CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1
Introduction
1.1 Review:
Power electronics deals with the solid state power semiconductor devices
for control of electric power. It is a branch of electrical engineering that is concerned
with the conversion and control of electrical power for various applications such as
industrial, commercial, residential, and aerospace environments. Of all the modern
power electronics converters, the voltage source inverters (VSI) is the simplest and
most widely used device with power ratings ranging from fractions of kilowatt to
megawatt level. It converts fixed DC voltage to AC voltage with controllable
frequency and magnitude. These are extensively used in motor drives, active filters,
and unified power flow controllers in power systems and uninterrupted power
supplies.
1.2 Inverters:
A device that converts dc power into ac power at desired output voltage and
frequency is called an inverter. Some industrial applications of inverters are for
adjustable speed ac drives, induction heating, stand by aircraft power supplies,
uninterruptible power supplies for computers, HVDC transmission lines etc. The dc
power input to the inverter is obtained from an existing power supply network or from
a rotating alternator through rectifier or a battery, fuel cell, photovoltaic array or
magneto hydrodynamic (MHD) generator. The configuration of ac-to-dc and dc-to-ac
inverter is called a dc-link converter. The rectification is carried out by standards
diodes or thyristor converter circuits.
As Inverters are employed to get a variable frequency supply from a dc
supply, stepped-wave inverters of figure.1.1 can be designed to behave as voltage
source or current source. Accordingly they are known as voltage source or current
source inverters. For the control of AC Motor, voltage or current should also be
controlled along with frequency. Variation in output voltage or current can be
achieved by varying the input dc voltage. This is achieved either by interposing a
chopper in between fixed voltage dc source and the inverter or the inverter may be fed
from an ac-dc converter. Output voltage and current have stepped waveform,
consequently they have substantial amount of harmonics. Variable frequency and
variable voltage ac is directly obtained from fixed voltage dc when the inverter is
controlled by Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) (figure.1.2). The Pulse Width
2
Modulation control also reduces harmonics in the output voltage. Inverters are built
using semiconductor devices such as thyristors, power transistors, IGBTs, GTOs, and
power MOSFETs. They are controlled by firing pulses obtained from a low power
control unit.
Figure: 1.1 Stepped wave Inverters
Figure: 1.2 Pulse Width Modulated Inverters
1.3 Pulse Width Modulated Inverters:
Pulse Width Modulated inverters are gradually taking over other types of
inverters in industrial applications. Pulse Width Modulation techniques are
characterized by constant amplitude pulses. The width of these pulses is, however,
modulated to obtain inverter output voltage control and to reduce its harmonic
content.
Different Pulse Width Modulation techniques are as under:
a) Single-pulse modulation
b) Multiple- pulse modulation
c) Sinusoidal- pulse modulation
In Pulse Width Modulation inverters, forced commutation is essential. The
three Pulse Width Modulation techniques listed above differ from each other in the
harmonic content in their respective output voltages. It means the choice of a
particular Pulse Width Modulation technique depends on the permissible harmonic
content in the inverter output voltage.
3
Stepped-wave
Semiconductor
Inverter
Variable frequency
Fixed
voltage/current ac
Fixed
Voltage dc
PWM
Semiconductor
Inverter
Variable frequency
Fixed
voltage/current ac
Fixed
Voltage dc
1.4 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation:
The objective of sinusoidal PWM is to synthesize the motor currents as
near to a sinusoid as economically possible. The lower voltage harmonics can be
greatly attenuated leaving typically only two or four harmonics of substantial
amplitude close to the chopping or carrier frequency. The motor now tends to rotate
much more smoothly at low speed. Torque pulsations are virtually eliminated and the
extra motor losses caused by the inverter are substantially reduced. To counter
balanced these advantages the inverter control is complex, the chopping frequency is
high (typically 500-2500Hz for GTOs and up to 5000 or more for BJT transistors),
and inverter losses are higher than for the six-step mode of operation. To approximate
a sine wave, a high frequency triangular wave is compared with fundamental
frequency sine wave as shown in figure.1.3 when the low frequency sine waves are
used with 120 phase displacement; switching pattern for the six inverter devices
ensues.
Figure1.3 Illustration of sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation
4
1.5 Organization Of Thesis
This thesis is organized as follows:
Chapter 1 Introduces the review of power electronics, introduction of inverters and
types of Pulse Width Modulated inverters.
Chapter 2 Introduces the classifications of Inverters, analysis of Induction Motor
Drives, analysis of Pulse Width Modulation and its control.
Chapter 3 Describes the technique of Space Vector Modulation, Gating signal
generation in Space Vector Modulated PWM scheme and relationship
between the Inverter leg Switching timings and the Space Vector Switching
timings.
Chapter 4 Modelling of induction motor
Chapter 5 Describes the results & discussion
Chapter 6 Describes the conclusion
5
CHAPTER 2
PULSE WIDTH
MODULATION
6
2.1Pulse Width Modulation Algorithm:
Pulse width modulation (PWM) refers to a method of carrying
information on attain of pulses, the information being encoded in the width of the
pulses, in applications to motion control, it is not exactly information we are
encoding, but a method of controlling power in motors without(significant) loss.
There are several schemes to accomplish this technique. One is to switch voltage on
and off, and let the current reticulate through diodes when the transistors have
switched off. Another technique is to switch voltage voltage polarity back and forth
with a full bridge switch arrangement, with 4 transistors. This technique may have
better linearity, since it can go right down to an effective 0% duty cycle by having the
positive and negative voltage periods precisely equal on/off techniques may have
trouble going down extremely close to 0% duty cycles, and may jitter between
minimum duty cycles of positive and negative polarity.
By using PWM algorithm, we can control the inverter output
voltage. This is done by exercising the control with in the inverter it self. By
adjusting the on and off periods of inverter, we get AC output voltage by giving a
fixed DC input voltage. In variable speed AC 2 motors, the AC output voltage from a
constant DC voltage can be obtained by using inverter. Mainly AC voltage is
dependent on two parameters, amplitude and frequency. It is essential to control the
above two parameters. In PWM techniques in order to generate the gating signals, we
compare the reference signal amplitude (Ar) with the carrier signal amplitude (Ac).
The fundamental frequency of the output voltage is determined by the reference signal
frequency. The inverter output voltage is determined by the following way when
Ar>Ac, the pole voltage is +Vdc/2. When Ar<Ac, the pole voltage is -Vdc/2. The
ratio of Ar to Ac is called modulation index. The pulse width can be varied from 0 to
180(degrees) by varying Ar from 0 to Ac.
Of the variety of modulation methods, the carrier based PWM
method is very popular due to its simplicity of implementation, known harmonic
waveform characteristics, low harmonic distortion, high switching frequency and
offer high waveform quality. The first important contribution in the carrier based
PWM area was done by schonung and stemmler in1964 with the development of the
sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) method. In this method the sinusoidal reference waveform
of each phase and a periodic triangular carrier wave are \compared and the
7
intersection points determine the commutation instants of the associated inverter leg
switches.however, this method has a poor voltage linearity range, which is at most
78.5% of the six step voltage fundamental component value, hence poor voltage
utilization.
2.2 Space Vector PWM method:
Space vector pulse width modulation is a relatively new and
popular technique in controlling motor drives. This technique is mainly based on
approximating the reference voltage instantaneously by combining the switching
states corresponding to the basis space vectors. The advantage of this technique is it
will generate less harmonics distortion in the output voltages and currents.
In most three phases AC motor drive and utility interface
applications the neutral points are isolated and no neutral current path exists. In such
applications in the triangle intersection implementations any zero sequence signal can
be injected to the reference modulation waves. This zero-sequence waveform is used
to alter duty cycle of the inverter switches. K.G.King was the first researcher to utilize
this concept in a voltage source inverter. King realized that a three phase diode
rectifier circuit could be utilized to generate a 3 zero sequence signal. His choice of
scale, which was based on the linearity range from 78.5% to 90.7% of the six-step
voltage. This modulation method was later re-invented employing the space vector
thery.hence the method was termed Space Vector PWM (SVPWM). The degree of
freedom of the equal division of zero voltage vector times within a sampling period or
sub cycle is used in the space vector modulation methodology.
2.3 Analysis Of Induction Motor Fed From Non-Sinusoidal Voltage
Supply:
When motor fed from an inverter the motor terminal voltage is non-sinusoidal
but it has half-wave symmetry. A non-sinusoidal waveform can be resolved into
fundamental and its harmonic components using Fourier analysis. Because of half-
wave symmetry only odd harmonics will be present. The harmonics can be divided
into positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence. The harmonics, which
have the same phase sequence as that of the fundamental are known as positive
sequence harmonics. The harmonics having phase sequence opposite to fundamental
8
are called negative sequence harmonics. The harmonics, which have all the three
phase voltages in phase, are called zero sequence harmonics.
Consider the fundamental phase voltage components with the phase sequence ABC.
V
AN
= V
1
Sin t
V
BN
= V
1
Sin (t-2/3)
V
CN
= V
1
Sin (t-4/3) (2.1)
The corresponding 5
th
and 7
th
harmonic voltages are:
V
AN
= V
5
Sin 5t
V
BN
= V
5
Sin 5(t-2/3) = V
5
Sin (5t-4/3)
V
CN
= V
5
Sin 5(t-4/3) = V
5
Sin (5t-2/3 ) (2.2)
and
V
AN
= V
7
Sin 7t
V
BN
= V
7
Sin 7(t-2/3) = V
5
Sin (7t-2/3)
V
CN
= V
7
Sin 7(t-4/3) = V
5
Sin (7t-4/3) (2.3)
From the equations mentioned above it is clear that seventh harmonic (equation
2.3) has the phase sequence ABC, which is the same as that of fundamental.
Hence it is a positive sequence harmonic. The fifth harmonic (equation 2.2) has
the phase sequence ACB, which is opposite to the fundamental. Hence it is a
negative sequence harmonic.
It can be concluded as that the harmonic voltages and currents of the order n =
6k+1 (where k is an integer) are of positive sequence and the harmonic voltages and
currents of the order n = 6k-1 are of negative sequence. Similarly the harmonics of
the order n = 3k are of zero sequence. A positive sequence harmonic n will produce a
rotating field, which moves in the same direction as the fundamental at a speed n
times that of the fundamental field. Similarly rotating field produced by a negative
sequence harmonic m will move in the direction opposite to the fundamental at m
times its speed. Zero sequence components do not produce a rotating field.
9
2.4 Classification Of Inverters:
Inverters can be broadly classified into two types:
a) Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
b) Current Source Inverter (CSI)
Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) is one in which the dc source has small or
negligible impedance or we can say, it has stiff dc voltage source at its input
terminals. A Current Source Inverter (CSI) is fed with adjustable current from a dc
source of high impedance, i.e. from a stiff dc current source. In a CSI fed with
stiff current source, output current waves are not affected by the load.
2.5 VSI Induction Motor Drives :
Voltage source inverter allows a variable frequency supply to be obtained
from a dc supply. Figure 2.1 shows VSI employing transistors. Any other self
commutated device can be used instead of a transistor. Generally MOSFET is used in
low voltage and low power inverters, IGBT and power transistors are used up to
medium power levels and GTO is used for high power levels.
Figure 2.1 Transistor Inverter-fed Induction Motor Drive
VSI can be operated as a stepped wave inverter or a pulse width modulated
inverter. When operated as a stepped wave inverter, transistors are switched in the
sequence of their numbers with a time difference of T/6 and each transistor is kept on
for the duration T/2, where T is the time period for one cycle. Frequency of inverter
operation is varied by varying T and the output voltage of the inverter is varied by
varying dc input voltage.
10
Figure 2.2(a) VSI controlled IM drive using chopper
Figure 2.2(b) VSI controlled IM drive using controlled rectifier
Figure 2.2(c) VSI controlled IM drive using dc supply
Figure 2.2(d) VSI controlled IM drive using ac supply
When supply is dc, variable dc input voltage is obtained by connecting a
chopper between dc supply and inverter (figure 2.1(a)). When supply is ac, variable
dc input is obtained by connecting a controlled rectifier between ac supply and
11
inverter (figure 2.1(b)). A large electrolytic filter capacitor C is connected in dc link to
make inverter operation independent of rectifier or chopper and to filter out harmonics
in dc link voltage.
The rms value of fundamental voltage is given by
V = (2 / )V
d
(2.4)

The torque for given speed can be calculated by considering only fundamental
component. Consequently, an induction motor Drive fed from a stepped wave inverter
suffers from the following drawbacks:
a) Because of low frequency harmonics, the motor losses are increased at all
speeds causing derating of the motor.
b) Motor develops pulsating torques due to fifth, seventh, eleventh and thirteenth
harmonics that cause jerky motion of the rotor at low speeds.
c) Harmonic content in motor current increases at low speeds. The machine
saturates at light loads at low speeds due to high (v/f) ratio. These two effects
overheat the machine at low speeds, thus limiting lowest speed to around 40%
of base speed.
Harmonics are reduced, low frequency harmonics are eliminated, associated
losses are reduced and smooth motion is obtained at low speeds also when inverter is
operated as a pulse width modulated inverter. Since output voltage can be controlled
by pulse width modulation no arrangement is required for the variation of input dc
voltage, hence inverter can be directly connected when the supply is dc (figure 2.2(c))
and through a diode rectifier when a supply is ac (figure 2.2(d)).
The fundamental component in the output phase voltage of a PWM inverter
operating with sinusoidal PWM is given by
V = m (V
d
/ 22) (2.5)

where m is modulation index.
The harmonics in the motor current produced torque pulsation and derate the
motor. For a given harmonic content in motor terminal voltage, the current harmonics
are reduced when the motor has higher leakage inductance; this reduces derating and
torque pulsations. Therefore, when fed from VSI, induction motors with large
(compared to when fed from sinusoidal supply) leakage inductance is used.
12
2.6 Pulse Width Modulation Control:
Output voltage from an inverter can also be adjusted by exercising a control
within the inverter itself. The most efficient method of doing this is by Pulse Width
Modulation control used within an inverter. In this method, a fixed dc input voltage is
given to the inverter and a controlled ac output voltage is obtained by adjusting the on
and off periods of the inverter components. This is the most popular method of
controlling the output voltage and this method is termed as pulse-width modulation
(PWM) control.
The advantages of Pulse Width Modulation technique are as under:
i. The output voltage control with this method can be obtained without any
additional components.
ii. With this method, lower order harmonics can be eliminated or minimized along
with its output voltage control. As higher order harmonics can be filtered easily,
the filtering requirements are minimized.
Disadvantage:
i. The main disadvantage of this method is that the SCRs are expensive as they
must possess low turn-on and turn-off times.
2.7 Applications Of Pulse Width Modulations:
a) PWM can be used to reduce the total amount of power delivered to a load
without losses normally incurred when a power source is limited by resistive
element. This is because the average power delivered is proportional to the
modulation duty cycle.
b) High frequency PWM power control systems are easily realizable with
semiconductor switches. The discrete on/off states of the modulation are used
to control the state of the switches which correspondingly control the voltage
across or the current through the load.
c) PWM is also often used to control the supply of electrical power to another
device such as in speed control of electric motors, volume control of Class D
audio amplifiers or brightness control of light sources and many other power
electronics applications.
13
d) PWM is also used in efficient voltage regulators. By switching voltage to the
load with the appropriate duty cycle, the output will approximate a voltage at
the desired level. The switching noise is usually filtered with an inductor and a
capacitor.
e) PWM is sometimes used in audio effects and amplification like sound
synthesis, in particular subtractive synthesis as it gives sound effect similar to
chorus or slightly detuned oscillator played together. The ratio between the
high and low level is typically modulated with low frequency oscillator.
2.8 Types Of Modulations:
2.8.1 Linear Modulation:
The simplest modulation to interpret is where the average ON time of the
pulses varies proportionally with the modulating signal. The advantage of linear
processing for this application lies in the ease of de-modulation. The modulating
signal can be recovered from the PWM by low pass filtering. For a single low
frequency sine wave as modulating signal modulating the width of a fixed frequency
(fs) pulse train the spectra is as shown in Figure 2.3 Clearly a low pass filter can
extract the modulating component fm.
Figure 2.3 Spectra of PWM
14
2.8.2 Saw Tooth PWM:
The simplest analog form of generating fixed frequency PWM is by
comparison with a linear slope waveform such as a sawtooth. As seen in Figure 2.4
the output signal goes high when the sine wave is higher than the sawtooth. This is
implemented using a comparator whose output voltage goes to logic HIGH when the
input is greater than the other.
Figure 2.4 Sine Saw tooth PWM
Other signals with straight edges can be used for modulation a rising ramp carrier will
generate PWM with Trailing Edge Modulation.
Figure 2.5 Trailing Edge Modulation
It is easier to have an integrator with a reset to generate the ramp in Figure 2.5 but the
modulation is inferior to double edge modulation.
15
2.8.3 Regular Sampled PWM:
The scheme illustrated above generates a switching edge at the instant of crossing of
the sine wave and the triangle. This is an easy scheme to implement using analog
electronics but suffers the imprecision and drift of all analog computation as well as
having difficulties of generating multiple edges when the signal has even a small
added noise. Many modulators are now implemented digitally but there is difficulty is
computing the precise intercept of the modulating wave and the carrier. Regular
sampled PWM makes the width of the pulse proportional to the value of the
modulating signal at the beginning of the carrier period. In Figure 2.6 the intercept of
the sample values with the triangle determine the edges of the Pulses. For a saw tooth
wave of frequency f
s
the samples are at 2f
s
.
Figure 2.6 Regular Sampled PWM
There are many ways to generate a Pulse Width Modulated signal other than
fixed frequency sine saw tooth. For three phase systems the modulation of a Voltage
Source Inverter can generate a PWM signal for each phase leg by comparison of the
desired output voltage waveform for each phase with the same saw tooth. One
alternative which is easier to implement in a computer and gives a larger
MODULATION DEPTH is using SPACE VECTOR MODULATION.

16
CHAPTER 3
SPACE VECTOR
MODULATION
17
3.1 Introduction:
Power Electronics has evolved as a major branch in Electrical Engineering
over the past three decades. Power Electronics is primarily concerned with efficient
and optimal use of the resources of electrical energy. It offers intelligent and tangible
solutions to achieve the objectives of flexible and efficient control of various
electrical apparatus and systems.
Inverters form an important class of power electronic circuits, which convert
DC power to AC power. With the advent of power semiconductor technology,
modern power devices such as BJTs, MOSFETs and IGBTs replaced SCRs at low and
medium power level, as these devices do not require the complex commutation
circuitry to turn off them. Of these devices, IGBTs have aroused a particular interest
in recent times as these devices inherit the simplicity of control from MOSFETs and
superior conduction characteristics from the BJTs.
A classical sinusoidal modulation limits the phase duty cycle signal to the
inner circle. The space vector modulation schemes extend this limit to the hexagon by
injecting the signal third harmonic. The result is about 10% (2/1.73 x 100%) higher
phase voltage signal at the inverter output. The PWM modulation chops alternatively
two adjacent phase voltage and zero voltage signals in a certain pattern producing the
switching impulses for the inverter Sa, Sb and Sc. Various SVM modulation schemes
have been proposed in literature and some recent analyzes show that there is a trade-
off between the switching loses and the harmonic content, so-called THD, produced
by the SVM modulation.

3.2 Two-Level Inverters And Modulation Schemes:
Inverters built with the power devices have become very popular and were
accepted by the industry owing to their simplicity and ruggedness. With the
advancements in the Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) control schemes, the harmonic
spectrum of the output voltage can be maneuver to contain a pronounced fundamental
component and to transfer the harmonic energy to the components of higher
frequency. This is desirable, as it is relatively easier to filter out the components of
higher frequency compared to the components of the lower frequency. A typical two-
level inverter is shown in Figure3.1.
18
Figure 3.1 Conventional Induction motor drive using a two-level inverter
Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) is one of the most popular
schemes devised for the control of a two-level inverter. In SPWM, a modulating sine
wave corresponding to the fundamental frequency of the output voltage is compared
with a triangular carrier wave of high frequency, which corresponds to the switching
frequency of the devices. Each leg of the two-level inverter is controlled by the
corresponding modulating wave. The modulating waves for the individual legs are
displaced by 120
0
with respect to each other as shown in the top trace of Figure 3.2
Figure3.2 Modulating and carrier signals in SPWM for a two-level inverter (Top)
and pole voltage AO
v
(bottom) showing two levels
Thus, the inverter employed in the system shown in Figure2.1 is a two-level
inverter because any pole voltage e.g. V
AO
assumes one of the two possible values
namely 0 (when S4 is turned on) or V
dc
(when S1 is turned on) as shown in Figure3.2
19
Vdc
Time
0
The ratio of the peak value of the modulating signal and the peak value of the
carrier signal is defined as the amplitude modulation ratio (also called modulation
index) and is denoted as m
a
. The ratio of the frequencies of the carrier wave and the
modulating wave is defined as the frequency modulation ratio and is denoted as m
f
.
In the range of linear modulation, 0 <
a
m
<1. For the situation depicted in Figure.3.2,
a
m
= 0.8 and f
m
= 15.
The pole voltage waveform contains significant amount of common mode
voltage. The common mode voltages, also called the zero-sequence voltage, are
comprised of the triplen harmonic components in the pole voltages. In the circuit
depicted in Figure.3.1, these are dropped between the points O and N.
Consequently the load phase voltages do not possess the zero sequence voltage.
The waveform of output voltage (the motor phase voltage waveform AN
v
) and
the motor phase current when the inverter is operated in the range of linear-
modulation are shown in Figure.3.3.
Figure.3.3 Typical waveforms of phase voltage (Top) and phase current
(Bottom) of a two-level inverter in the range of linear modulation
20
A two-level inverter is capable of being operated in the six-step mode in which the
inverter displays the maximum voltage capability. Typical phase voltage and phase
current when a two-level inverter is operated in this mode is shown in Figure.3.4. The
typical harmonic spectra of the phase voltage when the inverter is operated in the
range of linear modulation and in the six-step mode are shown in Figure.3.5.
Figure.3.4 Typical waveforms of phase voltage (Top) and phase current (Bottom) of a
two-level inverter in the six-step mode of operation
Figure.3.5 Typical normalized harmonic spectra of the phase voltage when the
inverter is operated in the range of linear modulation with m
a
= 0.8 and m
f
=
15 (Top) and in the six-step mode (Bottom)
21
From the harmonic spectra presented in Figure.3.5, it is clear that in the range
of linear- modulation, the predominant harmonics are pushed to the order of the
switching frequency. In the six-step mode of operation, the harmonic order is given
by
1 6 t n
(n = 1, 2, 3).
These spectra explain as to why SPWM control for two-level inverters has
become popular. In the range of linear-modulation, not only a smooth control over the
fundamental component of the output voltage is obtained, but also the harmonic
spectrum is acceptable. By increasing the switching frequency, one may push
significant harmonics further up. However, for high power applications, this is not
attempted as the switching losses in the power semiconductor devices also increase.
Another possibility of reducing harmonic distortion is to eliminate certain
specific harmonics. This modulation scheme is known as the Selective Harmonic
Elimination (SHE). It is possible to suppress one harmonic component by each
commutation per quarter period. Each commutation notch per quarter period provides
one degree of freedom. With an appropriate selection of the
m
degrees of freedom, it
is possible to control the fundamental component and to eliminate
) 1 ( m

harmonics. The advantage with this scheme is that, it allows the undesirable lower
order harmonics to be eliminated, without making the switching frequency very high.
However, this scheme involves the numerical solution of nonlinear equations and is
difficult to implement for a large value of
m
.
Another popular modulation scheme for the control of two-level inverters is the Space
Vector Modulation.
The space vector
s
V
constituted by the pole voltages
AO
v
,
BO
v
and
CO
v
is
defined as:
)] 3 / 4 ( [ exp . )] 3 / 2 ( [ exp . j v j v v
CO BO AO
+ +
s
V
.
(3.1)
The relationship between the phase voltages, V
AN
, V
BN
, V
CN
and the pole
voltages, V
AO,
V
BO
and V
CO
is given by:
V
AO
= V
A N
+ V
N O;
V
BO
= V
B N
+ V
N O;
V
CO
= V
CN
+ V
N O;
(3.2)
22
Since V
AN
+ V
BN
+ V
CN
= 0,
V
NO
= (V
AO
+ V
BO
+ V
CO
) / 3 .. (3.3)
Where,
NO
v
is the common mode voltage.
From equation.3.1 and equationn.3.2 it is clear that the phase voltages V
AN
, V
BN
and VCN also result in the same space vector V
S
.
The space vector V
S
can also be resolved into two rectangular components namely V
d
and V
q
. It is customary to place the -axis along the A-phase axis of the induction
motor. Hence:
V
S
= V
d
+ V
q
... (3.4)
The relationship between (V
d
, V
q
) and the instantaneous phase voltages
(V
AN
,, V
BN
,, V
CN
) is given by the conventional ABC- transformation as below:
23
]
]
]
]
]

]
]
]
]
]
]

]
]
]

c
b
a
v
v
v
v q
v d
2
3
2
3
0
0 0
2
3
(3.5)
Each pole in a two-level inverter can independently assume two values namely
0 and
dc
V
. Therefore, the total number of states a two-level inverter can assume is 8
(i.e. 2
3
).
These states are graphically illustrated in Figure.3.6a through Figure.3.6h. In
these diagrams, the symbols 1 and 0 respectively indicate that the top switch and
the bottom switch in a given phase leg are turned on. In any given phase leg, the top
switch and the bottom switch are turned on complimentarily.
The switching states from 1 to 6 are known as Active states and the states 7
and 8 are known as Null or Zero or Passive state.
24



TABLE 3.1: Switching States Of Two-Level Inverter In All Sectors
The following example illustrates the method of determination of the space vector
location for a given state. When the inverter assumes a state of 2 (+ + -) as shown in
Figure. 3.6c, then the pole voltages are:
V
AO
= (V
dc
/2); V
BO
= (V
dc
/2); V
C0
= - (V
dc
/2) .. (3.6)
Hence the space vector for this state is given by from eqn.1.1,
V
s
= (V
dc
/2) + (V
dc
/2). exp [j (2/3)] - (V
dc
/2). exp [j (4/3)]
= (V
dc
/2) + (V
dc
/2). [-(1/2) + j (3/2)] - (V
dc
/2). [-(1/2) - j 3/2)]
= V
dc.
[(1/2) + j (3/2)]
= V
dc
at 60
0
.. (3.7)

The space vector locations for the rest of the states may similarly be evaluated.
25
Switching
State
Sequence Result
1
(1 0 0 )
V
dc
at 0
0
2
(1 1 0 )
V
dc
at 60
0
3
(0 1 0) V
dc
at 120
0
4
(0 1 1) V
dc
at 180
0
5
(0 0 1) V
dc
at 240
0
6
(1 0 1) V
dc
at 300
0
7 (1 1 1)
0
8 (0 0 0)
0
Figure.3.6a State 8 (0 0 0)
Figure.3.6b State 1 (1 0 0)
Figure.3.6c State 2 (1 1 0)
Figure.3.6d State 3 (0 1 0)
Figure.3.6e State 4 (0 1 1 )
Figure.3.6f State 5 (0 0 1)
Figure.3.6g State 6 (1 0 1)
Figure.3.6h State 7 (1 1 1)

23
The space vector locations for a two-level inverter form the vertices of a regular
hexagon, forming 6 sectors as shown in Figure.3.7. For the states 8 (0 0 0) and 7(1 1
1) the motor phases are short-circuited and therefore are not connected to the source.
These states are called the zero states or null states during which there is no power
flow from the source to the motor. Hence, by controlling the duration of these zero
state intervals, we can control the output voltage magnitude. It is worth noting that in
six-state mode of operation, such intervals of zero state switching do not exist.
Consequently, the output voltage magnitude in an inverter operating in a square wave
mode must be controlled by controlling the input DC link voltage. The rest of the
vectors 1 through 6 are called the active vectors.
3.3 Space Vector locations in a Hexagon
Figure.3.7 Space vector locations for a two-level inverter
The vector OT in Figure.3.7 represents the reference voltage space vector
corresponding to the desired value of the fundamental components for the output
phase voltages. It is obtained by substituting the instantaneous values of the reference
phase voltages, sampled at regular time intervals, in eqution.3.1. It may be noted that
there is no direct way to generate the sample. It can be reproduced in the average
sense by switching amongst the inverter states situated at the vertices, which are in the
closest proximity to it. For the situation depicted in Figure.3.7, the sample can be
realized by switching among the inverter states situated at the vertices O, A and B
following a certain sequence. The vectors OT, AT and BT respectively denote the
deviation of the sample when the inverter states situated at O, A, and B are switched
to construct the sample in the average sense. Therefore, one may conclude that the
24
realization of the sample in the average sense produces switching ripple
corresponding to these vectors (OT, AT and BT).
By decreasing the sampling time interval (it can be achieved by increasing the
sampling frequency), we can closely track the reference vector OT. But a higher
sampling frequency results in a higher switching frequency of the power devices.
Therefore, high sampling frequencies are generally abstained in high power
applications.
The symbols
1
T
and
2
T
respectively denote the time periods for which the
active vector along the leading edge and the lagging edge are switched for the
realization of the reference voltage space vector in a given sampling time period. The
sampling time period is denoted by the symbol T
s
.
It can be shown that
) 3 / sin(
sin | |
) 3 / sin(
) 3 / sin( | |
2
1

dc
s
dc
s
V
T
T
V
T
T
sr
sr
v
v

.
(3.8)
In equation.3.8,
| |
sr
v
denotes the amplitude of the reference vector and

represents the position of the reference vector with respect to the beginning of the
sector in which the tip of the reference vector is situated.
In order to minimize the switching of the power semiconductor devices in the
inverter, it is desirable that switching should take place in one phase of the
inverter only for a transition from one state to another. For the situation depicted
in Figure.3.7 (i.e. when the sample is situated in sector-1), this objective is met if
the switching sequence (8-1-2-7-2-1-8-1-2-7) is used. Therefore, the zero-
interval
0
T
is divided into two equal halves of length
2 /
0
T
. These half-intervals
are placed at the beginning and end of every sampling interval s
T
. If the half at
the beginning is realized with the state 8(0 0 0), then the state at the end is
realized with the state 7 (1 1 1) and vice-versa. Figure.3.8 depicts a typical
switching sequence when the sample is situated in sector-1 (Figure.3.7). By
extending this procedure, the gating signals can be generated when the sample is
situated in the other sectors.
25
Figure.3.8 Gating signal generation in Space Vector Modulated PWM
scheme
In Figure.3.8, the symbols ga
T
, gb
T
and gc
T
respectively denote the time
duration for which the top switch in each phase leg is turned on. It can be seen
from Figure.3.8 that the chopping frequency of each phase of the inverter is equal
to half of the sampling frequency. Table-3.2 depicts the switching sequence for all
the sectors.
Inner sector
number
On-sequence in an
equivalent single inverter
drive
Off-sequence in an equivalent
single inverter drive
1 8-1-2-7 7-2-1-8
2 8-3-2-7 7-2-3-8
3 8-3-4-7 7-4-3-8
4 8-5-4-7 7-4-5-8
5 8-5-6-7 7-6-5-8
6 8-1-6-7 7-6-1-8
Table - 3.2 Switching sequences for two-level Inverter in all the sectors
for Space Vector Modulation
26
One of the important advantages of the Space Vector PWM over the sine-
triangle PWM is that it gives nearly 15% more output voltage compared to the latter,
while still remaining in modulation. Space vector modulation can also be regarded as
a carrier based PWM technique with the modification that, the reference waveform
has triplen harmonics in addition to the fundamental.
The conventional implementation of the space vector PWM involves the following
steps:
1. Sector identification
2. Calculation of the active vector switching time periods T
1
and T
2
using
equation.3.8.
3. Translation of the active vector switching time periods 1
T
and 2
T
into the
inverter leg switching timings
ga
T
,
gb
T
and
gc
T
.
4. Generation of the gating signals for the individual power devices using the
inverter leg switching timings
ga
T
,
gb
T
and
gc
T
.
Therefore, owing to this basic approaching manner of the conventional space
vector PWM method, the overall process of this algorithm is complex and the
implementation is formidable.
This code given in the Appendix is based on the concept of Effective time
which is the time duration for which the load is connected to the supply. This
algorithm reduces the execution time by more than 25% while the memory
requirement is reduced to 15% compared to the conventional PWM method. The task
of generating the gating signals is accomplished naturally and automatically with this
algorithm. This algorithm is extended for all the dual inverter schemes.
3.4 Relationship between the Inverter leg Switching Timings and the Space Vector
Switching Timings
Whenever the tip of the reference voltage space vector OT (Figure.3.7) is
situated in one of the outer sectors in a dual-inverter scheme, OT is the transformed
reference voltage vector corresponding the actual reference voltage vector OT.
The inverter leg switching timings (denoted by ga
T
, gb
T
and gc
T
) are
defined as the respective time duration for which the phases of the inverter in an
27
equivalent conventional scheme (a single 2-level inverter driving a normal motor) are
connected to the positive terminal of the DC power supply to realize OT. The DC-
link voltage of the equivalent conventional scheme to realize OT is equal to the side-
length of the inner hexagon.
The inverter leg switching timings ( ga
T
, gb
T
and gc
T
) to realize OT using
an equivalent conventional drive are determined (Figure 3.9).
Figure 3.9 Realization of OT in the inner hexagon
The inverter leg switching timings are then translated into the space vector
combinational switching timings ( 0
T
,
1
T
and
2
T
) as there exists an explicit
relationship between the inverter leg switching timings ( ga
T
, gb
T
and gc
T
) and the
space vector combinational switching timings ( 0
T
,
1
T
and
2
T
) depending upon
which inner sector the tip of OT is situated in.
28
Case i) Tip of OT is situated in Sector-1 of the inner hexagon:
Figure.3.10 The Gating pulses for the A, B and C phases
when the tip of OT is situated in sector-1 in the inner hexagon
From Figure 3.10 it is evident that in this case:

gc gb gb ga gc
T T T T T T T
T

2 1
0
; ;
2
. (3.9)
29
Case ii) Tip of OT is situated in Sector-2 of the inner hexagon:
Figure.3.11 The Gating pulses for the A, B and C phases
when the tip of OT is situated in sector-2 in the inner hexagon
From Figure 3.11 it is evident that in this case:
ga gb gc ga gc
T T T T T T T
T

2 1
0
; ;
2
(3.10)
30
Case iii) Tip of OT is situated in Sector-3 of the inner hexagon:
Figure 3.12 The Gating pulses for the A, B and C phases
when the tip of OT is situated in sector-3 in the inner hexagon
From Figure 3.12 it is evident that in this case:
ga gc gc gb ga
T T T T T T T
T

2 1
0
; ;
2
. (3.11)
31
Case iv) Tip of OT is situated in Sector-4 of the inner hexagon:
Figure 3.13The Gating pulses for the A, B and C phases
when the tip of OT is situated in sector-4 in the inner hexagon
From Figure 3.13 it is evident that in this case:
gb gc ga gb ga
T T T T T T T
T

2 1
0
; ;
2
. (3.12)
32
Case v) Tip of OT is situated in Sector-5 of the inner hexagon
Figure.3.14 The Gating pulses for the A, B and C phases
when the tip of OT is situated in sector-5 in the inner hexagon
From Figure.3.14 it is evident that in this case:
gb ga ga gc gb
T T T T T T T
T

2 1
0
; ;
2
.. (3.13)
33
Case vi) Tip of OT is situated in Sector-6 of the inner hexagon
Figure.3.15 The Gating pulses for the A, B and C phases
when the tip of OT is situated in sector-6 in the inner hexagon
From Figure.3.15 it is evident that in this case:
gc ga gb gc gb
T T T T T T T
T

2 1
0
; ;
2
.. (3.14)
34
Thus, the relationship between the inverter leg switching timings ( ga
T
, gb
T
and
gc
T
) and the space vector switching timings (
0
T
,
1
T
and
2
T
) is obtained
graphically in all the inner sectors. These relationships are presented in Table C.2 to
enable a quick reference.
Sector in which
OT is situated
2
0
T
1
T
2
T
1
ga
T
gb
T
-
ga
T
gc
T
-
gb
T
2
gb
T
gc
T
-
ga
T
ga
T
-
gb
T
3
gb
T
gc
T
-
gb
T
ga
T
-
gc
T
4
gc
T
ga
T
-
gb
T
gb
T
-
gc
T
5
gc
T
ga
T
-
gc
T
gb
T
-
ga
T
6
ga
T
gb
T
-
gc
T
gc
T
-
ga
T
Table.3.3: Space vector Switching Timings
These switching timings (
0
T
,
1
T
and
2
T
) are then used to switch amongst
the closest vertices around the tip of the actual reference voltage space vector OT to
realize it in the average sense.
35
Translation of the active Space Vector Switching time periods
1
T
and
2
T
into
the Inverter leg Switching Timings
ga
T
,
gb
T
and
gc
T
are derived and given below
in the table.

36
Sector in
which OT is
situated
Tga Tgb Tgc
1
2
0 T
1
0
2
T
T
+ 2 1
0
2
T T
T
+ +
2 2
0
2
T
T
+
2
0 T
2 1
0
2
T T
T
+ +
3 2 1
0
2
T T
T
+ +
2
0 T
1
0
2
T
T
+
4 2 1
0
2
T T
T
+ + 2
0
2
T
T
+
2
0 T
5 1
0
2
T
T
+ 2 1
0
2
T T
T
+ +
2
0 T
6
2
0 T
2 1
0
2
T T
T
+ +
2
0
2
T
T
+
Table 3.4 Inverter leg Switching Timing
37
CHAPTER 4
MODELLING OF
INDUCTION MOTOR
37
4.1 Introduction
Before going to analyse the any motor or generator it is very much
important to obtain the machine in terms of equivalent mathematical equations.
Traditional per phase equivalent circuit has been widely used in steady state
analysis and design of induction motor, but it is not appreciated to predict the
dynamic performance of the motor. The dynamic of considers the instantaneous
effects of varying voltage/currents, stator frequency, and torque disturbance. The
dynamic model of the induction motor is derived by using a two-phase motor in
direct and quadrature axes. This approach is desirable because of the conceptual
simplicity obtained with two sets of windings, one on the stator and the other in
the rotor. The equivalence between the three phase and two phase machine
models is derived from simple observation, and this approach is suitable for
extending it to model an n-phase machine by means of a two phase machine.
The concept of power invariance is introduced; the power must be equal
in the three-phase machine and its equivalent two-phase model. Derivations for
electromagnetic torque involving the currents and flux linkages are given. The
differential equations describing the induction motor are non-linear. For stability
and controller design studies, it is important to linearize the machine equations
around a steady state operating point to obtain small signal equations. In or
adjustable speed drive, the machine normally constituted as element within a
feedback loop, and therefore its transient behaviour has to be taken into
consideration. The dynamic performance of an ac machine is somewhat complex
because the three phase rotor windings move with respect to the three phase
stator windings.
An induction motor can be looked on as a transformer with a moving
secondary, where the coupling coefficients between the stator and rotor phases
change continuously with the change of rotor position
r
. The machine model can
be described by differential equations with time varying mutual inductances, but
such a model tends to be very complex. Hence, to reduce complexity it is
necessary to transform the three-phase machine into equivalent two-phase
machine beside, high performance drive control such as vector control, is based
on the dynamic d-q model of the machine. Therefore, to understand vector
control principled, a good understanding of d-q

model is mandatory.
38
4.2 Reference Frames:

The required transformation in voltages, currents, or flux linkages is
derived in a generalized way. The reference frames are chosen to be arbitrary and
particular cases, such as stationary, rotor and synchronous reference frames are
simple instances of the general case. R.H. Park, in the 1920s, proposed a new
theory of electrical machine analysis to represent the machine in d q model. He
transformed the stator variables to a synchronously rotating reference frame fixed
in the rotor, which is called Parks transformation. He showed that all the time
varying inductances that occur due to an electric circuit in relative motion and
electric circuits with varying magnetic reluctances could be eliminated. In 1930s,
H.C Stanley showed that time varying Inductances in the voltage equations of an
induction machine due to electric circuits in relative motion can be eliminated by
transforming the rotor variables to a stationary reference frame fixed on the
stator. Later, G. Kron proposed a transformation of both stator and rotor variables
to a synchronously rotating reference that moves with the rotating magnetic field.
4.3Axes Transformation (3 To 2)
We know that per phase equivalent circuit of the induction motor is only
valid in steady state condition. Nevertheless, it is not holds good while dealing
with the transient response of the motor. In transient response condition the
voltages and currents in three phases are not in balance condition. It is too much
difficult to study the machine performance of the machine by analyzing with
three phases. In order to reduce this complexity the transformation of axes from 3
to 2 is necessary. An other reason for transformation is to analyze any
machine of n number of phases, an equivalent model is adopted universally, that
is d q model.
39
Fig 4.1:3- to 2- Transformation
Consider a symmetrical three-phase induction machine with stationary as-
bs-cs axis at 2 /3 angle apart. Our goal is to transform the three-phase stationary
reference frame (as-bs-cs) variables into two-phase stationary reference frame
(d
s
-q
s
) variables. Assure that d
s
-q
s
over are oriented at angle as shown in fig:
the voltages
s
qs
s
ds
andv v
can be resolved into as-bs-cs components and can be
represented in matrix from as,
40
]
]
]
]
]
]

]
]
]
]
]

+ +

]
]
]
]
]

s
o s
s
d s
s
q s
c s
b s
a s
V
V
V
V
V
V
1 ) 1 2 0 s i n ( ) 1 2 0 c o s (
1 ) 1 2 0 s i n ( ) 1 2 0 c o s (
1 s i n c o s
0 0
0 0



4.1
The corresponding inverse relation is
41
]
]
]
]
]

]
]
]
]

+ +
+

]
]
]
]

c s
b s
a s
o o
o o
s
d s
s
q s
V
V
V
S i n S i n S i n
C o s C o s C o s
V
V
) 1 2 0 ( ) 1 2 0 (
) 1 2 0 ( ) 1 2 0 (
3
2


4.2
Here
s
os
v is zero-sequence convenient to set = 0 so that q
s
axis is aligned with
as-axis. Therefore ignoring zero-sequence component, this can be simplified as-
as cs bs as
s
qs
v v
3
1
v
3
1
v
3
2
V
4.3
cs bs
s
ds
v
3
1
v
3
1
V +

4.4
4.4 MOTOR MODEL
42
Fig 4.2 Two-phase equivalent diagram of induction motor
The two-phase equivalent diagram of three-phase induction motor with
stator and rotor windings referred to d q axes are shown in Fig 2.2. The
winding are spaced by 90
o
electrical and rotor winding , is at an angle
r
from
the stator d-axis. It is assumed that the d axis is leading the q axis for clockwise
direction of rotation of the rotor. If the clockwise phase sequence is d-q, the
rotating magnetic field will be revolving at the angular speed of the supply
frequency but counter to the phase sequence of the stator supply. Therefore the
rotor is pulled in the direction of the rotating magnetic field i.e. counter
clockwise, in this case. The currents and voltages of the stator and rotor windings
are marked in figure [2.2]. The number of turns per phase in the stator and rotor
respectively are T
1
and T
2
. A pair of poles is assumed for this figure. But it is
applicable with slight modification for any number of pairs of poles if it is drawn
in terms of electrical degrees. Note that
r
is the electrical rotor position at any
instant, obtained by multiplying the mechanical rotor position by pairs of
electrical poles. The terminal voltages of the stator and rotor windings can be
expressed as the sum of the voltage drops in resistances, and rate of change of
flux linkages, which are the products of currents and inductances.
From the above figure the terminal voltages are as follows,
43
V
qs
= R
q
i
qs
+ p (L
qq
i
qs
) + p (L
qd
i
ds
) + p (L
q
i

) + p (L
q
i

)
V
ds
= p (L
dq
i
qs
) + R
d
i
ds
+ p (L
dd
i
ds
) + p (L
d
i

) + p (L
d
i

)
V

= p (L
q
i
qs
) + p (L
d
i
ds
)+ R

+ p (L

i

) + p (L

i

)
V

= p (L
q
i
qs
) + p (L
d
i
ds
) + p (L

i

) + R

i

+ p (L

i

)
Where p is the differential operator d/dt, and v
qs
, v
ds
are the terminal
voltages of the stator q axis and d axis. V

, V

are the voltages of rotor and

windings, respectively. i
qs
and i
ds
are the stator q axis and d axis currents,
respectively. i

and

i

are the rotor and windings currents, respectively.

L
qq
, L
dd
, L

and L

are the stator q and d axis winding and rotor and
winding self-inductances, respectively.
The following are the assumptions made in order to simplify the equation (2.5).
i. Uniform air-gap
ii. Balanced rotor and stator winding with sinusoidal distributed mmf.
iii. Inductance in rotor position is sinusoidal and
iv. Saturation and parameter changes are neglected
From the above assumptions the equation (2.5) modified as
v
qs
= (R
s
+ L
s
p)i
qs
+ L
sr
p(i

sin
r
) L
sr
p(i

cos
r
)

v
ds
= (R
s
+ L
s
p)i
ds
+ L
sr
p(i

cos
r
) + L
sr
p(i

sin
r
)

v

= L
sr
p (i
qs
sin
r
) + L
sr
p (i
ds
cos
r
) + (R
rr
+ L
rr
p) i

v

= - L
sr
p (i
qs
cos
r
) + L
sr
p (i
ds
sin
r
) + (R
rr
+ L
rr
p) i

Where
44
4.5
4.6
d q s
R R R

R R R
rr
]
]
]

]
]
]

]
]
]

i
i
c o s s i n
s i n c o s
i
i
r r
r r
q r r
d r r
4.7
By applying Transformation to the and rotor winding currents and voltages
the equation 2.6 will be written as
45
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

]
]
]
]
]
]
]

+
+
+
+

]
]
]
]
]
]
]

d r r
q r r
d s
q s
r r r r
r
o
r r s r
r
o
s r
r
o
r r r r r r
r
o
s r s r
s r s s
s r s s
d r r
q r r
d s
q s
i
i
i
i
p L R L p L L
L p L R L p L
p L 0 p L R 0
0 p L 0 p L R
V
V
V
V
4.8
The rotor equations in above equation 2.8 refereed to stator side as in the case of
transformer equivalent circuit. From this, the physical isolation between stator
and rotor d-q axis use eliminated.
r
o

Derivative of
r
, a = transformer ratio = (stator turns)/(rotor turns)
rr
2
r
R a R ;
rr
2
r
L a L
a
i
i
qrr
qr
;
a
i
i
drr
dr

4.9
v
qr
= av
qrr ;
v
dr
= av
drr
46
Magnetizing and control inductances are

2
1 m
T L
2 1 sr
T T L
4.10
Magnetizing inductance of the stator is
sr m
aL L
4.11

From equations 2.9, 2.10 &2.11 the equation 2.8 is modified as
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

]
]
]
]
]
]
]

+
+
+
+

]
]
]
]
]
]
]

d r
q r
d s
q s
r r
r
o
r m
r
o
m
r
o
r r r
r
o
m m
m s s
r r r s s
d r
q r
d s
q s
i
i
i
i
p L R L p L L
L p L R L p L
p L 0 p L R 0
0 p L 0 p L R
V
V
V
V
4.12
Where
o
r
=
r
=

d /dt and p= d/dt
The dynamic equations of the induction motor in any reference frame can
be represented by using flux linkages as variables. This involves the reduction of
47
a number of variables in the dynamic equations. Even when the voltages and
currents are discontinuous the flux linkages are continuous [12]. The stator and
rotor flux linkages in the stator reference frame are defined as

ds m dr r dr
qs m qr r qr
dr m ds s ds
qr m qs s qs
i L i L
i L i L
i L i L
i L i L
+
+
+
+

4.13

) (
) (
dr ds m dm
qr qs m qm
i i L
i i L
+
+

4.13.a

From (2.12) and (2.13) we get

qr dr r qr r qr
dr qr r dr r dr
qs qs s qs
ds ds s ds
p i R v
p i R v
p i R v
p i R v

+
+ +
+
+

4.14




Since the rotor windings are short circuited, the rotor voltages are zero. Therefore

0
0
+
+ +
qr dr r qr r
dr qr r dr r
p i R
p i R


4.15
From (2.15), we have

r
dr r qr
qr
r
qr r dr
dr
R
p
i
R
p
i


+

4.16

By solving the equations (4.13), (4.14), (4.15) and (4.16) we get the following
equations

dt i R v
ds s ds ds
) (

4.17

dt i R v
qs s qs qs
) (

4.18
48

r r
r ds m qr r r
dr
sL R
R i L L
+
+

4.19
r r
qs r m dr r r
qr
sL R
i R L L
+
+

4.20

]
]
]

) .(
.
s s r
m dr
s s
ds
ds
sL R L
sL
sL R
v
i

4.21
]
]
]

) .(
.
s s r
m qr
s s
qs
qs
sL R L
sL
sL R
v
i

4.22
The electromagnetic torque of the induction motor in stator reference frame is
given by

qr ds dr qs m e
i i i i L
p
T (
2 2
3
) 4.23
or

3
( )
2 2
m
e qs ds ds qs
r
L p
T i i
L

4.24
The electro-mechanical equation of the induction motor drive is given by

dt
d
J
p
T T
r
L e
2

4.25
By using the equations from (4.17) to (4.25), the induction motor
model is developed in stator reference frame
In this thesis Induction machine is modeled in stationary
reference frame (
r

=0). The terms corresponding to speed are eliminated. Eqns

(4.14), (4.17), (4.24) and (4.25) are used to model the machine. Simulink model
of Induction machine is presented in Chapter 4.
49


CHAPTER 5
SIMULINK AND
IMPLEMENTATION OF
INDUCTION MACHINE
5.1. Induction Motor Model:
50
The induction machine d-q or dynamic equivalent
circuit is shown in fig. One of the most popular induction motor models
derived from this equivalent circuit is Krause's model. According to his
model, the modeling equations in flux linkages form are as follows

( )
]
]
]
]

+ +
qs mq
ls
s
ds
b
e
qs b
qs
F F
x
R
F v
dt
dF

( )
]
]
]
]

+ + +
ds md
ls
s
qs
b
e
ds b
ds
F F
x
R
F v
dt
dF

( )
( )
]
]
]
]

qr mq
lr
r
dr
b
r e
qr b
qr
F F
x
R
F v
dt
dF

( )
( )
]
]
]
]

dr md
lr
r
qr
b
r e
dr b
dr
F F
x
R
F v
dt
dF

Then, the modeling equations of a squirrel cage induction motor in state-space

]
]
]
]

+
lr
qr
ls
qs
ml mq
x
F
x
F
x F *


]
]
]
]

+
lr
dr
ls
ds
ml md
x
F
x
F
x F *


( )
mq qs
ls
qs
F F
x
i
1

( )
md ds
ls
ds
F F
x
i
1


( )
mq qr
lr
qr
F F
x
i
1

( )
md dr
lr
dr
F F
x
i
1

51

( )
ds qs qs ds
b
e
i F i F
p
T
,
`

.
|

1
2 2
3

dt
d
p
j T T
r
l e

,
`

.
|

2

]
]
]
]

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|
+ +
q s
l s
m l
q r
l r
m l
l s
s
d s
b
e
q s b
q s
F
x
x
F
x
x
x
R
F v
d t
d F
1
* *

]
]
]
]

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|
+ + +
d s
l s
m l
d r
l r
m l
l s
s
q s
b
e
d s b
d s
F
x
x
F
x
x
x
R
F v
d t
d F
1
* *

52
( )
]
]
]
]

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|
+ +

q r
l r
m l
q s
l s
m l
l r
r
d r
b
r e
b
q r
F
x
x
F
x
x
x
R
F
d t
d F
1
* *

( )
]
]
]
]

,
`

.
|

,
`

.
|
+ +

d r
l r
m l
d s
l s
m l
l r
r
q r
b
r e
b
d r
F
x
x
F
x
x
x
R
F
d t
d F
1
* *

( )
l e
r
T T
j
p
dt
d

,
`

.
|

53

5.2 Simulation:
The inputs of a squirrel cage induction machine are the three-phase
voltages, their fundamental frequency, and the load torque. The outputs,
on the other hand, are the three phase currents, the electrical torque, and
the rotor speed.
The d-q model requires that all the three-phase variables have to be
transformed to the two-phase synchronously rotating frame. Consequently
the induction machine model will have the blocks transforming the three-
phase voltages d-q frame and d-q currents back to three-phase currents.
The induction machine model implemented in this work is shown in
fig.4.1.
54
0 - n
u n i t v e c t o r
a b c - s y n
i n d u c t i o n m o t o r
d - q m o d e l
s y n - a b c
T e
T l
w r
w e
i a
i c
i b
c u r r e n t s i a , i b , i c
T o r q u e
a n g u l a r s p e e d
5
4
3
2
1
i q s
i d s
s i n t h e t a
c o s t h e t a
i a
i b
i c
w e
s i n t h e t a
c o s t h e t a
v q s
v d s
w e
T l
i q s
i d s
T e
w r
i d r
i q r
V a n
V b n
V c n
s i n t h e t a
c o s t h e t a
v q s
v d s
v a 0
v b 0
v c 0
V a n
V b n
V c n
T l
w e
Fig: 5.1 induction machine d-q model
It consists of five major blocks. The o-n Conversion, abc-syn conversion,
syn-abc conversion unit, vector calculation and induction machine d-q
model blocks.
55
The following subsections will explain each block.
A. O-n conversion block:

This is implemented in Simulink by passing the input voltages through a
Simulink Matrix Gain" block, which contains the above transformation
matrix.
This block is required for an isolated neutral system, otherwise it can be
bypassed. The transformation done by this block can be represented as
follows:
Fig5.2:o-n conversion block
56
B. Unit vector calculation block
Unit vectors cos, sin are used in vector rotation blocks, "abc-syn
conversion block and "syn-abc conversion block ".The angle is
calculated directly by integrating the frequency of the three-phase
voltages .
The unit vectors are obtained simply by taking the sine and cosine of
Theta. In this block is also the rotor position can be inserted, it Simulink
"Integrator blocks.
C. abc-syn conversion block
To convert three-phase voltages to voltages in the-phase rotating frame
and, they are first converted to two phase stationary frame and then from
stationary frame to synchronously rotating frame. Where the super
scripts refers to stationary frame.
Equation (20) is implemented
similar to eq(18) because it is a
simple matrix transformation. Eq. (21). However, contains the unit vector,
therefore a simple matrix transformation cannot be used. Instead, Vqs and
Vds are calculated using basic Simulink "Sum" and "Product" blocks.
57
v q s '
v d s '
v d s
2
v q s
1
- K -
c o s t h e t a
5
s i n t h e t a
4
V c n
3
V b n
2
V a n
1
Fig5.3: abc-syn conversion block
D. syn-abc conversion block
This block does the opposite of abc-syn conversion block for current
variables using (22) & (23) and the same implementation technique
as below.
s i n
i q s'
i d s'
i c
3
i b
2
i a
1
-K -
-K -
c o s t h e t a
4
s i n t h e t a
3
i d s
2
i q s
1
Fig5.4: syn-abc conversion block
Simulation Tip 1 Do not use derivatives. Some signals will have
discontinuities and or ripple that would in spikes when the differentiated.
Instead try to integrals to and basic erythematic.
Simulation Tip 2 Beware of the algebraic loops. Algebraic loops will
appear when there is feedback loop in your system, when the calculation
58
of present value of a variable requires its present value when simulink
notices an algebraic loop, it will try to solve it.
Simulink "Memory" block, which delays its input signal by one sampling
time however this might affect the system. If possible avoid algebraic
loops.
For example, fig 4.1(given) shows the utilization file for a 30kw induction
machine. Before the simulation, this file has to be executed at the Mat lab
prompt; otherwise simulink will display an error message.
The modelled induction machine is simulated with the parameters given
and applying 220v, three-phase ac voltage at 60Hz with just an inertia
load.
The below one is example for Mat lab initiation of simulink variable
initialisations

5.3 Machine Initialising File
% initialisation
rr=0.39; % rotor resistance (ohm)
rs=0.19; % stator resistance (ohm)
lls=0.21e-3; % stator inductance (H)
llr=0.6e-3; % rotor inductance (H)
lm=4e-3; % magnatising inductance (H)
fb=100; % base frequency (Hz)
p=4; % number of poles
j=0.0226; % moment of inertia
% Impedance and angular speed calculations
lr=llr+lm;
tr=lr/rr;
wb=2*pi*fb; % base speed
xls=wb*lls; % stator impedance
xlr=wb*llr; % rotor impedance
xm=wb*lm; % magnatising impedance
xmlstar=1/((1/xls)+(1/xm)+(1/xlr));
59

% User defined values
we=2*pi*fb; % stator angular electrical frequency
Tl=0; % Load torque (N-mt)
5.4 Program:
function A=csqn(par)
v=par(1);
r=par(2)+(2*pi);
t=par(3);
T=(1/10000);
Vdc=500;
M=(1.5)*(v/Vdc);
r=mod(r,(2*pi));
nsect=fix(r/(pi/3))+1;
r1=mod(r,(pi/3));
Ta=M*T*sin((pi/3)-r1)/sin(pi/3);
Tb=M*T*(sin(r1))/sin(pi/3);
if mod(nsect,2)==1
T1=Ta;
T2=Tb;
rf=r1;
else
T1=Tb;
T2=Ta;
rf=pi/3-r1;
end
Tz=T-T1-T2;
s=[1 -1 -1;1 1 -1;-1 1 -1;-1 1 1;-1 -1 1;1 -1 1;1 1 1;-1 -1
-1];
sq=[8 1 2 7 2 1 8;8 3 2 7 2 3 8;8 3 4 7 4 3 8;8 5 4 7 4 5
8;8 5 6 7 6 5 8;8 1 6 7 6 1 8];
tt=mod(t,2*T);
if tt<(Tz/2)
A(1)=s(sq(nsect,1),1);
A(2)=s(sq(nsect,1),2);
A(3)=s(sq(nsect,1),3);
elseif tt<(Tz/2)+T1
A(1)=s(sq(nsect,2),1);
A(2)=s(sq(nsect,2),2);
A(3)=s(sq(nsect,2),3);
elseif tt<(Tz/2)+T1+T2
A(1)=s(sq(nsect,3),1);
A(2)=s(sq(nsect,3),2);
A (1)=s(sq(nsect,4),1);
A(2)=s(sq(nsect,4),2);
A(3)=s(sq(nsect,4),3);
elseif tt<(Tz/2)+T1+T2+Tz+T2
A(1)=s(sq(nsect,5),1);
A(2)=s(sq(nsect,5),2);
A(3)=s(sq(nsect,5),3);
60
elseif tt<(Tz/2)+T1+T2+Tz+T2+T1
A(1)=s(sq(nsect,6),1);
A(2)=s(sq(nsect,6),2);
A(3)=s(sq(nsect,6),3);
else
A(1)=s(sq(nsect,7),1);
A(2)=s(sq(nsect,7),2);
A(3)=s(sq(nsect,7),3);
end
end
5.5 Simulation Results
5.5.1 Induction d-q model block:
In this subdivision each equation from the induction machine model is
implemented in a different block. First consider the flux linkage state
equations because flux is required to calculate all the other variables.
These equations could be implemented using simulink state-space
block, but to have the access to each point of the model, implementation
using discrete blocks is preferred. The results for the simulink
implementation of induction machine are shown in figure 4.1.7 tracing the
speed, torque as well as phase currents with improved transient stability
as well as dynamic stability.
61
T e
3
W r
2
I a b c
1
S u b s y s t e m 5
S c i d s
i q s
S c i q s
i d s
w r
T e
S u b s y s t e m 4
I d s
I q s
I a b c
S u b s y s t e m 3
s c i d s
s c i q s
s c i d r
s c i q r
i d s
i q s
i d r
i q r
S u b s y s t e m 2
V d s
V q s
I d s
I q s
W r
I d r
I q r
S c i d s
S c i q s
S c i d r
S c i q r
S u b s y s t e m 1
V a s
V b s
V c s
V d s
V q s
[ I q r ]
[ I d r ]
[ I q s ]
[ I d s ]
G a i n 4
1 / 2
G a i n
- K -
F r o m 4
[ I q r ]
F r o m 3
[ I d r ]
F r o m 2
[ I q s ]
F r o m 1
[ I d s ]
V c s
3
V b s
2
V a s
1

Figure 5.5 induction machine d-q model
62

Figure 5.6 results for induction machine d-q model
63
i n v e r t e r
P u l s e a
P u l s e b
P u l s e c
V a n
V b n
V c n
V a b c t o V d q
C a l c u l a t i o n
V a s
V b s
V c s
V d s
V q s
S c o p e 7
S c o p e 3 S c o p e 1
S E C T O R
v a b s e c t o r
R o u n d i n g
F u n c t i o n
f l o o r
R a d i a n s
t o D e g r e e s
R 2 D
P h a s e 3
P h a s e 2
P h a s e 1
M o t o r
V a s
V b s
V c s
I a b c
W r
T e
M A T L A B F c n 1
M A T L A B
F u n c t i o n
M A T L A B F c n
M A T L A B
F u n c t i o n
D i s p l a y 3
D i s p l a y 2
D i s p l a y 1
D i s p l a y
C l o c k
C a r t e s i a n t o
P o l a r
Fig.5.7 SVPWM FEEDING INDUCTION MOTOR
64
Figure 5.8 Results for svpwm feeding induction motor
65
FIG:5.13 main in SVPWM / SVPWM controller / subsystem / linearmodulation
FIG:5.14 main in SVPWM / SVPWM controller / subsystem / over modulation
66
V a o
V b o
V c o
V c n
3
V b n
2
V a n
1
S w i t c h 3
S w i t c h 2
S w i t c h 1
S u b t r a c t 3
S u b t r a c t 2
S u b t r a c t 1
G a i n 6
1 / 3
G a i n 5
2 / 3
G a i n 4
1 / 3
G a i n 3
2 / 3
G a i n 2
1 / 3
G a i n 1
2 / 3
C o n s t a n t 2
- 0 . 5 * V d
C o n s t a n t 1
0 . 5 * V d
P u l s e c
3
P u l s e b
2
P u l s e a
1
FIG:5.15 inverter model
67
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
-200
0
200
V
c
o
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
-200
0
200
V
b
o
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
-200
0
200
t
V
c
o

FIG: 5.16 3 phase to 2 phase converter


5.16
Pole Voltage of Twolevel Inverter
68
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
-500
0
500
V
a
b
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
-500
0
500
V
b
c
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
-500
0
500
t
V
c
a
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
-200
0
200
V
a
n
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
-200
0
200
V
b
n
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
-200
0
200
t
V
c
n
Figure 5.19 Line voltage of Two-level Inverter

Figure 5.20 Phase voltage of Two-level Invert
69




CONCLUSION
70
6. CONCLUSION

In the conventional svpwm algorithm, the angle and sector information is used to
calculate the switching times of the devices. Hence, the complexity involved is more.
Hence to reduce the computational burden involved in conventional approach, this
thesis presents a unified pwm approach using the concept of offset and effective
times. First, the offset time and effective times are calculated using the concept of
imaginary switching times. Then, by changing the offset time various continuous and
discontinuous pwm methods have been generated from the unified pwm algorithm.
To validate the proposed pwm algorithms, simulation studies and
experimental tests have been carried out using matlab and dspace ds1004 kit. From
the results it can be observed that, in the continuous pwm algorithm, the pulse pattern
is continuous and hence the switching losses are more. However, in discontinuous
pwm algorithms, the modulating wave is clamped to either positive dc bus or
negative dc bus for a period of 180 degrees in every fundamental cycle. Hence, the
switching frequency and switching losses can be reduced by 33.33% compared with
continuous pwm algorithms.


71
FUTURE SCOPE


72
7. SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK
This thesis can be extended for the speed control of Induction Motor as we are
getting varying voltage levels depending upon the switching timings of the Inverter
and also can be used for harmonic analysis of higher order. This can be further
implemented using Dpwm for more-level Inverters.



73
APPENDIX
The relationship between the phase voltages
AN
v
,
BN
v
,
CN
v
and the pole
voltages
AO
v
,
BO
v
and
CO
v
is given by:
V
AO
= V
A N
+ V
N O;
V
BO
= V
B N
+ V
N O;
V
CO
= V
CN
+ V
N O;
The space vector s
V
constituted by the pole voltages V
AO,
V
BO
and V
CO
, is
defined as:
V
s
= V
AO
+ V
BO
.exp [j (2/3)] + V
CO
.exp [j (4/3)]
Case (i):
For Switching State 1 the sequence is (+ - -), then the expression for Space
vector will be as below:
V
AO
= (V
dc
/2); V
BO
= - (V
dc
/2); V
C0
= - (V
dc
/2)
V
s
= (V
dc
/2) - (V
dc
/2). exp [j (2/3)] - (V
dc
/2). exp [j (4/3)]
= (V
dc
/2) - (V
dc
/2). [-(1/2) + j (3/2)] - (V
dc
/2). [-(1/2) - j 3/2)]
= V
dc
Case (ii):
For Switching State 2 the sequence is (+ + -), then the expression for Space
vector will be as below:
V
AO
= (V
dc
/2); V
BO
= (V
dc
/2); V
C0
= - (V
dc
/2)
V
s
= (V
dc
/2) + (V
dc
/2). exp [j (2/3)] - (V
dc
/2). exp [j (4/3)]
= (V
dc
/2) + (V
dc
/2). [-(1/2) + j (3/2)] - (V
dc
/2). [-(1/2) - j 3/2)]
= V
dc.
[(1/2) + j (3/2)]
= V
dc
at 60
0

74
Case (iii):
For Switching State 3 the sequence is (- + -), then the expression for Space
vector will be as below:
V
AO
= - (V
dc
/2); V
BO
= (V
dc
/2); V
C0
= - (V
dc
/2)
V
s
= - (V
dc
/2) + (V
dc
/2). exp [j (2/3)] - (V
dc
/2). exp [j (4/3)]
= - (V
dc
/2) + (V
dc
/2). [-(1/2) + j (3/2)] - (V
dc
/2). [-(1/2) - j 3/2)]
= V
dc.
[- (1/2) + j (3/2)]
= V
dc
at 120
0

Case (iv):
For Switching State 4 the sequence is (- + +), then the expression for Space
vector will be as below:
V
AO
= - (V
dc
/2); V
BO
= (V
dc
/2); V
C0
= (V
dc
/2)
V
s
= - (V
dc
/2) + (V
dc
/2). exp [j (2/3)] + (V
dc
/2). exp [j (4/3)]
= (V
dc
/2) - (V
dc
/2). [-(1/2) + j (3/2)] - (V
dc
/2). [-(1/2) - j 3/2)]
= (-1) Vdc
= V
dc
at 180
0

Case (v):
For Switching State 5 the sequence is (- - +), then the expression for Space
vector will be as below:
V
AO
= - (V
dc
/2); V
BO
= - (V
dc
/2); V
C0
= (V
dc
/2)
V
s
= - (V
dc
/2) - (V
dc
/2). exp [j (2/3)] + (V
dc
/2). exp [j (4/3)]
= - (V
dc
/2) - (V
dc
/2). [-(1/2) + j (3/2)] + (V
dc
/2). [-(1/2) - j 3/2)]
= V
dc.
[- (1/2) - j (3/2)]
= V
dc
at 240
0
or V
dc
at (-120
0
)
Case (vi):
For Switching State 6 the sequence is (+ - +), then the expression for Space
vector will be as below:
V
AO
= (V
dc
/2); V
BO
= - (V
dc
/2); V
C0
= (V
dc
/2)
V
s
= (V
dc
/2) - (V
dc
/2). exp [j (2/3)] + (V
dc
/2). exp [j (4/3)]
= (V
dc
/2) - (V
dc
/2). [-(1/2) + j (3/2)] + (V
dc
/2). [-(1/2) - j 3/2)]
= V
dc.
[(1/2) - j (3/2)]
= V
dc
at 300
0
or V
dc
at (-60
0
)
75
Case (vii):
For Switching State 7 the sequence is (+ + +), then the expression for Space
vector will be as below:
V
AO
= (V
dc
/2); V
BO
= (V
dc
/2); V
C0
= (V
dc
/2)
V
s
= (V
dc
/2) + (V
dc
/2). exp [j (2/3)] + (V
dc
/2). exp [j (4/3)]
= (V
dc
/2) + (V
dc
/2). [-(1/2) + j (3/2)] + (V
dc
/2). [-(1/2) - j 3/2)]
= 0
Case (viii):
For Switching State 8 the sequence is (- - -), then the expression for Space
vector will be as below:
V
AO
= - (V
dc
/2); V
BO
= - (V
dc
/2); V
C0
= - (V
dc
/2)
V
s
= - (V
dc
/2) - (V
dc
/2). exp [j (2/3)] - (V
dc
/2). exp [j (4/3)]
= - (V
dc
/2) - (V
dc
/2). [-(1/2) + j (3/2)] - (V
dc
/2). [-(1/2) - j 3/2)]
= 0
76
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77