 16 bits. The main types of the graphic cards are EGA, VGA and SGA. The 32 cards are the standard to display almost billions of the colors on the monitor. Moors-Law :

About Digital computer :

Binary Coded Decimal

To the right we have provided a table of BCD data which is all based upon the old "1's" and "0's". If at first it looks a bit intimidating don't worry you will very quickly get the hang of it. Notice first of all we have in the extreme right hand column the numbers 0 - 9 and the letters A to F. The first four columns are headed 8 - 4 -2 - 1 We explained earlier by adding switches you double the previous capacity for numbering in binary. Notice the pattern of our 0's and 1's. Under the column 1 we get a succession of 0, 1, 0, 1..... Under the column 2 we get a succession of 0, 0, 1, 1..... etc. In fact under every column heading you have exactly an equal number of zeros first followed by the same number of ones. Look at column 8 for example. Eight zeros followed by eight ones. Now look at the far right column and look up number seven, follow that row reading across right to left and you will see the sequence 0 - 1 - 1 - 1. Okay if a one means a turned on switch with the value of that column what does 4 + 2 + 1 =?

Binary Coded Decimal BCD 8

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

4
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

2
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

Of course the answer was seven. Try it with any number you like. Alright what's this A to F stuff? Look at a digit on a digital clock or watch for example. For those numbers to be represented in digital format requires four switches but now we will start using the correct terms. The word is "bits", heard that before? Now we're right into digital basics. Four bits are called "a nibble" and guess what?, eight bits are called "a byte". Bet you've heard that one for sure unless you live under a rock. You should know by now that four switches (OK bits right!) can represent sixteen states and with a digital clock you only go 0 to 9 and don't need anything else so that was called BCD or Binary Coded Decimal. The last word is because we humans count in decimal format or decades. Digital devices including computers DON'T, they can't. All they see are ones and zeros, nothing else.

Digital Basics of Computers:

Early computer programmers needed the digital basics to some way represent the human recognised numbers 10 to 15 under the decimal system in a way which still represented one decade. They conveniently chose A - F the first six letters of the alphabet and six in latin is "HEX". Hex-Decimal was born, six alphabetical characters with ten decimal numbers comprising a set of sixteen unique settings of bits all told. The first home computers such as my old personal favourite, the Apple II, had an eight bit "data bus" which dealt in "bytes" and had a sixteen bit (65,536 or 64K) "address bus". The only changes since the 1970's has been the ever increasing speed of the digital logic blocks contained within microprocessors, repeated doubling of the number of switches, (er sorry bits!) reduced power consumption for efficiency, and expanded on board "instruction sets" of micro-code for sharp programmers to use. Dead simple really. By the way, computers and other digital devices can NOT multiply or divide, they can only add and subtract or shift a sequence of bits left or right. When a computer ostensibly multiplies 3 X 4 it actually deep down in the nitty gritty department of all those basic logic blocks shown in figure 3 above, which are buried deep within your IBM or Mac microprocessor, takes the number four, adds four again and; finally adds four again to get twelve. Anyone who tells you otherwise reveals a deep ignorance of digital basics, trust me. Want more proof? Take the word "proof". In ASCII format the word "proof" in lower case is five letters of the alphabet represented as a sequence of hex-decimal bytes as follows 70 72 6F 6F 66 in decimal format that would be 112 114 111 111 102 A computer looks at those sequence of bytes to "interpret" the word "proof". To achieve that colour change to red I used the html instruction <font color="#FF0000"> which of course is a six byte instruction in hex-decimal. As an exercise for yourself see if you can see how the conversion from hex-decimal to decimal equivalent for the word "proof" occurs. O.K. it's just digital basics.

Basics of digital computer hardware

machine).

A computer is a programmable machine (or more precisely, a programmable sequential state There are two basic kinds of computers: analog and digital.

Analog computers are analog devices. That is, they have continuous states rather than discrete numbered states. An analog computer can represent fractional or irrational values

exactly, with no round-off. Analog computers are almost never used outside of experimental settings. A digital computer is a programmable clocked sequential state machine. A digital computer uses discrete states. A binary digital computer uses two discrete states, such as positive/negative, high/low, on/off, used to represent the binary digits zero and one. The French word ordinateur, meaning that which puts things in order, is a good description of the most common functionality of computers.

what are computers used for?

Computers are used for a wide variety of purposes. Data processing is commercial and financial work. This includes such things as billing, shipping and receiving, inventory control, and similar business related functions, as well as the electronic office. Scientific processing is using a computer to support science. This can be as simple as gathering and analyzing raw data and as complex as modelling natural phenomenon (weather and climate models, thermodynamics, nuclear engineering, etc.). Multimedia includes content creation (composing music, performing music, recording music, editing film and video, special effects, animation, illustration, laying out print materials, etc.) and multimedia playback (games, DVDs, instructional materials, etc.).

parts of a digital computer

The classic crude oversimplication of a computer is that it contains three elements: processor unit, memory, and I/O (input/output). The borders between those three terms are highly ambigious, non-contiguous, and erratically shifting.

A slightly less crude oversimplification divides a computer into five elements: arithmetic and logic subsystem, control subsystem, main storage, input subsystem, and output subsystem.

processor
The processor is the part of the computer that actually does the computations. This is sometimes called an MPU (for main processor unit) or CPU (for central processing unit or central processor unit). A processor typically contains an arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), control unit (including processor flags, flag register, or status register), internal buses, and sometimes special function units (the most common special function unit being a floating point unit for floating point arithmetic). Some computers have more than one processor. This is called multi-processing. The major kinds of digital processors are: CISC, RISC, DSP, and hybrid. CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer. Mainframe computers and minicomputers were CISC processors, with manufacturers competing to offer the most useful instruction sets. Many of the first two generations of microprocessors were also CISC. RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer. RISC came about as a result of academic research that showed that a small well designed instruction set running compiled programs at high speed could perform more computing work than a CISC running the same programs (although very expensive hand optimized assembly language favored CISC).

DSP stands for Digital Signal Processing. DSP is used primarily in dedicated devices, such as MODEMs, digital cameras, graphics cards, and other specialty devices. Hybrid processors combine elements of two or three of the major classes of processors.

Arithmetic and logic

An arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) performs integer arithmetic and logic operations. It also performs shift and rotate operations and other specialized operations. Usually floating point arithmetic is performed by a dedicated floating point unit (FPU), which may be implemented as a co-processor.

control
Control units are in charge of the computer. Control units fetch and decode machine instructions. Control units may also control some external devices. A bus is a set (group) of parallel lines that information (data, addresses, instructions, and other information) travels on inside a computer. Information travels on buses as a series of electrical pulses, each pulse representing a one bit or a zero bit (there are trinary, or three-state, buses, but they are rare). An internal bus is a bus inside the processor, moving data, addresses, instructions, and other information between registers and other internal components or units. An external bus is a bus outside of the processor (but inside the computer), moving data, addresses, and other information between major components (including cards) inside the computer. Some common kinds of buses are the system bus, a data bus, an address bus, a cache bus, a memory bus, and an I/O bus.

main storage
Main storage is also called memory or internal memory (to distinguish from external memory, such as hard drives). RAM is Random Access Memory, and is the basic kind of internal memory. RAM is called random access because the processor or computer can access any location in memory (as contrasted with sequential access devices, which must be accessed in order). RAM has been made from reed relays, transistors, integrated circuits, magnetic core, or anything that can hold and store binary values (one/zero, plus/minus, open/close, positive/negative, high/low, etc.). Most modern RAM is made from integrated circuits. At one time the most common kind of memory in mainframes was magnetic core, so many older programmers will refer to main memory as core memory even when the RAM is made from more modern technology. Static RAM is called static because it will continue to hold and store information even when power is removed. Magnetic core and reed relays are examples of static memory. Dynamic RAM is called dynamic because it loses all data when power is removed. Transistors and integrated circuits are examples of

dynamic memory. It is possible to have battery back up for devices that are normally dynamic to turn them into static memory. ROM is Read Only Memory (it is also random access, but only for reads). ROM is typically used to store thigns that will never change for the life of the computer, such as low level portions of an operating system. Some processors (or variations within processor families) might have RAM and/or ROM built into the same chip as the processor (normally used for processors used in standalone devices, such as arcade video games, ATMs, microwave ovens, car ignition systems, etc.). EPROM is Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, a special kind of ROM that can be erased and reprogrammed with specialized equipment (but not by the processor it is connected to). EPROMs allow makers of industrial devices (and other similar equipment) to have the benefits of ROM, yet also allow for updating or upgrading the software without having to buy new ROM and throw out the old (the EPROMs are collected, erased and rewritten centrally, then placed back into the machines). Registers and flags are a special kind of memory that exists inside a processor. Typically a processor will have several internal registers that are much faster than main memory. These registers usually have specialized capabilities for arithmetic, logic, and other operations. Registers are usually fairly small (8, 16, 32, or 64 bits for integer data, address, and control registers; 32, 64, 96, or 128 bits for floating point registers). Some processors separate integer data and address registers, while other processors have general purpose registers that can be used for both data and address purposes. A processor will typically have one to 32 data or general purpose registers (processors with separate data and address registers typically split the register set in half). Many processors have special floating point registers (and some processors have general purpose registers that can be used for either integer or floating point arithmetic). Flags are single bit memory used for testing, comparison, and conditional operations (especially conditional branching).

external storage
External storage (also called auxillary storage) is any storage other than main memory. In modern times this is mostly hard drives and removeable media (such as floppy disks, Zip disks, optical media, etc.). With the advent of USB and FireWire hard drives, the line between permanent hard drives and removeable media is blurred. Other kinds of external storage include tape drives, drum drives, paper tape, and punched cards. Random access or indexed access devices (such as hard drives, removeable media, and drum drives) provide an extension of memory (although usually accessed through logical file systems). Sequential access devices (such as tape drives, paper tape punch/readers, or dumb terminals) provide for off-line storage of large amounts of information (or back ups of data) and are often called I/O devices (for input/output).

input/output overview
Most external devices are capable of both input and output (I/O). Some devices are inherently input-only (also called read-only) or inherently output-only (also called writeonly). Regardless of whether a device is I/O, read-only, or write-only, external devices can be classified as block or character devices.

A character device is one that inputs or outputs data in a stream of characters, bytes, or bits. Character devices can further be classified as serial or parallel. Examples of character devices include printers, keyboards, and mice. A serial device streams data as a series of bits, moving data one bit at a time. Examples of serial devices include printers and MODEMs. A parallel device streams data in a small group of bits simultaneously. Usually the group is a single eight-bit byte (or possibly seven or nine bits, with the possibility of various control or parity bits included in the data stream). Each group usually corresponds to a single character of data. Rarely there will be a larger group of bits (word, longword, doubleword, etc.). The most common parallel device is a printer (although most modern printers have both a serial and a parallel connection, allowing greater connection flexibility). A block device moves large blocks of data at once. This may be physically implemented as a serial or parallel stream of data, but the entire block gets transferred as single packet of data. Most block devices are random access (that is, information can be read or written from blocks anywhere on the device). Examples of random access block devices include hard disks, floppy disks, and drum drives. Examples of sequential access block devcies include magnetic tape drives and high speed paper tape readers.

input
Input devices are devices that bring information into a computer. Pure input devices include such things as punched card readers, paper tape readers, keyboards, mice, drawing tablets, touchpads, trackballs, and game controllers. Devices that have an input component include magnetic tape drives, touchscreens, and dumb terminals.

output
Output devices are devices that bring information out of a computer. Pure output devices include such things as card punches, paper tape punches, LED displays (for light emitting diodes), monitors, printers, and pen plotters. Devices that have an output component include magnetic tape drives, combination paper tape reader/punches, teletypes, and dumb terminals.