Automatic Relay Setting

By Donald M. MacGregor, Ph.D. (Electrocon International, Inc, USA) A. T. (Tony) Giuliante, Fellow of IEEE (ATG Exodus, Inc., USA) Russell W. Patterson, P.E. (Tennessee Valley Authority, USA)

Presented to 56th Georgia Tech Protective Relaying Conference Atlanta, Georgia May 1-3, 2002

Automatic Relay Setting

Donald M. MacGregor 1. Introduction
Modern numerical relays provide many protection functions in a single package. In order to manage the large number of elements and settings, an automatic, systematic, setting procedure is almost essential. Here we present setting rules for the electrical parameters, such as distance element reach and overcurrent pickup. These rules are based largely on the standards and experience at the Tennessee Valley Authority, and follow the principles given in [1]. They are widely applicable to both stepped-distance schemes and directional comparison pilot schemes such as POTT, PUTT, and blocking schemes. A protection simulation environment, described in section 2, enables a user to encode the setting rules. Detailed reports identify possible conflicts in the setting rules. Section 3 shows how the user can run the algorithms and adjust the setting parameters. Each algorithm includes a module that specifies the tap names for the relay models in use, allowing settings to be saved in the system database and transferred to the relay electronically. Section 4 outlines a typical case involving directional overcurrent and distance elements in a Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip scheme. This scheme uses direct tripping from zone 1 and permissive tripping from a forward pilot element, with two time-delayed zones for a backup steppeddistance scheme. The permissive signal is echoed to allow sequential tripping after one breaker opens. Section 5 explains the setting rules in detail. All directional comparison pilot schemes use a combination of underreaching, overreaching and reverse blocking zones, as follows: Distance zone 1 (phase and ground) to cover close-in faults Zone 2 and/or forward pilot zone to cover the entire protected line Forward zone 3 as backup protection for downstream lines Blinders or other load-encroachment elements Overcurrent fault detectors Reverse pilot zone, coordinated with the facing forward pilot zone for blocking Power-swing (out-of-step) detectors Ground and negative-sequence overcurrent elements with several levels of sensitivity Directional elements Zone timers Neutral time-overcurrent element

A. T. (Tony) Giuliante

Russell W. Patterson

An apparent impedance and an operating margin, defined in section 6, measure how close a relay element is to its operating limit for a particular fault. For solid faults, overcurrent elements use the multiples of pickup and distance elements use the relative distance of the apparent line impedance from the characteristic. For resistive faults, the maximum fault resistance seen by zones 1 to 3 is presented graphically as a function of distance, using the detailed phasor operating equations for the particular relay model. Section 7 demonstrates a stepped-event simulation of the permissive tripping sequence. This checks the settings and will find any primary-backup miscoordinations.

2. Protection Simulation
The protection simulation environment allows a user to compute settings and send them to a relay, or to read settings from a relay and test them in the modeled system. The components are: A network model (buses, generators, lines, shunts, and transformers) and a short-circuit analysis with high-level commands for faults and outage contingencies [2]. Currents and voltages are treated as steady-state phasors. A library of detailed relay models [3]. A relay model consists of instantaneous overcurrent, time overcurrent, directional, distance, voltage, timer, and recloser elements, with auxiliary elements for internal logic and pilot (teleprotection) schemes. Special code for each relay model interprets the setting names and evaluates the comparators using a steady-state phasor analysis [4]. As a result, element response is always based on the actual relay logic. Actual settings are modeled so that the relay model is set in the same way as the physical device. Rules for locating relays. An integrated database [5], with an interactive editor, contains the CTs and VTs connecting the relays to the network, and specifies the protected equipment and its logical breakers. A macro facility. The macro language has many commands associated with a high-level language, such as IF-THEN-ELSE, DOWHILE, and DO loops tailored to power system applications. For example, DOXFMRS and DOLINES find the transformers and lines at a bus, and DOPATH and DOREMOTE search through a meshed network with load-tap buses. Standard functions (e.g. SIN, ABS, and POLAR) and special protection functions (e.g. OPERATING_CYCLES and GET_TOC_TIME) are installed. Support for defining and looping through sets of buses, branches, and relay elements is provided. The engineer can access all information in the database (e.g. line impedances) and quantities developed by the programs (e.g. fault currents and source impedances). The relay setting rules are encoded using the macro language and can be modified by a user. Settings for a 38kV stepped- distance scheme have been obtained in this way for several years [6]. Import/export facilities to communicate with a physical relay indirectly via relay vendor databases, or to send settings to a field engineer. Most numerical relays have their own setting software and can store relay settings in a database. The independent simulation environment complements this by modeling together the entire network and its protective devices from multiple vendors. Settings can then be transferred to the relay vendors database product for subsequent electronic transmittal to the relay, making paper setting sheets unnecessary.

3. Setting Procedure
The user chooses one relay from the system database and then selects one of the setting algorithms. These prompt for the maximum load current, the load angle, and the minimum pickup needed to avoid operation for unbalanced load currents. Then the primary impedance reaches and pickup currents or voltages are computed at the network level. These settings apply to any relay model. Next, secondary tap settings are computed for the elements that exist in the chosen relay. The user can test the settings while they are in temporary memory or can save them in the system database. The database can hold groups of alternative settings for trial purposes and for varied network conditions. A user can add algorithms for other relay functions, such as loss-of-potential logic, switch-onto-fault detection and breaker failure protection. Actual relays use some or all of the parameters in Table 1. The values shown are typical and are easily edited. Each algorithm includes a module that specifies the tap names for the relay models in use. Table 1 Adjustable Relay-Setting Quantities

Stepped-Distance Mho
Parameter USE_APPARENT_IMPEDANCE USE_APPARENT_IMPEDANCE DEFAULT_MAX_LOAD_CURRENT DEFAULT_LOAD_DEG DIST_LOAD_FACTOR ZONE_1_FRACTION LINE_END_FRACTION ZONE_2_FRACTION ZONE_3_FRACTION ZONE_3R_FRACTION XFMR_FRACTION12 XFMR_FRACTION3 Value FALSE TRUE 3000 30 1.5 0.8 1.2 0.2 1.2 0.25 0.5 0.8 Description FALSE to set zones from line ohms only TRUE to adjust zones using fault study Default load amps Default load angle Max load ohms/Max setting Zone 1/Line ohms Zone 2/Line ohms at line end Zone 2 overreach/Downstream line Zone 3 overreach/Downstream line Zone 3 offset/Min reverse line Zone 2 overreach into tapped XFMR Zone 3 overreach into tapped XFMR

Pilot Mho
Parameter FORWARD_PILOT_FRACTION REVERSE_PILOT_FRACTION Value 0.2 1.5 Description Forward pilot overreach/ Downstream line Reverse pilot/Max reverse line

Definite-Time Overcurrent
Parameter IOC_ISEC_MIN IOC_LEVEL_1_FRACTION IOC_LEVEL_2_FAULT_OHMS IOC_LEVEL_2_FRACTION IOC_LEVEL_3_FRACTION IOC_XFMR_FRACTION Value 0.05 I_Rated 1.3 40 0.5 0.5 1.25 Description Min IOC pickup in relay model Pickup/max current for remote-bus faults Fault resistance tested at remote bus Pickup/Current for remote-bus resistive fault Reverse Level 3/Remote level 2 pickup Level 2 multiples for XFMR secondary fault

Fault Detectors
Parameter FD_PG_ISEC_MIN IOC_LOAD_FACTOR ZONE_1_PICKUP_FRACTION ZONE_1_LINE_END_FRACTION Value 0.1 I_Rated 1.1 0.8 0.33 Description Default min phase-ground pickup 50PP1 pickup/Max load amps Zone 1 pickup/Min amps for reach faults Zone 1 pickup/Min amps with line end open

Negative-Sequence Directional
Parameter MIN_A2 DEFAULT_DES_A2 MIN_50Q Value 0.02 0.1 0.05 I_Rated Description Min I2/I0 relay tap Default min I2/I0 Current pickup in relay model

Inverse-Time Overcurrent
Parameter TOC_MULT TOC_ISEC_MIN TOC_CYCLES Value 10 0.1 I_Rated 30 Description Amps/Pickup for remote-bus SLG fault Min TOC pickup in relay model Delay at TOC_MULT

Timers for Tripping

Parameter Z1_PH_CYC Z1_GND_CYC Z2_PH_CYC Z2_GND_CYC Z3_PH_CYC Z3_GND_CYC Z4_PH_CYC Z4_GND_CYC FWP_PH_CYC FWP_GND_CYC RVP_PH_CYC RVP_GND_CYC D67N1_CYC D67Q1_CYC D67N2_CYC D67Q2_CYC D67N3_CYC D67Q3_CYC D67N4_CYC D67Q4_CYC Value 0 0 20 20 75 75 0 0 20 20 75 240 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Description of time delay Zone 1 phase Zone 1 ground Zone 2 phase Zone 2 ground Zone 3 phase Zone 3 ground Zone 4 phase Zone 4 ground Forward pilot phase Forward pilot ground Reverse pilot phase Reverse pilot ground Neutral IOC level 1 ground IOC Neg-seq IOC level 1 ground IOC Neutral IOC level 2 ground IOC Neg-seq IOC level 2 ground IOC Neutral IOC level 3 ground IOC Neg-seq IOC level 3 ground IOC Neutral IOC level 4 ground IOC Neg-seq IOC level 4 ground IOC

Power-Swing Detector
Parameter BLINDER_INNER_R_DIV_ZT BLINDER_RATIO Value 0.288 2.5 Description Blinder inner resistance/System impedance Min (outer R / inner R )

BLINDER_DELR OS_X_RATIO_FWD OS_X_RATIO_REV OS_MIN_X_REV OS_DELX OS_OPER_CYC OS_WAY_IN_TRIP_CYC OS_WAY_OUT_TRIP_CYC OS_BLOCK_CYC OS_OVERRIDE_CYC

2.0 1.1 1.1 0.1 0.1 0.02 * Frequency 0.02 * Frequency 0.02 * Frequency 0.05 * Frequency 0.4 * Frequency

Min (outer R - inner R) (sec. ohm) Inner reactance/Blocked-zone forward reach Inner reactance/Blocked-zone reverse reach Min reverse reach/line ohms Min (outer X - inner X) (sec. ohm reactance) Max swing cycles treated as a fault Min swing cycles on way in for tripping Min swing cycles on way out for tripping Min swing cycles for blocking Swing cycles before overriding the out-of-step elements

4. Parallel 161kV Lines at TVA

To illustrate the setting rules, we use an actual case (Figure 1) at the Tennessee Valley Authority, involving two coupled 161kV lines with equal lengths; line #1 is tapped at Ackerman station.
109 Red Hill 161 161.0 kV 248.000 Z2GD,51N 24026 Red Hill U1S 20.0 kV 232 Sturgis 161.0 kV 5 239 Louisvi SS 5 161.0 kV 147.200 MDA R_T2G,MDA R_TOC 1151 A daton 161.0 kV 94.200 161_BU_GND 376 A ckerman 161 161.0 kV LFZP_TZ3 1348 Maben Tap 5 231 Eupora, MS 5 161.0 kV 229 Calhn City 5 161.0 kV 484.500 LFZP_TOC 2446 Sturgis 69.0 kV 111.400 161_BU_GND 3 5 1159 Starkvile T2 161.0 kV

(2)

21.300 No_Op 51N LFZP_TZ3

4.200

(1)

(1)

161.0 kV 4.000 Z1G

CE

No_Op LFZP_TZ3

67N2,RECEIVER

9409 A ckrmn 69-2 69.0 kV

595 A ckrmn 69-1 69.0 kV

Figure 1 One-line diagram of protected region. The impedances in primary ohms are: Positive Sequence Red Hills - Ackerman #1 Ackerman - Sturgis #1 Red Hills - Sturgis #2 Each tapped transformer at bus 376 3.77 @ 85.3 deg 3.77 @ 85.3 deg 7.57 @ 85.5 deg 34.5 @ 90.0 deg at 16lkV Zero Sequence 9.37 @ 77.5 deg 9.37 @ 77.5 deg 19.03 @ 77.9 deg 28.2 @ 85.2 deg at 161kV

The computed positive-sequence source-impedance ratio for this case ranges from 1.3 to 4.4 depending on fault location; this is a medium line [1]. Here, a Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT) scheme uses phase and ground distance relay elements with backup ground and negative-sequence overcurrent elements. Figure 1 shows the operation for a close-in phase-A-ground fault at Sturgis. Zone 1 opens the local breaker at Sturgis; the directional overcurrent element operates at Red Hills with the permissive signal. The elements in a single zone are shown in Figure 2.

50ABC 32QF 50PP 21P PHASE DISTANCE

50L 50G 32Q 50N 67N 32Q 50Q 67Q 32Q 51NP 51N 32Q GROUND TIME OVERCURRENT INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT 21G GROUND DISTANCE

TRIPPING LOGIC OR PILOT SIGNAL

Figure 2 Supervised Distance and Overcurrent Relay Elements. At each line terminal, zone 1 elements (21P1, 21G1, 67N1 or 67Q1) trip instantaneously for internal faults within their set points, and forward directional pilot elements (21P2, 21G2, 67N2 or 67Q2) cover the entire line with some overreach. For internal faults, each forward pilot element will transmit a permissive signal to the other terminal. When this signal is received, the local forward pilot elements that have operated trip the corresponding breakers, at buses 109 and 232 in Figure 1. This pilot scheme includes echo keying logic and is described in [1 ] as a directional comparison hybrid scheme. A second pilot zone reaches in the reverse direction. External faults at a terminal will suppress the transmitter functions and inhibit pilot tripping. A permissive signal received at a terminal, e.g. Sturgis, is echoed (after a precautionary delay), unless any of the reverse elements at Sturgis (21P3, 21G3, 67N3, or 67Q3) have detected an external fault. If the breaker at Sturgis is already open (for maintenance or other reasons) and a close-in fault occurs there, the relay at the

opposite terminal (Red Hills) will send a permissive signal to Sturgis, and this signal will be echoed back to Red Hills after a set delay (typically 2 cycles). Receipt of the echo signal will allow the breaker at Red Hills to open and clear the fault. For extra reliability, TVA is using in parallel two independent relay sets from different manufacturers. In one manufacturers relay, the pilot zones also serve as zones 2 and 3 and provide time-delayed backup for the adjacent lines. The other relay uses zone 1 for instantaneous tripping, uses dedicated forward and reverse pilot zones, and uses separate zones 2 and 3 for time-delayed backup in a steppeddistance scheme. In one relay model, the echo signal starts only when the remote permissive signal is received, the local reverse zone 3 has not operated, and the local forward pilot element has not operated within a set time (the echo block time delay). In the other relay, the echo signal also requires a 52b switch to assert with the local breaker open.

5. Rules for Relay Setting

Here we explain the detailed setting rules for: Distance zones and their fault detectors Load-encroachment elements Power-swing detectors Definite-time overcurrent elements Neutral time overcurrent element Negative-sequence directional element

The algorithms set one element at a time and warn where setting rules conflict. They do not automatically coordinate relays at different locations, but the user can investigate coordination problems graphically (section 6).

5.1 MHO Distance Elements

The R-X diagram in Figure 3 shows the static mho characteristics of zone 1, the forward pilot element, and a facing reverse pilot element that blocks tripping for external faults.

X
P.Ohms

40

30

20

10
232

109

R
10 20
P.Ohms

-20

-10

-10

Figure 3 Local Forward Mho Distance Characteristics and Remote Reverse Characteristic. The algorithms use solid faults for initial mho settings. Then all phase zones are checked for load encroachment. The user supplies the maximum forward and reverse load currents and worst load angle, from separate load flow computations. The actual memory-polarized characteristics are expanded circles and allow the zone to cover resistive faults [4 ,7, 8]. However, for solid faults, the angle of the apparent impedance and the MTA are both within a few degrees of the line angle. For settings based on solid faults, therefore, it is a useful approximation that a distance element will operate whenever the apparent impedance magnitude is less than the reach setting. Subsequently we check the operation for resistive faults using the complete comparator equations.

5.1.1 Zone 1
Zone 1 reaches 80% along the protected line. Specifically, the total positive-sequence and zero-sequence line impedances Z1 and Z0 are found from the database. The maximum torque angle (MTA) equals the zone 1 line angle arg(Z1), and the set reach is 80% of the magnitude of Z1. Then the phase zone is

further limited to 66 percent of the apparent impedance at maximum forward load current and a specified power angle, typically 30 degrees. The zero-sequence compensation factor [9] multiplying the neutral current is set as:

k 0 = ( Z0 /Z1 -1) /3
To avoid overreach due to mutual coupling [7], the reach of the zone 1 ground distance element is also limited to 80% of the least apparent impedance for a solid single-line-ground fault on the remote bus. The calculation is run first with all lines in service and then with coupled lines grounded one at a time, and with intermediate infeed removed. The supervising phase fault detector is useful to prevent instantaneous operation on loss of potential. It is desirable to set it above expected load current while maintaining a margin below expected fault current to allow the distance elements to operate reliably. In relays with a separate fault detector (50PP1) for zone 1, the recommended setting (based on experience) is the lower of: (a) 0.8 times the least fault current for solid faults 80% along the line, with sources out one at a time behind the relay bus, and (b) 0.33 times the fault current for the same faults with the remote breaker open, for sequential tripping. To prevent zone 1 from tripping with a loss of potential under load, this pickup must also be set at least 10 percent above the maximum load current from temporary overloads and heavy loads under reduced system voltage. The single-phase and ground-fault detectors (50L and 50G level 1 or 2) are allowed to operate with load currents. This is because both 50L and 50G must operate to trip a ground distance zone, and the 50G residual elements do not operate with load except under abnormal conditions such as a breaker with one phase open. In relays with only one fault detector for all zones, current sensitivity for remote faults takes priority, including those in the reverse pilot zone or zone 3. The setting may necessarily be below the maximum load current. These relays have separate elements to block the distance elements under loss of potential.

5.1.2 Forward Pilot Zone and Zone 2

These are set from line ohms and from zone 1 apparent impedance and are subsequently checked for infeed and mutual coupling. Where zone 2 provides time-delayed direct tripping, it must not overreach a downstream zone. Depending on the status of coupled lines, infeed or mutual coupling along the protected line may limit the zone 2 reach, especially for resistive faults. Therefore, these overreaching zones are set to cover the larger of the actual and apparent protected-line impedances, plus a chosen portion (e.g. 20 percent) of the shortest adjacent line. The largest apparent impedance is found for faults on a line-end bus, first with all lines in service and then with coupled lines outaged one at a time. The phase zone is further limited to 66 percent of the apparent positive-sequence impedance at maximum forward load current and a specified power angle.

To avoid tripping for faults on the secondary winding of a tapped transformer, zone 2 should not overreach the primary bus by more than a given percentage (20% to 50%) of the transformer reactance. Where separate fault detectors 50PP2, 50L2 and 50G2 for zone 2 are available, they are set at the least relay current (with one source removed) for remote-bus faults with fault resistance of 40 primary ohms. The zone 2 timer is set at 20 cycles. Downstream zone 1 elements and breaker-failure protection at the line-end bus (about 15 cycles delay) are allowed to operate first.

5.1.3 Reverse Pilot Zone

A reverse pilot zone blocks echoing of a permissive signal for external faults. Both phase and ground elements should cover 150 percent of the largest apparent impedance calculated for line-end faults (on the line-side of an open remote breaker) behind the relay. This setting allows the reverse zone to operate for all external faults seen by the forward pilot zone at the other end of the protected line, as in Figure 3. A detailed coordination check is shown in section 6. The phase-distance element must not operate under load alone. This limit is set as 66 percent of the apparent impedance due to maximum load current from the protected line into the relay bus, with a specified power angle. For the fault detectors (such as 50PP3, 50L3 and 50G3), minimum settings are allowed because: (a) zone 3 direct tripping is delayed by 75 cycles, giving ample time for Loss of Potential Logic to assert and block tripping of distance elements, and (b) the zone 3 distance elements are set to avoid operation under maximum load conditions.

5.1.4 Zone 3 of Stepped Distance Scheme

A forward zone 3 should see 1.2 times the impedance to the most distant bus at a depth of 2, but the phase element is also limited by forward load as above. Both phase and ground elements are limited to cover 80 percent of the reactance of tapped transformers. The timer is set at 75 cycles. Certain relay models allow zone 3 to have a reverse offset. Where this is used, it is set at 25% of the shortest adjacent line behind the relay, to detect local bus faults. Example of Distance Zone Settings (excerpts):
****************************************************************** Setting MHO DISTANCE elements for Permissive Overreach ****************************************************************** Substation: RED HILLS STEAM PLANT Line: Sturgis 161-kV line No. 1 Maximum forward load current 3000 primary amps Highest power factor angle (deg) for forward load = 30 Worst forward load: 30.9854 Primary Ohms at 30 Degrees 836.556 MVA 724.479 MW 418.278 MVAR Worst reverse load: 30.9854 Primary Ohms at 836.556 MVA 724.479 MW 418.278 MVAR 30 Degrees

10

************************************************************ Relay on 109 376 Ckt 1 RED HILLS STEAM PLANT - ACKERMAN 161-kV SUB 161 kV Base kV 161 Base ohms 259.210 ************************************************************ *** Zone 1 = 0.80000 * min apparent impedance for remote-bus faults Zone 1 path 109 376 1 to 376 Total line ohms 7.54279 Phase Setting 0.80000 * 7.54279 = 6.03 Ohm Ground Setting 0.80000 * 7.15863 = 5.73 Ohm MTA 85.3 deg *** Zone 2 = Longest line or apparent impedance + 0.20000 * shortest adjacent line Zone 2 path 109 376 Ckt 1 to 232 109 Ckt 2 Path 109 376 Ckt 1 to 232 to 232 109 Ckt 2 Setting Phs 7.543 @ 85 deg + 0.20000 * = Setting Gnd Phase Zone 1 Ground Zone 1 Phase Zone 2 Ground Zone 2 / / / / 11.521 @ Max Max Max Max 82 deg + to to to to 0.20000 * 1 1 1 1 = 80.0 75.9 120.1 172.8 % % % %

7.567 9.056 7.567 13.033

@ @ @ @

85 85 85 83

deg deg Ohm deg deg Ohm

impedance impedance impedance impedance

depth depth depth depth

(note 1)

*** Zone 3 = 1.2 * longest path to depth 2 Zone 3 path 109 376 1 to 229 Using load to limit all phase DIST zones Worst (least) load impedance / 1.50000 = 20.6569 Primary Ohms at 30 Degrees Desired reach to avoid load = 36.2578 Primary Ohms at 85.2691 deg Max allowed load at Zone Pri.Ohm Load 1 5.16 2 7.74 3 25.93 FP 7.74 RP 23.29 1.50000 * reach at given load angle deg Amps MVA MW 30. 18026. 5027. 4353. 30. 12011. 3349. 2901. 30. 3585. 1000. 866. 30. 12011. 3349. 2901. 30. 3992. 1113. 964.

MVAR 2513. 1675. 500. (note 2) 1675. 557.

Checking Transformer Overreach for ground zone 2 4 remote XFMR buses at bus 376 161 kV Zone reach (p. ohms) 13.033 @ 85 deg Zone reach into XFMR (p. ohms) 9.24786 @90 deg Zone reach into XFMR 27.9 % of XFMR *** Warning: reducing zone ohms from 13.0325 to 10.4028

New reach 20.0 % (note 1)

Phase and Ground MHO elements: desired primary ohms Without XFMRS With XFMRS With XFMRS and LOAD Zone 1 Phs forward 6.03 6.03 6.03 Zone 1 Gnd forward 5.73 5.73 5.73 Zone 2 Phs forward 9.06 9.06 9.06 Zone 2 Gnd forward 13.03 10.40 10.40 Zone 3 Phs forward 47.85 30.34 30.34 Zone 3 Gnd forward 47.85 30.34 30.34 Pilot Phs forward 9.06 9.06 9.06 Pilot Gnd forward 13.03 10.40 10.40 Pilot Phs reverse 27.25 27.25 27.25 Pilot Gnd reverse 13.03 27.25 27.25 MTA (deg) for all zones 85.3

11

Notes: 1. The ground zone 2 and the forward pilot zone are computed as 1.728 times the protected line ohms to overcome infeed and mutual coupling, but are then reduced from 13.0325 to 10.4028 ohms to avoid the tapped transformers at bus 376. 2. With these settings, a load up to 1000 MVA at 30 degrees will appear outside zone 3 with a margin of 50 percent. This is the relay load limit [10], above which the element may misoperate. Example of Fault Detector Settings (excerpts):
****************************************************************** Setting Fault Detectors for Permissive Overreach ****************************************************************** Minimum allowed fault-detector pickup = 200 Primary A Zone 1 fault detectors: no load; 0.80000 * min current from solid faults 0.8 along line 50PP1 Phase-phase Primary A 4282.21 50L1 Single phase Primary A 2141.52 50G1 3*Izero Primary A 2345.51 Zone 1 0.33 * 50PP1 50L1 50G1 Zone 1 50PP1 50L1 50G1 fault detectors: no load; min current from solid faults 0.8 along line with remote breaker open Phase-phase Primary A 2263.65 Single phase Primary A 1131.83 3*Izero Primary A 1048.90 fault detectors: no load; maximum recommended settings: Phase-phase Primary A 2263.65 Single phase Primary A 1131.83 3*Izero Primary A 1048.90

Zone 2 fault detectors: no load; 40-ohm faults 50PP2 Phase-phase Primary A 827.912 50L2 Single phase Primary A 54.3842 50G2 3*Izero Primary A 163.153 *** 50L2 below minimum 200; using minimum *** 50G2 below minimum 200; using minimum Zone 3 50PP3 50L3 50G3 fault detectors are set at the minimum allowed: Phase-phase Primary A 200 Single phase Primary A 200 3*Izero Primary A 200

Checking load current for IOC 50PP1 Maximum load current through the relay, in amps = 3000 Maximum load current through the relay, in percent= 836.556 Maximum phase-phase load current in amps = 5196 Maximum PP load current * 1.10000 = 5715.60 50PP1 Primary A increased to 5715.60 50PP2 and 50PP3 do not require adjustment above load

12

5.2 Quadrilateral Elements

In the TVA application, Zones 1 to 3 use polarized mho phase and ground elements; the directional overcurrent elements are adequate to extend the protection for resistive faults. Some relays provide optional quadrilateral (quad) ground elements. These are particularly useful to cover resistive faults on short lines with strong sources, where the mho characteristic may not expand sufficiently [4, 11]. The mho and quad elements have equal reaches in the line-angle direction. Typically, the quad element resistive reaches are set at 20 primary ohms. For the quad characteristic, the constant-reactance line is tilted automatically in the line impedance plane. The tilt eliminates overreach or underreach for resistive faults with outward or inward load current. One type of relay [11,12] uses negative-sequence current polarization without additional settings. Another type [9] uses zero-sequence polarization and an extra tap setting T which is defined as the phase difference

T = arg (total fault I 0 ) - arg (local relay I 0 )

Here I0 is the zero-sequence current due to a single-line-ground fault at the zone 1 reach point. T is a function of fault location and the network impedances and is typically between zero and - 10 degrees. The angle T is zero for a homogeneous system (where the zero-sequence source impedance angles at the line ends are both equal to the line angle). If T is set exactly, the reach is independent of load. If T varies along the line, T should be set at the largest negative value from a fault study, tilting the reactance line down to the right in the system impedance plane. Then any error in T causes underreach rather than overreach, increasing security.

5.3 Load Encroachment

Many relays provide shaped load encroachment elements [8] or blinder elements [1,13 ] in case the load severely restricts the reach along the line. These are set directly to exclude the expected load impedances with a settable safety margin. In both cases, the resistive impedance from the origin to the load encroachment element, measured along the R axis, must be inside the load impedance region. In the following example, the least load resistance is reduced by a safety factor of 1.5 to give the blinder setting. Example of Load Encroachment Settings
****************************************************************** Setting Blinder and Impedance Elements for Load Restriction ******************************************************************

Substation: RED HILLS STEAM PLANT LZOP: Sturgis 161-kV line No. 1 Starting branch is found from element 6472 DIST BLNDR_INNER 6 Maximum forward load current 3000 primary amps Highest power factor angle (deg) for forward load = 30 Worst forward Load: 30.9854 Primary Ohms at 30 Degrees Forward power = Sqrt(3) * Base kV/1000* Max load current /_ power factor angle Forward power = 0.27885 * Max load current /_ power factor angle 836.556 MVA 724.479 MW 418.278 MVAR

13

Maximum reverse load current 3000 primary amps Highest power factor angle (deg) for reverse load = 30 Worst reverse Load: 30.9854 Primary Ohms at 30 Degrees Reverse power = Sqrt(3) * Base kV/1000* Max load current /_ power factor angle Reverse power = 0.27885 * Max load current /_ power factor angle 836.556 MVA 724.479 MW 418.278 MVAR Settings for forward load Worst (least) load impedance / 1.50000 = 20.6569 Primary Ohms at 30 Degrees Forward load encroachment setting 20.6569 Forward load encroachment angle 30 Blinder angle to R axis 85.2691 deg Max Blinder R along axis 17.0346 primary ohms for forward-load restriction Settings for reverse load Worst (least) load impedance / 1.50000 = 20.6569 Primary Ohms at 30 Degrees Reverse load encroachment setting 20.6569 Reverse load encroachment angle 30 Blinder angle to R axis 85.2691 deg Max Blinder R along axis 17.0346 primary ohms for reverse-load restriction

5.4 Power Swings

Double blinders with timers are used to detect power swings [1]. In case a detailed stability study is not available, the following simple rules set the blinder positions in all relays. A typical inner blinder setting [13 ] is 0.288 ZT, where ZT is the magnitude of the positive-sequence system impedance: the total of line impedance and the lowest positive-sequence source impedances at the ends. The lowest source impedance at each end of the line is found as (-1)*(Change in positive-sequence voltage)/ (Change in positive-sequence current). This is evaluated for sliding faults and close-in faults with up to one line out at a time behind the end bus. The factor 0.288 is 0.5/tan(60 deg) and corresponds to a phase difference of 120 degrees or larger between the source EMFs feeding the line, for which a power swing is assumed to be unstable. The outer blinder and the timers distinguish stable or unstable power swings from three-phase faults. The outer blinder is set at Max of (inner blinder resistance + 2 ohms, inner blinder resistance * 2.5) For a rectangular zone, the inner reactance should be 10 per cent larger than the blocked zones, and the outer reactance is an additional 0.1 relay ohm [14]. Power-swing blinders must not operate for load alone. If the outer blinder setting exceeds 0.66 times the resistance to the region of highest load, the user is warned that the setting requirements conflict. If the balanced apparent impedance moves from the outer blinder to the inner blinder over a time interval longer than the set delay, a power swing is assumed; faster impedance changes are treated as three-phase faults. One manufacturer [14] provides one timer setting for unstable swings (allowing tripping) and a longer timer setting for stable swings (to block selected zones). Another relay [13 ] uses a fixed 50 ms delay. For some relays, the user may specify whether unstable power swings should trip the relay (if system separation is required) or should block tripping in specified zones (if system separation is desired on another line).

14

5.5 Directional Instantaneous Overcurrent (IOC) Elements

These elements (67N and 67Q) detect the direction and magnitude of residual and negative- sequence current. They provide sensitive protection for resistive faults that are missed by the mho elements. They contain IOC pickup settings (tap 50N with 3I0 for 67N, or tap 50Q with 3I2 for 67Q) and the negative-sequence directional elements 32Q. The following setting rules automatically monitor all three unbalanced fault types: single-line-ground (SLG), line-line (LTL) and double-line-ground (DLG).

5.5.1 Level 1 IOC for Instantaneous Direct Tripping

Level 1 (High Set) elements 67N1 and 67Q1 are set with a safety margin of 1.3 times the maximum current for a fault at the remote bus, with infeed branches outaged and with coupled lines grounded one at a time. Monitors record the maximum zero- and negative-sequence currents at the relay over all faults with the outage contingencies chosen.

5.5.2 Level 2 IOC for Pilot Signaling and Time-Delayed Backup

Level 2 elements (67N2 and 67Q2) are backup controls for the pilot signal or time-delayed zone 2 tripping. They are set as 0.5 times the minimum relay current for a 40-ohm ground fault at the remote bus. The following report presents the 3I0 and 3I2 fault currents for the four types of faults. SLGR refers to a single-line-to-ground fault with 40-ohm fault resistance (primary ohms).

Example of Overcurrent Element Settings

******************************************************************* Ground and Neg-Seq Overcurrent Elements for Permissive Overreach ******************************************************************* Minimum allowed IOC pickup for all levels = 100 Primary A

Level 1 IOC Max 50N1 Primary A 4881.84 50Q1 Primary A 5582.18 Level 2 IOC:

1.30000* Max 6346.40 7256.83

40-ohm faults at remote bus 232 Fault TPHR LTLR DLGR SLGR 3I0 0.0 0.0 403.4 405.5 3I2 0.0 1275.9 464.6 458.3

Level 2 IOC at RED HILLS STEAM PLANT to ACKERMAN 161-kV SUB Desired setting = 0.5 * min relay amps for 40-ohm faults at remote bus 232 Level 2 IOC Min 0.50000 * Min 50N2 Primary A 403.387 201.694 50Q2 Primary A 458.263 229.132

15

5.5.3 Level 2 IOC Settings with Tapped Transformers

If the protected line has tapped transformers, level 2 must be increased to 1.25 times the highest current due to faults on the transformer secondary. The fault study applies three-phase, phase-phase and phase-ground faults on the secondary side; one does not need to know the transformer connection. Example of limits due to transformers:
4 tapped transformers at bus 376; adjusting Level 2 Faults on tapped XFMRs; remote breaker closed Faults on tapped XFMRs; remote breaker open at 232 Solid faults on tapped XFMR secondaries Level 2 IOC MAX 1.25000 * MAX 50N2 Primary A 1454.83 1818.53 50Q2 Primary A 2976.65 3720.81

The following table shows how the tapped transformers limit the sensitivity allowed: Level 2 IOC elements (Primary A) 50N2 50Q2 Without XFMRS 201.69 229.13 With XFMRS 1818.53 3720.81

5.5.4 Level 3 IOC Settings

The local level-3 reverse IOC settings (taps 50N3 and 50Q3) should have at most half of the remote level-2 values, to block echo signals for external faults (Figure 4). These settings are secure, since zone 3 sees at least as much line current as its remote level 2 element.

1 6 F Protected Line Local Relay 7 F IOC 67N3

2 Remote Relay IOC 67N2

F = Reach point of remote level-2 overcurrent element Level 3 overcurrent element 67N3 must see all reverse faults at points F.

Figure 4 Coordinating definite-time overcurrent elements.

16

5.6 Backup Directional Ground Time-Overcurrent (TOC) Element

Element 51N provides current-dependent time-delayed clearance of high-resistance faults along the protected line. It provides backup protection for remote elements, and supplements zone 2 when the pilot scheme is out of service. A suitable time delay is 30 cycles for a solid fault at the remote bus and a pickup setting of 0.1 times the relay current for this fault. The curve shape is chosen separately for coordination with neighboring TOC elements. A Very Inverse curve is typical for a looped system without fuses. Figure 5 shows the operating times for sliding 40-ohm faults along the protected line from Red Hills to Sturgis.

Figure 5 Time-overcurrent characteristic with sliding 40-ohm faults. This element trips in 30 cycles for a close-in 40-ohm fault and 300 cycles for a 40-ohm fault on the remote bus.

5.7 Current Direction

A fault on a coupled external line can reverse the zero-sequence voltage and make the relays at both ends of the line see the fault as forward [1 , 15]. In other cases, the current direction may reverse. The setting algorithm reports the direction seen by the relay for: (a) Sliding faults on the relay line with all coupled lines in service, (b) Sliding faults on the relay line with coupled lines grounded one at a time, and

17

(c) Sliding faults on each coupled line with all lines in service. Generic zero-sequence and negative-sequence directional elements are used to measure the direction as in reference [15]. The user is shown where the current may reverse and is warned where an external fault appears as internal. The following example verifies that internal faults remain as forward (F) at both ends of the line when a coupled line is grounded. The phase differences between the voltages (V) and currents (I) at the ends of the line are labeled Arg(Right/Left). Direction at end buses 109 and 232 for single-line-ground faults on line 109 376 1 to 232
Fault: SLG Relay branch 109 376 1 Fault branch 109 376 1 to 232 Internal 0 seq -seq 0 seq -seq Fault direction Fault direction Arg(Right/Left) Dist Left end Right end Left end Right end V I V I 1 0.25 F F F F -3.8 2.8 -0.7 3.4 2 0.50 F F F F -7.5 0.9 -0.7 3.1 3 0.75 F F F F -10.0 -0.3 -0.7 3.4

Fault: SLG Line Grounding 109 Red Hill 161 to 232 Sturgis Relay branch 109 376 1 Fault branch 109 376 1 to 232 Internal 0 seq -seq Fault direction Fault direction Dist Left end Right end Left end Right end 1 0.25 F F F F 2 0.50 F F F F 3 0.75 F F F F

5 Ckt 2

0 seq -seq Arg(Right/Left) V I V I -3.8 6.1 -1.2 5.7 -4.7 5.1 -1.3 5.7 -4.9 5.0 -1.2 5.7

The following example checks the direction measured for external faults on a coupled branch (109 232 2 to 232). At least one end must see the external fault as reverse (R); otherwise a warning is shown. Normal current reversal occurs when the fault location changes on the parallel line. External faults on coupled branches; all lines in service
Fault: SLG Relay branch 109 376 1 Fault branch 109 232 2 to 232 External 0 seq -seq 0 seq -seq Fault direction Fault direction Arg(Right/Left) Dist Left end Right end Left end Right end V I V I 1 0.25 R R R F -3.8 -15.6 -0.7 180.0 2 0.50 F R R F -7.5 172.9 -0.7 180.0 3 0.75 F R F R -10.0 178.3 -0.7 -180.0

18

5.8 Negative-Sequence Directional Element 32Q

This element supervises all zones for the ground distance elements (forward or reverse) and also supervises the phase mho elements except when a three-phase fault is detected. One type of relay [15] has a fixed pickup for the torque product

Torque = Re ( V2 conjg (I 2 ) exp(-jMTA) )

from relay negative-sequence voltage V2 and current I2. When the product is negative (for a forward fault), the relay bit 32QF is asserted. For a reverse fault, the relay bit 32QR is asserted. Another type [8] increases the torque limit for high fault current by measuring an impedance component instead:

Z2 = Re ( ( V2 /I 2 ) exp ( -jMTA ) )
The angle MTA is a tap setting, usually set equal to the +/- sequence line angle arg(ZL1). Z2 changes abruptly from a negative value for close-in forward faults to a positive value for reverse faults. Directionality is assured by computing the least negative Z2 for forward faults, and the least positive Z2 for reverse faults. Then the forward and reverse impedance pickups Z2F and Z2R are set between these limits, with

Z2R Z2F + 0.5 / (rated current)

in secondary ohms. The 50QF and 50QR pickups (3I2) must allow the most sensitive supervised IOC, TOC or distance element to operate [16]. The required minimum 3I2 values are computed from line-line, single-line, and double-line faults at the operating limits of the supervised elements. The tap setting (a2) equals the least allowed magnitude of (I2/I1) for operation, to avoid operation due to untransposed lines with load current. If an unbalance factor a2 is supplied, the algorithm must warn the user where the desired 50QF or 50QR are less than a2 * (max load current). Alternatively, 50QF and 50QR are set from the fault studies and the unbalance factor is set as:

a2 = min (50QF, 50QR) / (max load current)

This value is chosen because any larger a2 value would cause the maximum load current to raise the threshold 3I2 above the required 50QF setting. Example:
************************************************************************ Setting Negative-Sequence Directional Element for Permissive Overreach ************************************************************************ Substation RED HILLS STEAM PLANT Maximum load current 3000 primary amps

19

Branch impedance (pu) 0.015 @ 85 deg Total line ohms (primary) 7.54279 CTR 400 VTR 1399.89 Primary (network) quantities for forward faults |Zsourcen| Re(V2/I2/_-MTA) |I2| Contingency 12.4908 -12.485 3106.60 All lines in service 13.4036 -13.398 2565.09 Midline fault at 0.25000 14.5186 -14.512 2166.46 Midline fault at 0.50000 15.9117 -15.904 1857.16 Midline fault at 0.75000 17.6934 -17.683 1607.01 Midline fault at 1 18.3737 -18.336 2140.20 Line out 109 232 2 38.8598 -38.823 750.487 Line out 109 24026 1 Negative V2/I2 component of least magnitude for forward faults -12.485 primary ohms (-3.567 secondary ohms). Primary (network) quantities for reverse faults |Zsourcen| Re(V2/I2/_-MTA) |I2| Contingency 38.7379 38.6949 1001.71 All lines in 23.1619 23.1450 1697.76 Line out 109 38.7379 38.6949 752.850 Line out 109 Positive V2/I2 component of least magnitude for (6.613 secondary ohms).

service 232 2 24026 1 reverse faults 23.1450 primary ohms

Default settings Rated amps 5 Total line ohms 7.54279 Total secondary ohms 2.15524 Default Z2F = 0.5 * total secondary ohms= 1.07762 Default Z2R = Z2F + 0.5/(rated amps) = 1.17762 Default values lie within required range (-3.567, 6.613) secondary ohms Primary 3*I2 (A) TOC_FACTOR chosen as Primary pickup (3*I2) CTR Secondary pickup (3*I2) 2133.70 0.10000 213.370 400 0.53343 relay A

Settings chosen with fixed a2 and max load 3000 A a2 (min I2/I1) 0.10000 50QF & 50QR 3I2 pickup 2.25000 Alternative settings for IOC pickup and max load 3000 A a2 (min I2/I1) 0.02371 50QF & 50QR 3I2 pickup 0.53343

20

5.9 Summary of Setting Rules

Table 2 is a summary of the setting rules. Table 2 Summary of Rules for Distance and Overcurrent Settings 80% along the protected line; all phase zones are checked for max load. Minimum of 80% along the protected line and 80% of apparent impedance due to mutual coupling for a remote A-G bus fault, with infeed removed and a coupled branch grounded. 0.8 times the least fault current for solid faults 80% along the line. 0.33 times the fault current for the same faults with the remote breaker open. Phase pickup 10% above maximum load current.

Phase DIST zone 1 Ground DIST zone 1

Fault detector for zone 1

Forward pilot zone

Maximum of (line ohms and largest apparent impedance for remotebus fault) + 20% of the shortest downstream line. Phase element limited to 66% of the apparent impedance at maximum load current and a power angle of 30 degrees.

Time-delayed zone 2

Maximum of (line ohms and largest apparent impedance for remotebus fault) + 20% of the shortest downstream line. Phase element limited to 66% of the apparent impedance at maximum load current and a power angle of 30 degrees. Must not overreach a downstream zone 1. Must not overreach the primary bus of a tapped XFMR by more than 20 to 50% of the transformer reactance.

Fault detector for zone 2 Zone 2 timer Reverse pilot zone

Least relay current (with one source removed) for remote-bus faults with fault resistance 40 primary ohms. 20 cycles. 150% of the largest apparent impedance calculated for line-end faults (on the line-side of an open remote breaker) behind the relay. Phase element limited to 66% of the apparent impedance due to maximum load current from the protected line into the relay bus, with a power angle of 30 degrees.

Fault detector for reverse pilot zone

Minimum setting.

21

Time-delayed forward zone 3

1.2 times the impedance to the most distant depth-2 bus. Phase element limited to 66% of the apparent impedance at maximum load current and a power angle of 30 degrees. Must not overreach the primary bus of a tapped XFMR by more than 80% of the transformer reactance.

Zone 3 timer Fault detector for zone 3 Zone 3 reverse offset Quad element resistive reach Load encroachment blocking Power swing detector: Inner blinder Outer blinder Reactance reach Level 1 IOC Level 2 IOC

75 cycles. Minimum setting. 25% of zone 1. 20 primary ohms.

Resistive reach of 0.66 * apparent resistance at maximum load current.

Resistance of 0.5/tan(60) * Abs (protected line + total source impedance). Max (Inner blinder * 2.5, Inner blinder + 2 secondary ohms). 1.1 * largest controlled zone; outer reach 0.1 secondary ohms larger. 1.3 times the maximum current for a fault at the remote bus with infeed branches outaged and one coupled line grounded. 0.5 times the relay current for a 40-ohm ground fault at the remote bus. At most 1.25 times the highest current due to faults on the transformer secondary.

Level 3 IOC Ground TOC with Very Inverse curve Negative-Sequence Directional Element

Half of the remote level-2 pickup. 30 cycles delay for a solid fault at the remote bus and a pickup setting of 0.1 times the relay current for this fault. Z2F = 0.5 * (secondary line ohms); Z2R = Z2F + 0.5/(rated current). Forward and reverse pickups (3I2) allow the most sensitive supervised element to operate. Min (Ineg/Ipos) tap = pickup / (max load current).

22

6. Checking the Settings

Settings must allow for fault resistance, imprecise network data, and instrument-transformer error. The operating margin defined below shows how close an operating relay is to its limit, or how close a non-operating relay is to an incorrect operation. Where the calculations involve only a single element, the fault studies are performed by the setting algorithm to warn the user of setting conflicts. Overcurrent elements use the multiples of pickup to measure the safety margin, and the pickup taps are computed directly from the desired margin in the fault studies above. Distance elements are set directly from the line impedances and need additional fault studies (performed by the setting algorithm) to test for infeed and mutual coupling.

6.1 Reach Margin for Distance Elements

Here we define the reach margin in the positive-sequence line-impedance plane (Figure 6) for a solid fault on one of the protected lines as

Margin = Set reach / (Set reach + distance from boundary) Margin = Set reach / (Set reach - distance from boundary)

[Fault beyond characteristic] [Fault within characteristic]

using the shortest distance from the apparent impedance point to the boundary of the operating region.

F1 A Mho circle

F2

MTA R
Margin =

Fault beyond Diameter Diameter + dist A to F1 characteristic Fault within Diameter Diameter dist A to F2 characteristic

Margin =

Figure 6 Operating margins of mho distance characteristic in line impedance plane.

23

The set reach depends on the tap settings. For a quadrilateral, the reach is measured from the origin to the reactance line. For a mho circle (Figure 6), the reach is the diameter. By design, this circle passes through the set reach point at the MTA. Although the actual characteristic expands away from this angle, solid faults on the protected lines have apparent impedance angles within a few degrees of the MTA setting, so useful margin estimates for solid faults can be based on a fixed set reach. This simplification makes the margin calculation independent of the particular relay comparator. The phase elements are tested for three-phase faults and the apparent impedance is computed as:

Impedance = ( Vb -Vc ) / ( I b -I c )
where the relay phase voltages relative to local ground are (Va, Vb, Vc) and the line currents at the relay are (Ia, Ib, Ic). For the ground elements, the apparent impedance is computed. For phase-A-ground element, the apparent impedance is:

Impedance = Va / ( I a + 3I 0 k 0 )
where the zero-sequence compensation factor k0 is approximated by the relay tap settings. These impedances equal the apparent positive-sequence ohms between the relay and its local zerovoltage point and therefore give the apparent fault location on the line. Applications of the reach margins are described in the following sections.

6.1.1 Zone 1 and 2 on Protected Line

With solid faults at the end bus of the protected line, the zone 1 reach margin should be 0.8 or less. For the forward pilot zone or zone 2, the reach margin should exceed 1.2 for the same faults. This check is part of the setting algorithm. The report warns that the forward pilot zone and zone 2 set as above both underreach for ground faults:
Margins for zone 1 phase (underreaching) Line 109 232 Fault TPH Reach 6.03 App P.Ohm 7.54 MHO margin 0.80 Underreach

Margins for zone 1 ground (underreaching) Line 109 232 Fault SLG Reach 5.73 App P.Ohm 11.52 MHO margin 0.50 Underreach

Margins for zone 2 (overreaching) Line 109 232 109 232 Fault TPH SLG Reach 9.06 10.40 App P.Ohm 7.54 11.52 MHO margin 1.20 Overreach 0.90 Underreach

1 1

** Warning **

24

Margins for forward pilot zone (overreaching) Line 109 232 109 232 Fault TPH SLG Reach 9.06 10.40 App P.Ohm 7.54 11.52 MHO margin 1.20 Overreach 0.90 Underreach

1 1

** Warning **

Here the automatic procedure cannot set an optimum value, and the engineer must choose compromise settings for forward pilot operation and for time-delayed tripping. Zone 1 (phase or ground) is critical and should already have been set to prevent overreach. To increase zone 2 to cover the line, or to relax the load restrictions or the tapped transformer limit, the user will change the setting factors shown in Table 1 and repeat the calculation.

6.1.2 Zone 2 Coverage of Downstream Line

For zone 2 stepped distance elements, the algorithm applies a fault at each of the downstream zone 1 limits, with infeed branches removed to maximize the zone 2 reach. For a practical approximation, the downstream zone 1 is assumed to reach 0.8 times the least apparent impedance for a solid single-lineground fault at the end of its line. This is the same zone-1 rule as above. The parallel line in this network is treated as any other downstream line. If the zone 2 reach margin exceeds 0.8, the fault is close to the downstream zone 1 characteristic, so there is a risk that the local zone 2 will misoperate for faults beyond zone 1 of the downstream relay. The coordination can be maintained by increasing the local zone 2 time delay [1].
Margins for GROUND zone 2 overreach in downstream zone 1 Overreaching zone of relay on 109 376 1 must not reach ends of downstream zone 1 Faults at zone 1 reach point on lines from remote bus 232 All infeed branches in service Remote line 0.75 0.79 0.80 0.79 0.79 along along along along along 232 232 232 232 232 109 2 to 109 239 1 to 239 1151 1 to 36 1348 1 to 229 1348 1 to 590 Fault SLG SLG SLG SLG SLG Reach 13.03 13.03 13.03 13.03 13.03 App P.Ohm 15.251 69.296 89.135 142.599 83.623 @-105 @ 82 @ 81 @ 82 @ 84 deg deg deg deg deg MHO margin Rev Flt 0.19 0.15 0.09 0.16 Underreach Underreach Underreach Underreach Underreach OK OK OK OK OK

All infeed branches outaged Remote line 0.75 0.79 0.80 0.79 0.79 along along along along along 232 232 232 232 232 109 2 to 109 239 1 to 239 1151 1 to 36 1348 1 to 229 1348 1 to 590 Fault SLG SLG SLG SLG SLG Reach 13.03 13.03 13.03 13.03 13.03 App P.Ohm 13.700 20.426 29.017 36.024 22.622 @ @ @ @ @ 85 83 83 83 83 deg deg deg deg deg MHO margin 0.95 0.64 0.45 0.36 0.58 Underreach Underreach Underreach Underreach Underreach *Warning* OK OK OK OK

All infeed branches outaged; end breaker open Remote line 0.75 0.79 0.80 0.79 0.79 along along along along along 232 232 232 232 232 109 2 to 109 239 1 to 239 1151 1 to 36 1348 1 to 229 1348 1 to 590 Fault SLG SLG SLG SLG SLG Reach 13.03 13.03 13.03 13.03 13.03 App P.Ohm 10.269 20.429 28.844 36.039 23.142 @ @ @ @ @ 89 83 83 83 84 deg deg deg deg deg MHO margin 1.26 0.64 0.45 0.36 0.56 Overreach **Miscoord.** Underreach OK Underreach OK Underreach OK Underreach OK

25

Here we have allowed zone 2 to cover up to 50 percent of tapped-transformer reactance. In this application, zone 2 is short enough to coordinate with every downstream zone 1 when all lines are in service, but it shows a miscoordination with zone 1 along the parallel line (232-109 circuit 2) when intermediate sources are removed and the breaker is open on the parallel line at the relay bus 109. This is acceptable when zone 2 is used for a pilot scheme.

6.1.3 Zone 3 Coverage of Depth-2 Buses

For a forward zone 3, the setting algorithm applies a fault at each bus at a depth of 2, with all branches in use and with branches out one at a time behind the relay, to check minimum source conditions. Warnings appear in the following example because zone 3 has been limited by tapped transformers and cannot reach the depth-2 buses. Margins for zone 3 at depth 2: all lines in service
Line Fault Reach App P.Ohm MHO margin

109 109 109 109 109 109 109 109

376 376 376 376 376 376 376 376

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

to to to to to to to to

239 36 229 590 239 36 229 590

TPH TPH TPH TPH SLG SLG SLG SLG

30.34 30.34 30.34 30.34 30.34 30.34 30.34 30.34

69.58 54.37 120.92 88.00 85.82 84.83 169.84 105.63

0.44 0.56 0.25 0.34 0.35 0.36 0.18 0.29

Underreach Underreach Underreach Underreach Underreach Underreach Underreach Underreach

** ** ** ** ** ** ** **

Warning Warning Warning Warning Warning Warning Warning Warning

** ** ** ** ** ** ** **

6.2 Sensitivity to Ground-Fault Resistance

A plot of the largest detectable fault resistance against fault location is a convenient measure of ground element sensitivity [16]. We fix the fault type, open chosen breakers, and compute the largest fault resistance that will trip the element at each location, again using the actual relay comparator equations. Figure 7 plots the maximum fault resistance that the distance and directional overcurrent elements can detect for single-line-ground (1Ph) faults in circuit 1.

26

Gnd DIST (1Ph)

Gnd IOC (1Ph)

NSeq IOC (1Ph)

Max R

Open at ST

Open at ST

Open at ST

Max R

Distance/Line

Distance/Line

Distance/Line

Figure 7 Threshold fault resistance (primary ohms) for zone 1 (solid lower curves) and zone 2 (dashed upper). Line-end breaker open for lower plots. Red Hills (RH) substation is at the left (Distance/Line = 0) and Sturgis (ST) is at the right. The largest resistance seen by zones 1 and 2 at Red Hills decreases with increasing distance along the line. The region below the zone 1 curves shows the faults in zone 1 that trip directly; Zone 1 reaches no more than 80 percent along the line as required. The region under both zone 2 curves shows the higher fault resistances detectable by the pilot scheme. This region must cover the entire line. The NSeq IOC elements have been made less sensitive than the Gnd IOC elements, to avoid the tapped transformers; hence the zone 1 NSeq IOC element at Sturgis does not operate for 1Ph faults. A 15-ohm close-in fault at Sturgis is not seen from Red Hills because of neutral infeed from the two tapped autotransformers at Ackerman. Such faults will be cleared with zone-2 time delay (20 cycles), by the TOC element, or sequentially if the current rises enough after the breaker opens at Sturgis. The lower plots in Figure 7 (open at ST) show the increased coverage in this case. The Gnd IOC curve flattens out for faults beyond the transformers; this is a result of the neutral infeed, which does not affect the NSeq IOC element. We exploit the automatic process by including more thorough fault studies than would be practicable manually. For example, to set the largest allowed fault detector pickup requires about 50 fault calculations, and setting the overcurrent elements uses about 85 fault calculations, with various lines temporarily outaged. Figure 7 required over 6000 fault calculations (under 15 minutes on a 450 Mhz

PC).

27

6.3 Reverse Pilot Reach

The reverse pilot zone must cover the overreach region of the forward pilot zone at the opposite end of the line, in order to block all echoed signals. This coordination check is made graphically from the settings of both relays. For the worst case (maximum overreach of line 109-376-232), the tapped transformers at bus 376 are removed. Figure 8 shows the maximum resistance seen by the forward zones (upper half of diagram) and the reverse pilot zone of the facing relay (lower half), for single-line-ground faults around the loop of parallel lines. Zone 1 sees only part of its protected line, as required. The overreach area of the forward pilot zone is covered by the reverse pilot zone plotted below it.

28

Figure 8 Threshold fault resistance (primary ohms) for SLG faults around loop of parallel lines. The upper curves show two forward zones on Red Hills Sturgis line 1. The lower curve shows the reverse pilot element of the facing relay on Sturgis-Red Hills line 1. The reverse element covers the forward pilot overreach region right of Sturgis. Coverage of fault impedance is also shown in the circles in Figure 9. These circles are similar in appearance to traditional mho circles but are not to be confused with them. Each plots the largest fault impedance seen for a single-line-ground fault at bus 232, using the full relay operating equations. This impedance may be inductive, resistive, or capacitive: the algorithm searches for the limit at each faultimpedance angle in turn. The limit depends on the equivalent source impedance at the relay, and hence also varies with fault location. The forward pilot limit is well within the facing reverse characteristic, which must enclose all external faults that the forward pilot sees.

29

X
P.Ohms

30

20

10
232

12 Ohms

109

R
10 20
P.Ohms

-20

-10

-10

Figure 9 Limits of fault impedance for single-line-ground faults at remote bus 232: for forward pilot relay at 109 facing the reverse pilot relay at 232. The forward element (smaller circle) barely operates for a solid fault at bus 232. The reverse element (larger circle) will operate for a 12-ohm resistive bus fault at bus 232. Both elements see capacitive fault impedance of about j10 ohms at bus 232.

30

Table 3 summarizes the extra checking rules. Again, these apply to any pilot scheme using phasor distance relays. If these tests produce warnings, the user must use judgment in finding a compromise setting. Table 3 Summary of Extra Checking Rules

Distance zone 1 Forward pilot zone and time-delayed distance zone 2

Reach margin < 0.8 for line-end solid faults on the protected line or on a coupled line. Reach margin > 1.2 for line-end solid faults. Reach margin < 0.8 for faults at downstream zone 1 limits with infeed branches outaged.

Time-delayed forward distance zone 3 Reverse distance pilot zone

Reach margin > 1.2 for solid faults at a depth of 2 buses. Cover the overreach region of the forward pilot zone at the opposite end of the line. Plot the fault impedance limits in the line-impedance plane. Plot the largest detectable fault resistance for sliding faults on the protected line. Confirm that internal faults on the protected line are measured as forward at both ends, with coupled branches outaged or grounded. Confirm that external faults on coupled lines are measured as reverse at one or both ends of the protected line.

Distance and overcurrent zones 1 and 2 Directional overcurrent

7. System Simulation
After setting the relay, the engineer can test its operation in the network. The stepped event simulation uses detailed phasor models of the relays, including the TOC curves and distance- element comparators, and accounts for the logic of multiple relays in the scheme. It verifies that the primary protection can successfully clear faults on the protected line, and that other relays will not operate unintentionally. Figure 1 shows a close-in solid single-line fault at Sturgis for which the zone 2 ground element at Red Hills does not operate. The 67N2 pilot element at Red Hills trips on receiving the permissive signal. The following events are reproduced: Event Close-in fault at Sturgis Zones 1 and 2 assert at Sturgis 161 kV breaker starts to open at Sturgis Cycles from start 0.0 1.0 1.0

31

Transmission to Red Hills Signal received at Red Hills 67N2 asserts at Red Hills 161 kV breaker starts to open at Red Hills Breaker opens at Sturgis Breaker opens at Red Hills

1.0 1.2 1.2 (includes 0.2 cycles for torque control element) 1.2 4.0 4.2

The total time has about 0.5 cycle of random error, since the prefault voltage angle at the instant of the fault is unknown in a phasor model. Figure 10 simulates a single-line fault with fault resistance of 6 ohms.
109 Red Hill 161 161.0 kV 248.000 Z3GD,51N 24026 Red Hill U1S 20.0 kV 232 Sturgis 161.0 kV 5 239 Louisvi SS 5 161.0 kV 190.800 MDA R_TOC 1151 A daton 161.0 kV No_Op 161_BU_GND 376 A ckerman 161
E 10.400

(2)

22.500 No_Op 51N LFZP_TZ3

1159 Starkvile T2 161.0 kV

LFZP_TZ3 1348 Maben Tap 5 231 Eupora, MS 5 161.0 kV 229 Calhn City 5 161.0 kV 651.600 LFZP_TOC 2446 Sturgis 69.0 kV 118.900 161_BU_GND 3

(1)

161.0 kV

(1)

161.0 kV 4.000 Z1G

CE

No_Op Not tripped

Z2G,ECHO_RECEIVER,6

9409 A ckrmn 69-2 69.0 kV

595 A ckrmn 69-1 69.0 kV

Figure 10 Delayed tripping at Red Hills for 6-ohm ground fault. This fault is outside the reach of zone 2 at Red Hills until the breaker opens at Sturgis. It has already been shown that the zone 2 mho and IOC elements may both underreach in this case, so the pilot zone at Red Hills sees the fault only after the breaker has opened at Sturgis. The following events are reproduced: Event Close-in fault at Sturgis Zone 1 tripping at Sturgis 161 kV breaker opens at Sturgis Zone 2 sequential tripping at Red Hills Transmission to Sturgis Signal received at Sturgis Echo transmission to Red Hills Echo received at Red Hills 161 kV breaker opens at Red Hills Cycles from start 0.0 1.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 5.2 7.2 7.4 10.4

In a systematic search for miscoordinations, the engineer can run many different faults. A typical series of stepped-event simulations varies the fault resistance for close-in and midline single-lineground faults on the protected line:

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Protected line: local branch 232 376 circuit 1 to remote bus 109 Fault type Single-line-ground (SLG) Single-line-ground Single-line-ground SLG - 2 Ohms SLG - 2 Ohms SLG - 2 Ohms SLG - 6 Ohms SLG - 6 Ohms SLG - 6 Ohms SLG - 10 Ohms SLG - 10 Ohms SLG - 10 Ohms SLG - 20 Ohms SLG - 20 Ohms SLG - 20 Ohms SLG - 40 Ohms SLG - 40 Ohms SLG - 40 Ohms Location Close-in at 232 Close-in at 109 0.5 from 232 376 1 to 109 Close-in at 232 Close-in at 109 0.5 from 232 376 1 to 109 Close-in at 232 Close-in at 109 0.5 from 232 376 1 to 109 Close-in at 232 Close-in at 109 0.5 from 232 376 1 to 109 Close-in at 232 Close-in at 109 0.5 from 232 376 1 to 109 Close-in at 232 Close-in at 109 0.5 from 232 376 1 to 109

The simulation evaluates the time delay between the fastest primary and fastest backup local zones of protection, reports any miscoordinations or time intervals below the chosen minimum, and continues with the next fault. On line 2 it is found that faults up to 60 ohms are cleared in 4.4 cycles when the breakers open simultaneously at both ends. However, on line 1 the instantaneous overcurrent settings have been limited by the tapped transformers, and the result is that tripping for 20-ohm faults on line 1 requires 25 cycles using the time-overcurrent elements.

8. Summary
Automated setting of complex modern relays improves productivity by applying utility rules consistently, simplifying routine data-handling and avoiding human error. Fast computers can run more thorough fault studies than those previously conducted manually. The algorithms presented here calculate the electrical settings for multiple overcurrent and distance elements and report the margins of secure operation. They apply to any directional comparison pilot scheme and to any relay model. The settings are verified graphically and in a system simulation that includes the pilot logic.

References
[1] IEEE Guide for Protective Relay Applications to Transmission Lines, IEEE Standard C37.1131999, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New York, NY, February 2000.

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[2] Fernando L. Alvarado, Sao Khai Mong, and Mark K. Enns, A Fault Program with Macros, Monitors, and Direct Compensation in Mutual Groups, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-104, No. 5, pp. 1109-1120; May 1985. [3]. Paul F. McGuire, Donald M. MacGregor, John J. Quada, and Daryl B. Coleman, A Stepped-Event Technique for Simulating Protection System Response, presented at 6th Technical Seminar on Protection and Control, Natal, Brazil; September 27 - October 2, 1998. [4] A. T. Giuliante, S. P. Turner, and J. E. McConnell, Considerations for the Design and Application of Ground Distance Relays, 22nd Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, Washington; October 1995. [5] Mark K. Enns and Paul F. McGuire, Data Base Organization for Protection Engineering, CIGRE Study Committee 34 Colloquium, Johannesburg, South Africa, October 1-3, 1997. [6]. Donald M. MacGregor and Hugh Borland, Computer-Aided Setting and Coordination of Distance Relays in 38 kV Distribution Networks, 13th International Conference on Electricity Distribution (CIRED 1995), Brussels, Belgium; May 1995. [7]. George E. Alexander and Joe G. Andrichak, Ground Distance Relaying: Problems and Principles, 47th Annual Georgia Tech Protective Relaying Conference, Atlanta, Georgia; April 28-30, 1993. Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, Washington; October 24-26, 2000. [8]. E. O. Schweitzer III and Jeff Roberts, Distance Relay Element Design, 46th Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas; April 12-14, 1993. [9] S. E. Zocholl, Three-Phase Circuit Analysis and the Mysterious k0 Factor, 22nd Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, Washington; October 1995. [10] Transmission Line Protective Systems Loadability, report by the IEEE Power System Relaying Committee Working Group D6, presented at 28th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, Washington; October 23-35, 2001. [11] Solveig Ward, Comparison of Quadrilateral and Mho Distance Characteristic, 26th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, Washington; October 1999. [12] Walter A. Elmore, Fernando Calero and Lifeng Yang, Evolution of Distance Relaying Principles, 48th Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas; April 3-5, 1995. [13 ] REL 512 Line Protection and Breaker Control Terminal, manual I.L.40-512, ABB Power Automation and Protection Division, Coral Springs, FL; July 2001. [14] Daqing Hou, Shaojun Chen and Steve Turner, SEL-321-5 Relay Out-of-Step Logic, Application Guide AG97-13, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.; 1997. [15] Walter A. Elmore and Elmo Price, Polarization Fundamentals, 27th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, Washington; October 24-26, 2000. [16] Jeff Roberts, E. O. Schweitzer III, Renu Arora, and Ernie Poggi, Limits to the Sensitivity of Ground Directional & Distance Protection, 22nd Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, Washington; October 24-26, 1995.

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A.T. Giuliante is president and founder of ATG Exodus. Prior to forming his company in 1995, Tony was Executive Vice President of GEC ALSTHOM T&D Inc.- Protection and Control Division, which he started in 1983. From 1967 to 1983, he was employed by General Electric and ASEA. In 1994, Tony was elected a Fellow of IEEE for contributions to protective relaying education and their analysis in operational environments. He has authored over 40 technical papers and is a frequent lecturer on all aspects of protective relaying, including electromechanical, solid state and digital based equipment. Tony is a past Chairman of the IEEE Power System Relaying Committee 1993-1994, and past Chairman of the Relay Practices Subcommittee. He has degrees of BSEE and MSEE from Drexel University 1967 and 1969. Donald M. MacGregor is a Lead Engineer at Electrocon International, Inc. He received his B.A. degree with Honors in mathematics in 1970, from St. Catharines College, Cambridge, England. He next attended University College of North Wales in Bangor, where he earned his Ph.D. in Electronic Engineering in 1973. He joined Electrocon in 1973 and has made significant contributions to software for fault analysis, the modeling of power transformers, and power system protection, including detailed models of multifunction relays. Russell W. Patterson is a Project Specialist, System Protection, for the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) in Chattanooga, Tennessee. He is responsible for reviewing and making protective relaying recommendations on new construction and retrofit projects for the generation and transmission system. He also has responsibility for protective relaying and control systems and field support. Prior to his position as Project Specialist, he was TVAs Power Quality Manager responsible for field and customer support on PQ related issues and disturbances. Mr. Patterson earned the BSEE degree from Mississippi State University in 1991 and has completed all coursework toward the MSEE at Mississippi State University. He is a registered professional engineer in the State of Tennessee.

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