Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function,

growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Branches of biology

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Aerobiology the study of airborne organic particles Agriculture the study of producing crops from the land, with an emphasis on practical applications Anatomy the study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms, or specifically in humans Astrobiology the study of evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universealso known as exobiology, exopaleontology, and bioastronomy Biochemistry the study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level Bioengineering the study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology Biogeography the study of the distribution of species spatially and temporally Bioinformatics the use of information technology for the study, collection, and storage of genomic and other biological data Biomathematics or Mathematical Biology the quantitative or mathematical study of biological processes, with an emphasis on modeling Biomechanics often considered a branch of medicine, the study of the mechanics of living beings, with an emphasis on applied use through prosthetics or orthotics Biomedical research the study of the human body in health and disease Biophysics the study of biological processes through physics, by applying the theories and methods traditionally used in the physical sciences Biotechnology a new and sometimes controversial branch of biology that studies the manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology Building biology the study of the indoor living environment Botany the study of plants Cell biology the study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions that occur within a living cell Conservation Biology the study of the preservation, protection, or restoration of the natural environment, natural ecosystems, vegetation, and wildlife Cryobiology the study of the effects of lower than normally preferred temperatures on living beings. Developmental biology the study of the processes through which an organism forms, from zygote to full structure Ecology the study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the non-living elements of their environment Embryology the study of the development of embryo (from fecundation to birth). See also topobiology. Entomology the study of insects Environmental Biology the study of the natural world, as a whole or in a particular area, especially as affected by human activity Epidemiology a major component of public health research, studying factors affecting the health of populations Ethology the study of animal behavior Evolutionary Biology the study of the origin and descent of species over time Genetics the study of genes and heredity Herpetology the study of reptiles and amphibians Histology the study of cells and tissues, a microscopic branch of anatomy Ichthyology the study of fish Integrative biology the study of whole organisms Limnology the study of inland waters Mammalogy the study of mammals Marine Biology the study of ocean ecosystems, plants, animals, and other living beings Microbiology the study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their interactions with other living things Molecular Biology the study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, some cross over with biochemistry Mycology the study of fungi Neurobiology the study of the nervous system, including anatomy, physiology and pathology Oceanography the study of the ocean, including ocean life, environment, geography, weather, and other aspects influencing the ocean Oncology the study of cancer processes, including virus or mutation oncogenesis, angiogenesis and tissues remoldings Ornithology the study of birds Population biology the study of groups of conspecific organisms, including a. Population ecology the study of how population dynamics and extinction b. Population genetics the study of changes in gene frequencies in populations of organisms Paleontology the study of fossils and sometimes geographic evidence of prehistoric life Pathobiology or pathology the study of diseases, and the causes, processes, nature, and development of disease Parasitology the study of parasites and parasitism Pharmacology the study and practical application of preparation, use, and effects of drugs and synthetic medicines Physiology the study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of living organisms Phytopathology the study of plant diseases (also called Plant Pathology) Psychobiology the study of the biological bases of psychology Sociobiology the study of the biological bases of sociology Structural biology a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules Virology the study of viruses and some other virus-like agents Zoology the study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, and behavior

Cell theory refers to the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing. Development of this theory during the mid 17th century was made possible by advances in microscopy. This theory is one of the foundations of biology. The theory says that new cells are formed from other existing cells, and that the cell is a fundamental unit of structure, function and organization in all living organisms. The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. He examined (under a coarse, compound microscope) very thin slices of cork and saw a multitude of tiny pores that he remarked looked like the walled compartments a monk would live in. Because of this association, Hooke called them cells, the name they still bear. However, [1] [2] Hooke did not know their real structure or function. Hooke's description of these cells (which were actually non-living cell walls) was published in Micrographia. His cell observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. The first man to witness a live cell under a microscope was Anton van Leeuwenhoek (although the first man to make a compound microscope was Zacharias Janssen), [3] [4] who in 1674 described the algae Spirogyra and named the moving organisms animalcules, meaning "little animals". Leeuwenhoek probably also saw bacteria. Cell theory was in contrast to the vitalism theories proposed before the discovery of cells. The idea that cells were separable into individual units was proposed by Ludolph Christian Treviranus and Johann Jacob Paul Moldenhawer. All of this finally led to [7] Henri Dutrochet formulating one of the fundamental tenets of modern cell theory by declaring that "The cell is the fundamental element of organization" The observations of Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, Schwann, Virchow, and others led to the development of the cell theory. The cell theory is a widely accepted explanation of the relationship between cells and living things. The cell theory states:
[5]

Cells are the basic building units of life. The cell theory holds true for all living things, no matter how big or small, or how simple or complex. Since according to research, cells are common to all living things, they can provide information about all life. And because all cells come from other cells, scientists can study cells to learn about growth, reproduction, and all other functions that living things perform. By learning about cells and how they function, you can learn about all types of living things. Credit for developing cell theory is usually given to three scientists: Theodor Schwann, Matthias Jakob Schleiden, and Rudolf Virchow. In 1839, Schwann and Schleiden suggested that cells were the basic unit of life. Their theory accepted the first two tenets of modern cell theory (see next section, below). However the cell theory of [8] Schleiden differed from modern cell theory in that it proposed a method of spontaneous crystallization that he called "Free Cell Formation". In 1858, Rudolf Virchow concluded that all cells come from pre-existing cells, thus completing the classical cell theory. Classical interpretation 1. All living organisms are made up of one or more cells. 2. Cells are the basic unit of life. 3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells. 4. The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and organization in living things. 5. The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in the construction of organisms. Modern interpretation The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include: 1. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living organisms. 2. All cells arise from pre-existing cells by division. 3. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells. 4. Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) which is passed from cell to cell during cell division. 5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species. 6. All known living things are made up of one or more cells. 7. Some organisms are made up of only one cell and are known as unicellular organisms. 8. Others are multicellular, composed of a number of cells. 9. The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells. TYPES OF CELL 1. Prokaryotes: Prokaryotes lack a nucleus (though they do have circular DNA) and other membrane-bound organelles (though they do contain ribosomes). Bacteria and Archaea are two domains of prokaryotes. 2. Eukaryotes: Eukaryotes, on the other hand, have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear membrane and membranebound organelles (mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles). In addition, they possess organized chromosomes which store genetic material.

y y y

All living things or organisms are made of cells and their products. New cells are created by old cells dividing into two.

Cell Parts and Their Functions - The control centre for all activity. - Surrounded by a nuclear membrane. Nucleoplasm - is the protoplasm in the nucleus. - contains genetic material ---> CHROMOSOMES (DNA) Nucleus - Large Oval body near the centre of the cell.

Nucleolus - is found in the nucleus. - contains more genetic information (RNA) Cell Membrane - the outer boundary of the cell. - it separates the cell from other cells. - it is porous ---> allows molecules to pass through. Cell Wall ( Plant Cells Only ) - non living structure that surrounds the plant cell. - protects + supports the cell. - made up of a tough fibre called cellulose. Cyto Plasm - cell material outside the nucleus but within the cell membrane. - clear thick fluid. - contains structures called organelles. Vacuoles - are clear fluid sacs that act as storage areas for food, minerals, and waste. - in plant cell the vacuoles are large and mostly filled with water. This gives the plant support. - in animal cells the vacuoles are much smaller.

Mitochondria - power house of the cell. - centre of respiration of the cell. - they release energy for cell functions. Chloro Plasts ( Plant cells only ) - contains a green pigment known as chlorophyll which is important for photosynthesis. Ribosomes - tiny spherical bodies that help make proteins. - found in the cyto plasm or attached to the endo plasmic reticulum. Endo Plasmic Reticulum ( ER ) - systems of membranes throughout the cyto plasm. - it connects the nuclear membrane to the cell membrane. - passageway for material moving though the cell. Golgi Bodies - tube like structures that have tiny sacs at their ends. - they help package protein. Lysosomes - " suicide sacs " - small structures that contain enzymes which are used in digestion. - if a lysosome were to burst it could destroy the cell.

The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that takes place in a cell leading to its division and duplication (replication)

Interphase Anaphase (technically not part of mitosis, but it is included in the cell cycle) Cell is in a resting phase, performing cell functions DNA replicates (copies) Telophase Organelles double in number, to prepare for division Prophase Spindle forms Centrioles move to opposite poles Chromosomes become visible Metaphase Chromosomes line up along the equator Nuclear membrane forms around each group of chromosomes Chromosomes unwind Cytokinesis begins Centromeres divide Chromatids separate and move to opposite poles

Cytokinesis- the process by which the cytoplasm divides and one cell becomes two individual cells. The process is different in plants and animals

Evolution A central organizing concept in biology is that life changes and develops through evolution, and that all life-forms known have a common origin. Introduced [15] into the scientific lexicon by Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck in 1809, evolution was established by Charles Darwin fifty years later as a viable theory when he [16][17] articulated its driving force: natural selection. (Alfred Russel Wallace is recognized as the co-discoverer of this concept as he helped research and [18] experiment with the concept of evolution.) Evolution is now used to explain the great variations of life found on Earth. [19] Darwin theorized that species and breeds developed through the processes of natural selection and artificial selection or selective breeding. Genetic drift [20] was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary development in the modern synthesis of the theory. The evolutionary history of the species which describes the characteristics of the various species from which it descended together with its genealogical relationship to every other species is known as its phylogeny. Widely varied approaches to biology generate information about phylogeny. These include the comparisons of DNA sequences conducted within molecular biology or genomics, and comparisons of fossils or other records of ancient organisms in [21] paleontology. Biologists organize and analyze evolutionary relationships through various methods, including phylogenetics, phenetics, and cladistics. (For a summary of major events in the evolution of life as currently understood by biologists, see evolutionary timeline.) The theory of evolution postulates that all organisms on the Earth, both living and extinct, have descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral gene pool. [22] This last universal common ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about 3.5 billion years ago. Biologists generally regard the universality and ubiquity of the genetic code as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common descent for all bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes Darwin's theory of evolution is based on five key observations and inferences drawn from them. These observations and inferences have been summarized by the great biologist Ernst Mayr as follows: 1) Species have great fertility. They make more offspring than can grow to adulthood. 2) Populations remain roughly the same size, with modest fluctuations. 3) Food resources are limited, but are relatively constant most of the time. From these three observations it may be inferred that in such an environment there will be a struggle for survival among individuals. 4) In sexually reproducing species, generally no two individuals are identical. Variation is rampant. 5) Much of this variation is heritable. From this it may be inferred: In a world of stable populations where each individual must struggle to survive, those with the "best" characteristics will be more likely to survive, and those desirable traits will be passed to their offspring. These advantageous characteristics are inherited by following generations, becoming dominant among the population through time. This is natural selection. It may be further inferred that natural selection, if carried far enough, makes changes in a population, eventually leading to new species. These observations have been amply demonstrated in biology, and even fossils demonstrate the veracity of these observations. To summarise Darwin's Theory of Evolution; 1. Variation: There is Variation in Every Population. 2. Competition: Organisms Compete for limited resources. 3. Offspring: Organisms produce more Offspring than can survive. 4. Genetics: Organisms pass Genetic traits on to their offspring. 5. Natural Selection: Those organisms with the Most Beneficial Traits are more likely to Survive and Reproduce. Genetics Mendelian inheritance (or Mendelian genetics or Mendelism) is a set of primary tenets relating to the transmission of hereditary characteristics from parent organisms to their offspring; it underlies much of genetics The Law of Segregation states that when any individual produces gametes, the copies of a gene separate so that each gamete receives only one copy. A gamete will receive one allele or the other. The direct proof of this was later found following the observation of meiosis by two independent scientists, the German botanist, Oscar Hertwig in 1876, and the Belgian zoologist, Edouard Van Beneden in 1883. In meiosis, the paternal and maternal chromosomes get separated and the alleles with the traits of a character are segregated into two different gametes. The two coexisting alleles of an individual for each trait segregate (separate) during gamete formation so that each gamete gets only one of the two alleles. Alleles again unite at random fertilization of gametes. The Law of Independent Assortment, also known as "Inheritance Law" states that alleles of different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation. Professor Reginald Crundall Punnett FRS (20 June 1875 3 January 1967) was a British geneticist who co-founded, with William Bateson, the Journal of Genetics in 1910. Punnett is probably best remembered today as the creator of the Punnett square, a tool still used by biologists to predict the probability of possible genotypes of offspring. His Mendelism (1905) is sometimes said to have been the first textbook on genetics; it was probably the first popular science book to introduce genetics to the public.

A Punnett square depicting a cross between two pea plants heterozygous for purple (B) and white (b) blossoms Genes are the primary units of inheritance in all organisms. A gene is a unit of heredity and corresponds to a region of DNA that influences the form or function of an organism in specific ways. All organisms, from bacteria to animals, share the same basic machinery that copies and translates DNA into proteins. Cells transcribe a DNA gene into an RNA version of the gene, and a ribosome then translates the RNA into a protein, a sequence of amino acids. The translation code

from RNA codon to amino acid is the same for most organisms, but slightly different for some. For example, a sequence of DNA that codes for insulin in [24][25] humans also codes for insulin when inserted into other organisms, such as plants. DNA usually occurs as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes. A chromosome is an organized structure consisting of DNA and histones. The set of chromosomes in a cell and any other hereditary information found in the mitochondria, chloroplasts, or other locations is collectively known as its genome. In eukaryotes, genomic DNA is located in the cell nucleus, along with small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts. In [26] prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid. The genetic information in a genome is held within [27] genes, and the complete assemblage of this information in an organism is called its genotype. Deoxyribonucleic acid (or DNA, is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms (with the exception of RNA viruses). The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints, like a recipe or a code, since it contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells, such as proteins and RNA molecules. The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information. Along with RNA and proteins, DNA is one of the three major macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life. DNA consists of two long polymers of simple units called nucleotides, with backbones made of sugars and phosphate groups joined by ester bonds. These two strands run in opposite directions to each other and are therefore anti-parallel. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of molecules called nucleobases (informally, bases). It is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes information. This information is read using the genetic code, which specifies the sequence of the amino acids within proteins. The code is read by copying stretches of DNA into the related nucleic acid RNA, in a process called transcription. Within cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes. These chromosomes are duplicated before cells divide, in a process called DNA replication. Eukaryotic organisms (animals, plants, fungi, and protists) store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus and some of their DNA in organelles, such [1] as mitochondria or chloroplasts. In contrast, prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) store their DNA only in the cytoplasm. Within the chromosomes, chromatin proteins such as histones compact and organize DNA. These compact structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed.

Properties
DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides. As first discovered by James D. Watson and Francis Crick, the structure of DNA of all species comprises two helical chains each coiled round the same axis, and each with a pitch of 34 ngstrms (3.4 nanometres) and a radius of 10 ngstrms [5] (1.0 nanometres). According to another study, when measured in a particular solution, the DNA chain measured 22 to 26 ngstrms wide (2.2 to [6] 2.6 nanometres), and one nucleotide unit measured 3.3 (0.33 nm) long. Although each individual repeating unit is very small, DNA polymers can be very large molecules containing millions of nucleotides. For instance, the largest human chromosome, chromosome number 1, is approximately 220 million base pairs long. In living organisms, DNA does not usually exist as a single molecule, but instead as a pair of molecules that are held tightly together. These two long strands entwine like vines, in the shape of a double helix. The nucleotide repeats contain both the segment of the backbone of the molecule, which holds the chain together, and a nucleobase, which interacts with the other DNA strand in the helix. A nucleobase linked to a sugar is called a nucleoside and a base linked to a [9] sugar and one or more phosphate groups is called a nucleotide. If multiple nucleotides are linked together, as in DNA, this polymer is called a polynucleotide. [10] The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and sugar residues. The sugar in DNA is 2-deoxyribose, which is a pentose (five-carbon) sugar. The sugars are joined together by phosphate groups that form phosphodiester bonds between the third and fifth carbon atoms of adjacent sugar rings. These asymmetric bonds mean a strand of DNA has a direction. In a double helix the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to their direction in the other strand: the strands are antiparallel. The asymmetric ends of DNA strands are called the 5 (five prime) and 3 (three prime) ends, with the 5' end having a terminal phosphate group and the 3' end a terminal hydroxyl group. One major difference between DNA and RNA is the sugar, with the 2-deoxyribose [8] in DNA being replaced by the alternative pentose sugar ribose in RNA. A section of DNA. The bases lie horizontally between the two spiraling strands. Animated version at File:DNA orbit animated.gif. The DNA double helix is stabilized primarily by two forces: hydrogen bonds between nucleotides and base-stacking [12] interactions among the aromatic nucleobases. In the aqueous environment of the cell, the conjugated bonds of nucleotide bases align perpendicular to the axis of the DNA molecule, minimizing their interaction with the solvation shell and therefore, the Gibbs free energy. The four bases found in DNA are adenine (abbreviated A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). These four bases are attached to the sugar/phosphate to form the complete nucleotide, as shown for adenosine monophosphate. The nucleobases are classified into two types; adenine and guanine are fused five- and six-membered heterocyclic [8] compounds called purines, while cytosine and thymine are six-membered rings called pyrimidines. A fifth pyrimidine nucleobase, called uracil (U), usually takes the place of thymine in RNA and differs from thymine by lacking a methyl group on its ring. Uracil is not usually found in DNA, occurring only as a breakdown product of cytosine. In addition to RNA and DNA, a large number of artificial nucleic acid analogues have also been created to study the proprieties of [13] nucleic acids, or for use in biotechnology. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is one of the three major macromolecules (along with DNA and proteins) that are essential for all known forms of life. Like DNA, RNA is made up of a long chain of components called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a nucleobase (sometimes called a nitrogenous base), a ribose sugar, and a phosphate group. The sequence of nucleotides allows RNA to encode genetic information. For example, some viruses use RNA instead of DNA as their genetic material, and all organisms use messenger RNA (mRNA) to carry the genetic information that directs the synthesis of proteins. Like proteins, some RNA molecules play an active role in cells by catalyzing biological reactions, controlling gene expression, or sensing and communicating responses to cellular signals. One of these active processes is protein synthesis, a universal function whereby mRNA molecules direct the assembly of proteins on ribosomes. This process uses transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules to deliver amino acids to the ribosome, where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) links amino acids together to form proteins. The chemical structure of RNA is very similar to that of DNA, with two differences (a) RNA contains the sugar ribose while DNA contains the slightly different sugar deoxyribose (a type of ribose that lacks one oxygen atom), and (b) RNA has the nucleobase uracil while DNA contains thymine (uracil and thymine have similar base-pairing properties). Unlike DNA, most RNA molecules are single-stranded. Single-stranded RNA molecules adopt very complex three-dimensional structures, since they are not restricted to the repetitive double-helical form of double-stranded DNA. RNA is made within living cells by RNA polymerases, enzymes that act to copy a DNA or RNA template into a new RNA strand through processes known as transcription or RNA replication, respectively.
[11] [5][8] [2][3][4]