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1

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ACTIVE FILTERS

Active first order low-pass and high pass filters (2)
Active first order low-pass filter. (2)
Active first order high-pass filter (3)
Scaling (4)
Example-1 (5)
Example-2 (5)
Active band-pass filter circuits (broadband) (7)
Example-3 (with Electronic Workbench (EWB) results) (8)
Butterworth filters (10)
Butterworth low-pass filters (10)
Example-4 ( with EWB results ) (11)
Butterworth high-pass filters (13)
Narrowband band-pass filters (14)
Example-5 (with EWB results) (15)































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2
ACTIVE FIRST-ORDER LOW-PASS & HIGH-PASS FILTERS

Here is the general circuit for first-order active filters.We will use this circuit for first-order active filters.


Figure 1.1 : Inverting Op-Amp Circuit
H(s) =
Zi
Zf


Active First-Order Low-pass Filter:


Figure 1.2:A first-order low-pass filter

H(s) =
C R
s
C R
R
R
R
sC R
sC R
R
sC R
Zi
Zf
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
.
/ 1
) / 1 .(
) / 1 //(
+
=
+
= =
H(s) =
C
C
w s
w
K
+
.

K = R
2
/ R
1


w
C
= 1 / R
2
C





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3
Active First-Order High-pass Filter:


Figure 1.3:A first-order high-pass filter

Remember the transfer function of the circuit in figure 1.1 H(s) =
Zi
Zf

This time Z
f
= R
2
and Z
i
= R
1
+ 1 /sC

H(s) =
C R s
s
R
R
sCR
sCR
sC R
R
Zi
Zf
1 1
2
1
2
1
2
/ 1
.
1 / 1 +
=
+
=
+
=

H(s) =
C
w s
s
K
+
.

K = R
2
/ R
1


w
C
= 1 / R
1
C


Note that Active Filters permit the design of a passband gain greater than 1 by adjusting K=R
2
/ R
!





















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4
SCALING

In the design and analysis of both passive and active filter circuits , working with element values such
as 1 , 1H and 1F is convenient. Although these values are unrealistic for specifying practical
components, they greatly simplify calculations.After using convenient values such as 1 , 1F or 1H
for R,L and C , the designer can transform the convenient values into realistic values using the
process known as scaling.

There are two types of scaling which are magnitude and frequency scaling.

Magnitude Scaling:

R = k
m
.R L=k
m
.L C=C/k
m


Where primed variables represent the scaled values and unprimed values represent initial values.

k
m
! Magnitude Scale factor k
m
>0 (k
m
is positive real number)

Note that k
m
is multiplied by the impedance. Because of impedance of the capacitor is 1/sC, k
m
is in
the denominator of the capacitance.

Frequency Scaling:

R = R L=L / k
f
C=C / k
f


Where primed variables represent the scaled values and unprimed values represent initial values.

k
f
! Frequency Scale factor k
f
> 0 (k
f
is positive real number)

Note that resistors are unaffected because they are frequency independent


Magnitude and Frequency Scaling:


R = k
m
R L = L.(k
m
/ k
f
) C = C / k
m
.k
f



Procedure for scaling:

First select the cutoff frequency w
C
, to be 1 rad/s if you are designing low-pass or high-pass filters or
select the center frequency, w
O
, to be 1 rad/s if you are designing bandpass or bandreject filters
.Then select a 1F capacitor and calculate the values of the resistors needed to give the desired
passband gain and the 1 rad/s cutoff or center frequency. Finally , use scaling to compute more
realistic component values that give the desired cutoff or center frequency.












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5
EXAMPLE-1




SOLUTION:

k
f
= w
O
/ w
O
= 2..500 / 1 ! !! ! k
f
= 3141.59


Using the equation C = C / (k
m
.k
f
)

k
m
= C / (C.k
f
)

k
m
= 1F / (2uF . 3141.59) ! !! ! k
m
= 159.155


Using the equations below we can compute the new values of the components.

R = k
m
R L = L.( k
m
/ k
f
) C = C / k
m
.k
f

R = (159.155)(1 ) ! !! ! R = 159.155
L = 1H(159.155 / 3141.59) ! !! ! L = 50.66mH

EXAMPLE-2




SOLUTION:

For R
1
= R
2
=R= 1 C = 1F , w
C
= 1 / R
2
C ! !! ! w
C
= 1 rad/s

k
f
= w
C
/ w
C


k
f
= (2..1000 Hz) / 1 ! !! ! k
f
= 6283.185



The series RLC circuit shown in figure 1.4 has a center
frequency of s rad LC w
O
/ 1 / 1 = = (Look at passive
filters tutorial for more detailed explanation) a bandwidth
of R/L=1 rad/s and thus a quality factor of Q=w
O
/
=1.Use scaling to calculate new values of R and L that
yield a circuit with the same quality factor but with a
center frequency of 500 Hz. Use a 2 uF capacitor.
Use the active low-pass filter shown on the left
hand side to compute the resistor values for a
low-pass filter with a gain of 5 , a cut-off
frequency of 1000 Hz, and C=0.01uF.
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6
C = C / (k
m
.k
f
) ! k
m
= C / (C.k
f
)

k
m
= 1F / (0.01uF. 6283.185) ! !! ! k
m
= 15915.5

R
1
= R
2
= k
m.
R

R
1
=R
2
= (15915.5)(1 ) ! !! ! R
1
= R
2
= 15.91K

To determine passband gain we have to adjust K= R
2
/ R
1


If we change R
2
then the cut-off frequency will change because of w
C
= 1 / R
2
C.Therefore we have to
change the value of R
1
.

K=5 = R
2
/ R
1


5 = 15.91K / R
1
! !! ! R
1
= 3.182K












































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7
ACTIVE BANDPASS FILTER CIRCUITS(BROADBAND)


Figure 1.4 :The block diagram of cascaded op amp bandpass filter


Figure 1.5 : A cascaded op amp bandpass filter


) ).( ).( ( ) (
1 2
2
Ri
Rf
w s
s
w s
w
Vi
Vo
s H
c c
c

+

= =

Let R
f
/ R
i
=K :

H(s) =
2 1 2 1
2
2
. ) (
C C C C
C
w w s w w s
s Kw
+ + +

Note that standard form for the transfer function of a bandpass filter is :


2 2
.
) (
O
w s s
s K
s H
+ +
=

In order to convert H(s) =
2 1 2 1
2
2
. ) (
C C C C
C
w w s w w s
s Kw
+ + +

into the standard form of transfer function

we require that:

w
C2
>> w
C1


Then we can say that :

w
C1
+ w
C2
w
C2
and the transfer function becomes:


2 1 2
2
2
.
) (
C C C
C
w w s w s
s Kw
s H
+ +

= ,
L L
C
C R
w
1
2
= ,
H H
C
C R
w
1
1
=
Low-pass Filter High-pass Filter Inverting Amplifier
V
O
V
i

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8
2 1 0 2
2
0
0 2
0
) ( ) (
) (
| | ) ( |
C C C
C
w w jw w jw
jw Kw
jw H
+ +

=

i
f
C
C
R
R
K
w
w K
jw H = = =
2
2
0
..
| ) ( |

EXAMPLE 3 : Design a bandpass filter for a graphic equalizer to provide an amplification of
2 within the band of frequencies between 100 Hz and 10000 Hz. Use 0.2 uF capacitors.

SOLUTION:

w
C1
= 100 Hz w
C2
= 10 KHz.

Before we start calculations we have to check if w
C2
>> w
C1


10 KHz >> 100 Hz so we can start calculations.(Note that w
C2
>2.w
C1
is a necessary condition)

w
C1
= 1 / R
H
.C
H


(100 Hz).2. = 1 / R
H
.(0.2 uF) ! !! ! R
H
= 7.95K

w
C2
= 1 / R
L
.C
L


(10 KHz).2. = 1 / R
L
.(0.2 uF) ! !! ! R
L
= 80

Now we will compute passband gain:

R
f
/ R
i
=2

We can select one of the resistor arbitrarily .Say R
i
= 10K

R
f
/ 10K =2 ! !! !R
f
= 20K



Schematic of Example-3







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9


Electronics Workbench results for Example-3





































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10
BUTTERWORTH FILTERS

We can design filters by using Butterworth polynomials as seen in the table-1.

TABLE-1
NORMALIZED BUTTERWORTH POLYNOMIALS
n n th Order Butterworth Polynomial
1 (s + 1)
2 (s
2
+ 2s + 1)
3 (s + 1)(s
2
+ s + 1)
4 (s
2
+ 0.765s + 1)(s
2
+ 1.848s + 1)
5 (s + 1)(s
2
+ 0.618s + 1)(s
2
+ 1.618s + 1)
6 (s
2
+ 0.518s + 1)(s
2
+ 2 + 1)(s
2
+ 1.932s + 1)
7 (s + 1)(s
2
+ 0.445s + 1)(s
2
+ 1.247s + 1)(s
2
+ 1.802s + 1)
8 (s
2
+ 0.390s + 1)(s
2
+ 1.111s + 1)(s
2
+ 1.6663s + 1)(s
2
+ 1.962s + 1)

Note that all polynomials are the product of first-order and second-order factors.We can design a
circuit whose transfer function has a Butterworth polynomial in its denominator by cascading op amp
circuits, each of which provides one of the needed factors.Observe the figure:




If we cascade connect the first-order and second order circuits as shown in the graph above we obtain
the fifth-order low pass filter Butterworth filter with w
C
=1 rad/s

Note that again all odd-order Butterworth polynomials include the factor (s+1) therefore all odd-order
Butterworth polynomials must have a subcircuit that provides the transfer function H(s)=1 /
(s+1).Which can be performed by the first-order active low pass filter which is described before.The
remaining second-order filter, H(s)= 1 / (s
2
+ b
1
s + 1 ) can be performed by using the circuit in figure
2.1

BUTTERWORTH LOWPASS FILTERS

A Circuit which provides second-order transfer function for the Butterworth Low-Pass Filter cascade:




Figure 2.1:Second-Order Low Pass Filter


1 618 . 0
1
2
+ + s s

1
1
+ s

1 618 . 1
1
2
+ + s s

V
i
Vo
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11
To produce the second-order factors in the Butterworth polynomial , we need a circuit with a transfer
function of the form:

H(s)= 1 / (s
2
+ b
1
s + 1 )

After performing analysis we get the transfer function as:

2 1
2
1
2
2 1
2
1 2
1
) (
) (
) (
C C R
s
RC
s
C C R
s Vi
s Vo
s H
+ +
= =

Finally set R=1 (We can use scaling later) then ;

2 1 1
2
2 1
1 2
1
) (
) (
) (
C C
s
C
s
C C
s Vi
s Vo
s H
+ +
= =


To obtain the H(s)= 1 / (s
2
+ b
1
s + 1 ) we must perform following operations:

1
1
2 1
=
C C
,
1
1
2
b
C
= Eqn(2.1)

We have performed the procedure for designing an nth order Butterworth lowpass filter circuit with a
cut-off frequency of w
C
=1 rad /s and a gain of 1 in the passband.[ H(s)= 1 / (s
2
+ b
1
s + 1 ) ]

Note that standard form of the second order low-pass filter transfer function is:

2 2
) (
O
w s s
K
s H
+ +
=

or
2 2
) .(
) (
O
w s s
z s K
s H
+ +
+
=

where = w
O
/ Q and w
O
is cut-off frequency here (not center frequency , because it is Low-Pass Filter
characteristics.)

EXAMPLE - 4: Design a fourth-order Butterworth low-pass filter with a cut-off frequency of
500 Hz and a passband gain of 10.Use as many 1K resistors as possible.

SOLUTION: From Table-1, we find that the fourth-order Butterworth polynomial is :

(s
2
+ 0.765s + 1)(s
2
+ 1.848s + 1)

We need a cascade of two second-order filters to yield the fourth-order transfer function and
additionally an inverting amplifier circuit for the passband gain of 10.

Now lets compute the value for C
1
and

C
2
for the polynomial (s
2
+ 0.765s + 1)

We will use the circuit of figure 2.1 for second-order filters.

Using equation (2.1) : 1
1
2 1
=
C C
,
1
1
2
b
C
=

0.765 = 2 / C
1
! !! !C
1
= 2.614F
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12

1 = 1 / (2.614F.C
2
) ! !! !C
2
= 0.382F

This capacitor values are unrealistic we will use scaling

Now lets compute the value for C
1
and

C
2
for the polynomial (s
2
+ 1.848s + 1)

1.848 = 2 / C
3
! !! !C
3
= 1.082F

1 = 1 / (1.082F.C
4
) ! !! !C
4
= 0.924F

All capacitor values are unrealistic and note that R=1 is used in transfer function of the circuit in
figure 2.1 is also unrealistic so we will use scaling.

Calculated unrealistic values of C
1
, C
2
, C
3
and C
4
and R=1 yield a Butterworth filter with a cutoff
frequency of 1 rad/s.

k
f
= (2..500 Hz) / (1 rad /s) ! !! ! k
f
= 3141.6

Remember we have these equations in scaling operations:

R = k
m
R L = L.( k
m
/ k
f
) C = C / k
m
.k
f

It is said that use 1K resistors so that R =1K

R = k
m
R
1K = k
m
. 1 ! !! !k
m
= 1000

C = C / k
m
.k
f

C
1
= 2.614F / (1000)(3141.6) ! !! !C
1
= 832 nF
C
2
= 0.382F / (1000)(3141.6) ! !! !C
2
= 121.6 nF
C
3
= 1.082F / (1000)(3141.6) ! !! !C
1
= 344.4 nF
C
4
= 0.924F / (1000)(3141.6) ! !! !C
1
= 294 nF

Finally we need to specify the resistor values in the inverting amplifier stage to yield a passband gain
of 10.Let R
i
= 1K then :

R
f
/ R
i
= 10

R
f
/ 1K = 10 ! !! !R
f
= 10K




Electronics Workbench Results for Example-4


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13
BUTTERWORTH HIGHPASS FILTERS

Transfer function of a nth order Butterworth high-pass filter looks like Butterworth low-pass filter but
this time the numerator of the transfer function is s
n
.We can use cascade connection for higher order
high pass filters. For first-order filters we can use the circuit of figure 1.3 which is explained in first-
order active filters part of this tutorial.


A Circuit which provides second-order transfer function for the Butterworth High-Pass Filter cascade:




Figure 2.2:Second-Order High Pass Filter

To produce the second-order factors in the Butterworth polynomial , we need a circuit with a transfer
function of the form:

1
) (
1
2
2
+ +
=
s b s
s
s H

After performing analysis we get the transfer function of the circuit in figure 2.2 as:

2
2 1 2
2
2
1 2
) (
) (
) (
C R R
s
C R
s
s
s Vi
s Vo
s H
+ +
= =

Finally set C=1F (We can use scaling later) then ;

2 1 2
2
2
1 2
) (
) (
) (
R R
s
R
s
s
s Vi
s Vo
s H
+ +
= =


To obtain the H(s)= 1 / (s
2
+ b
1
s + 1 ) we must perform following operations:

1
1
2 1
=
R R
,
1
2
2
b
R
= Eqn(2.2)

We have performed the procedure for designing an nth order Butterworth high-pass filter circuit with a
cut-off frequency of w
C
=1 rad /s and a gain of 1 in the passband.[ H(s)= s
2
/ (s
2
+ b
1
s + 1 ) ]



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14
Note that standard form of the second order high-pass filter transfer function is:

2 2
2
) (
O
w s s
Ks
s H
+ +
=

or
2 2
) .(
) (
O
w s s
s z s K
s H
+ +
+
=

where = w
O
/ Q and w
O
is cut-off frequency here (not center frequency , because it is High-Pass
Filter characteristics.)


NARROWBAND BANDPASS FILTERS

The cascade and parallel component designs for synthesizing band-pass and band-reject filters from
simpler low-pass and high-pass filters have the restriction that only broadband , or low-Q , filters will
result.To build active filters with high quality factor values , we need an op amp circuit that can
produce a transfer function with complex conjugate poles.

The circuit of figure below depicts a narrowband filter:



Figure 2.3:An active high Q band-pass filter (Second-Order)

Transfer function of the circuit is:

2
3 3
2
1
1 2
) (
C R R
s
C R
s
C R
s
s H
eq
+ +

= where R
eq
= R
1
//R
2
=
2 1
2 1
) (
R R
R R
s H
+
=

Standart form of the band-pass filter is:

2 2
) (
) (
O
w s s
K s
s H
+ +
=

We can equate terms for finding w
o
, , Q and K

= 2 / (R
3
C)

K. = 1 / (R
1
C)

w
O
2
= 1 / (R
eq
.R
3
.C
2
)

For prototype of this circuit use C=1F and w
O
=1 rad/s .Then use scaling method for realistic
components values.

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15
Equations for prototype of circuit of figure 2.3

= 2 / (R
3
)

K. = 1 / (R
1
)

1 = 1 / (R
eq
.R
3
)

Q = w
O
/ w
O
= 1 rad/s Q! 1 /

Here is the equations for the prototype circuit(C=1F w
O
=1 rad/s):

R
1
= Q / K
R
2
= Q / ( 2Q
2
K )
R
3
= 2.Q

EXAMPLE 5: Design a band-pass filter using the circuit in figure 2.3 which has a center
frequency of 3000 Hz , a quality factor of 10 , and a passband gain of 2.Use 0.01 uF capacitors in your
design.

SOLUTION:

Q = 10 , K=2 are given.The values for R
1
, R
2
and R
3
in the prototype circuit are

R
1
= 10 / 2 ! !! !R
1
=5
R
2
= 10 / ( 200 2) ! !! !R
2
=0.0505
R
3
= 2.10 ! !! !R
3
=20

k
f
= w
O

/ w
O

k
f
= (3000.2.) / 1 rad/s ! !! ! k
f
= 18849.555

C = C / k
m
.k
f

k
m
= 1F / (0.01uF)(18849.555) ! !! ! k
m
= 5305.165


R = k
m
R

R
1

= (5305.165).5 ! !! !R
1
= 26.5K
R
2

= (5305.165).0.0505 ! !! !R
2
= 268
R
3

= (5305.165).20 ! !! !R
3
= 106.1K

Another way without using scaling:

Q = 10 , K=2 , C=0.01 uF , w
O
=(3000 Hz).2.

= 2 / (R
3
C)

K. = 1 / (R
1
C)

w
O
2
= 1 / (R
eq
.R
3
.C
2
)

After putting knowns in the equation , we will get the same results.






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16


Electronics Workbench Results for Example-5