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Support the dialog between cooperating application programs Session management, synchronization Example: RPC

LAYER 6: PRESENTATION LAYER


This layer provides independence from data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application accepts. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network. Data conversion into application format Encryption/decryption Secure sockets

LAYER 7: APPLICATION LAYER


The Application Layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. Application layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. Provides network access to application programs Everything is application specific Example: File Transfer, Electronic Mail

TCP/IP Protocol Suite


The TCP/IP model, or Internet Protocol Suite, describes a set of general design guidelines and implementations of specific networking protocols to enable computers to communicate over a network. TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination. Protocols exist for a variety of different types of communication services between

computers. TCP/IP is designed to be hardware independent. The TCP/IP protocol suite was first defined in 1974

A p p lic a t io n Layer T ra n s p o rt Layer In te r n e t N e tw o r k In te r fa c e

t e ln e t , f t p , e m a il

TC P, U D P

IP , IC M P , IG M P

D e v ic e D r iv e r s

LAYERS IN TCP/IP:
1. Link Layer The Link Layer (or Network Access Layer) is the networking scope of the local network connection to which a host is attached. The Link Layer is used to move packets between the Internet Layer interfaces of two different hosts on the same link.

2. Internet Layer The Internet Layer solves the problem of sending packets across one or more networks. Internetworking requires sending data from the source network to the destination network. This process is called routing. In the Internet Protocol Suite, the Internet Protocol performs two basic functions: Host addressing and identification: This is accomplished with a hierarchical addressing system (see IP address). Packet routing: This is the basic task of getting packets of data (datagrams) from source to destination by sending them to the next network node (router) closer to the final destination.

3. Transport Layer The Transport Layer's responsibilities include end-to-end message transfer capabilities independent of the underlying network, along with error control, segmentation, flow control, congestion control, and application addressing (port numbers). End to end message transmission or connecting applications at the transport layer can be categorized as either connection, implemented in Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), or connectionless, implemented in User Datagram Protocol (UDP). The Transport Layer can be thought of as a transport mechanism, e.g., a vehicle with the responsibility to make sure that its contents (passengers/goods) reach their destination safely and soundly, unless another protocol layer is responsible for safe delivery.

4. Application Layer The Application Layer refers to the higher-level protocols used by most applications for network communication. Examples of application layer protocols include the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). Data coded according to application layer protocols are then encapsulated into one or (occasionally) more transport layer protocols (such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or User

Datagram Protocol (UDP)), which in turn use lower layer protocols to effect actual data transfer. Since the IP stack defines no layers between the application and transport layers, the application layer must include any protocols that act like the OSI's presentation and session layer protocols.

Comparison of OSI Model and TCP/IP Suite -

OSI
A p p lic a tio n P r e s e n ta tio n S e s s io n T ra n s p o rt N e tw o rk D a t a L in k P h y s ic a l

T C P /IP

A p p lic a tio n

T ra n s p o rt In te rn e tw o r k
N e tw o rk A ccess

P h y s ic a l

CABLES AND CONNECTORS USED IN NETWORKING


Networking Cables are used to connect one network device to other or to connect two or more computers to share printer, scanner etc. Different types of network cables like Coaxial cable, Optical fiber cable, Twisted Pair cables are used depending on the

network's topology, protocol and size. The devices can be separated by a few meters (e.g. via Ethernet) or nearly unlimited distances (e.g. via the interconnections of the Internet). While wireless may be the wave of the future, most computer networks today still utilize cables to transfer signals from one point to another.

Transmission Media There Guided Unguided. Guided Transmission Media uses a "cabling" system that guides the data signals along a specific path. The data signals are bound by the "cabling" system. Guided Media is also known as Bound Media. Cabling is meant in a generic sense in the previous sentences and is not meant to be interpreted as copper wire cabling only. Unguided Transmission Media consists of a means for the data signals to travel but nothing to guide them along a specific path. The data signals are not bound to a cabling media and as such are often called Unbound Media. There 4 basic types of Guided Media: Open wire Twisted Pair Coaxial Cable Optical Fibre are 2 basic categories of Transmission Media: and

Open Wire Open Wire is traditionally used to describe the electrical wire strung along power poles. There is a single wire strung between poles. No shielding or protection from noise interference is used.

Twisted Pair The wires in Twisted Pair cabling are twisted together in pairs. Each pair would consist of a wire used for the +ve data signal and a wire used for the -ve data signal. Any noise that appears on 1 wire of the pair would occur on the other wire. Because the wires are opposite polarities, they are 180 degrees out of phase (180 degrees - phasor definition of opposite polarity). When the noise appears on both wires, it cancels or nulls itself out at the receiving end.

TWO TYPES: Cables with a shield are called Shielded Twisted Pair and commonly abbreviated STP. Cables without a shield are called Unshielded Twisted Pair or UTP.

Coaxial Cable Coaxial Cable consists of 2 conductors. The inner conductor is held inside an insulator with the other conductor woven around it providing a shield. An insulating protective coating called a jacket covers the outer conductor.

The outer shield protects the inner conductor from outside electrical signals. Optical Fibre Optical Fibre consists of thin glass fibres that can carry information at frequencies in the visible light spectrum and beyond. The typical optical fibre consists of a very narrow strand of glass called the Core. Around the Core is a concentric layer of glass called the Cladding. Coating the cladding is a protective coating consisting of plastic, it is called the Jacket.

Unguided Transmission Media is data signals that flow through the air. They are
not guided or bound to a channel to follow. They are classified by the type of wave propagation.

RF Propagation
There are 3 types of RF (Radio Frequency) Propagation: 1. Ground Wave, 2. Ionosphere and 3. Line of Sight (LOS) Propagation. Ground Wave Propagation follows the curvature of the Earth. Ground Waves have carrier frequencies up to 2 MHz. AM radio is an example of Ground Wave Propagation. Ionospheric Propagation bounces off of the Earths Ionospheric Layer in the upper atmosphere. It is sometimes called Double Hop Propagation. Because it depends on the Earth's ionosphere, it changes with weather and time of day. The signal bounces off of the ionosphere and back to earth. Line of Sight Propagation transmits exactly in the line of sight. The receive station must be in the view of the transmit station. It is sometimes called Space Waves or Tropospheric Propagation. It is limited by the curvature of the Earth for ground based stations . Reflected waves can cause problems. Examples of Line of Sight Propagation are: FM Radio, Microwave and Satellite.

Radio Frequencies
Radio Frequencies are in the range of 300 kHz to 10 GHz. We are seeing an emerging technology called wireless LANs. Some use radio frequencies to connect the workstations together, some use infrared technology.

Microwave
Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The Transmit station must be in visible contact with the receive station. This sets a limit on the distance between stations depending on the local geography.

Satellite
Satellites are transponders that are set in a geostationary orbit directly over the equator. A transponder is a unit that receives on one frequency and retransmits on another.

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