MEE230

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

L T P C 3 0 0 3

Objectives 1. To provide students an overview of global energy resources. 2. To introduce students to bio-fuels, hydrogen energy and solar energy. 3. To enable the students understand the importance of energy efficiency and conservation in the context of future energy supply. 4. To expose students to future energy systems and energy use scenarios with a focus on promoting the use of renewable energy resources and technologies. Outcome Student will be able to 1. Possess the knowledge of global energy resources 2. Use the renewable technologies like solar, biomass, wind, hydrogen etc. to produce energy. 3. Involve in optimizing and selecting an alternate source of energy. UNIT I Biofuels Biofuels classification Biomass production for energy forming Energy through fermentation Pyrolysis Gasification and combustion - Biogas Aerobic and Anaerobic bio conversion process - Feed stock - Properties of bio-gas composition - Biogas plant design and operation - Alcoholic fermentation. UNIT II Hydrogen Energy Electrolytic and thermo chemical hydrogen production Metal hydrides and storage of hydrogen Hydrogen energy conversion systems hybrid systems Economics and technical feasibility. UNIT III Solar Energy Solar radiation - availability- Measurement and estimation- Isotropic and an isotropic models- Introduction to solar collectors (liquid flat- Plate collector - Air heater and concentrating collector) and thermal storage- Steady state transient analysis- Photovoltaic solar cell - Hybrid systems - thermal storage- Solar array and their characteristics evaluation Solar distillation Solar drying. UNIT IV Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Geothermal - Wave and Tidal energy - Availability - Geographical distribution - Power generation using OTEC - Wave and Tidal energy - Scope and economics - Geothermal energy - Availability - Limitations.

UNIT V Wind Energy Wind energy - General considerations - Wind Power plant design Horizontal axis wind turbine - Vertical axis wind turbine - Rotor selection - Design considerations - Number of blades - Blade profile - Power regulation - Yaw system - Choice of power plant - Wind mapping and selection of location-Cost analysis and economics of systems utilizing renewable sources of energy. Text book 1. David Merick, Richard Marshall, (2001), Energy, Present and Future Options, Vol. I and II, John Wiley and sons. Reference Books 1. Gerald W. Koeppl, (2002), Patnams power from wind, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. 2. Ritchie J.D., (1999), Source Book for Farm Energy Alternative, McGraw Hill. 3. Twidell, J.W. and Weir, A.D., (1999), Renewable Energy Resources, ELBS. 4. Koteswara Rao, M. V. R., (2006), Energy Resources-Conventional and Non Conventional, Second Edition, BS Publications. 5. Khan, B. H., (2009), Non-Conventional Energy Resources, Second Edition, Tata McGraw Hill. 6. Chetan Singh Solanki, (2009), Renewable Energy Technologies: A Practical Guide for Beginners, Second Printing, PHI Learning Private Limited. 7. Mukherjee, D. and Chakrabarti, S., (2005), Fundamentals of Renewable Energy Systems, New Age International (P) Limited 8. Chauhan, D.S. and Srivastava, S.K. (2006), Non-Conventional Energy Resources, New Age International (P) Limited Mode of Evaluation: Assignment / Quiz / Written Examination.

UNIT-I
1.0 BIOFUELS
Biofuel is defined as solid, liquid or gas fuel derived from relatively

recently dead biological material and is distinguished from fossil fuels, which are derived from long dead biological material.
Theoretically, biofuels can be produced from any (biological) carbon

source; although, the most common sources are photosynthetic plants.

Various plants and plant-derived materials are used for biofuel

manufacturing. Globally, biofuels are most commonly used to power vehicles, heating homes cornstoves and cooking stoves.

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis uses light energy and carbon dioxide to make G3P is generally considered the first end-product of

triose phosphates (G3P)

photosynthesis It can be used as a source of metabolic energy, or combined and rearranged to form monosaccharide or disaccharide sugars, such as glucose or sucrose, respectively, which can be transported to other cells, stored as insoluble polysaccharides such as starch,

or converted to structural carbohydrates, such as cellulose or glucans.

Photosynthesis is the process of converting light energy to

chemical energy and storing it in the bonds of sugar. This process occurs in plants and some algae (Kingdom Protista). Plants need only light energy, CO2, and H2O to make sugar. A commonly used slightly simplified equation for photosynthesis is: 6 CO2(g) + 12 H2O(l) + photons C6H12O6(aq) + 6 O2(g) + 6 H2O(l) carbon dioxide + water + light energy glucose + oxygen + water 1.1 Classification of Biofuels First generation fuels Vegetable oil

Biodiesel Bioalcohols Biogas Syngas

Solid biofuels Second generation biofuels

Biohydrogen Biomethanol DMF Bio-DME Fischer-Tropsch Diesel Biohydrogen Diesel Mixed Alcohols Wood Diesel

Third generation biofuels Algae fuel Fourth generation biofuels Conversion of vegoil and biodiesel into gasoline Liquid Biofuels Bioethanol Biodiesel Biobutanol Pure Plant Oil (PPO) Biokerosene Pyrolysis oil Gas Biofuels Biogas Biopropane Synthetic natural gas (SNG) Solid Biofuels Wood Manure Charcoal Anaerobic Digestion
Biogas

Gas Turbine

Gasification Waste and Biomass Pyrolysis Bio-Oil Combustion Co-firing Fuel Steam Turbine Steam Char Gas Engine

Generation Product Intermediate Conversion Figure 1.1 Overview of waste and biomass conversion routes for power generation

Electric power

Gas

1.2 BIOGAS
Biogas is produced by the decomposition of animal wastes, plant

wastes and human wastes It is produced by digestion, pyrolysis and hydro-gasification

Digestion is a biological process that takes place in the absence

of oxygen and in the presence of an aerobic organisms at ambient pressures and temperature of 35 to 70C
The container in which this digestion takes place is called digester

Animal wastes Cattle dung, urine, goat and poultry droppings, slaughter house wastes, fish wastes, leather and wood wastes, sericulture wastes, elephant dung, piggery wastes etc. Agricultural wastes Aquatic and terrestrial weeds crop residue, stubbles of crops, sugar can trash, spoiled fodder, bagasse, tobacco wastes, oilcakes fruit and vegetable processing wastes, press mud, cotton and textile wastes, spent coffee and tea wastes Human wastes Faeces, urine and other wastes emanating from human occupations Waste of aquatic origin Marine plants, twigs, algae, water hyacinth and water weeds Industrial wastes Sugar factory, tannery, paper etc.

Table 1.1 Typical Composition of Bio gas Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Matter Methane, CH4 Carbon dioxide, CO2 Nitrogen, N2 Hydrogen, H2 Hydrogen Sulfide, H2S Oxygen, O2 % 50 75 25 50 0 10 01 03 02

1.2.1 Micro-organisms Living creatures which are in microscopic in size and are invisible to unaided eyes They are called bacteria, fungi, virus etc. Beneficial bacteria and harmful bacteria
Compost making production of biogas, vinegar, etc., are beneficial Bacteria causing cholera, typhoid, diphtheria are harmful bacteria

Bacteria can be divided into two groups based on their oxygen requirement
Bacteria grow in the presence of oxygen is Aerobic Bacteria grow in the absence of gaseous oxygen is Anaerobic When organic matter undergoes fermentation through anaerobic

digestion, the gas produced is Biogas Fermentation: Fermentation is the conversion of a carbohydrate such as sugar into an acid or an alcohol. More specifically, fermentation can refer to the use of yeast to change sugar into alcohol or the use of bacteria to create lactic acid in certain foods.

1.2.2 Anaerobic Digestion

 Anaerobic

digestion

is

series

of

processes

in

which

microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen It is widely used to treat wastewater sludges and organic wastes because it provides volume and mass reduction of the input material
As part of an integrated waste management system, anaerobic

digestion reduces the emission of landfill gas into the atmosphere

Anaerobic digestion is a renewable energy source because the

process produces a methane and carbon dioxide rich biogas suitable for energy production helping replace fossil fuels
Anaerobic digestion is particularly suited to wet organic material and

is commonly used for effluent and sewage treatment

Anaerobic digestion is a simple process that can greatly reduce the

amount of organic matter which might otherwise be destined to be landfilled or burnt in an incinerator. Almost any organic material can be processed with anaerobic digestion
This includes biodegradable waste materials such as waste paper,

grass clippings, leftover food, sewage and animal waste Utilizing anaerobic digestion technologies can help to reduce the emission of greenhouse gasses in a number of key ways: Replacement of fossil fuels Reducing methane emission from landfills Displacing industrially-produced chemical fertilizers
Reducing vehicle movements Reducing electrical grid transportation losses

1.2.3 Types of Anaerobic Digesters

 Anaerobic activated sludge process Anaerobic clarigester Anaerobic contact process Anaerobic expanded-bed reactor Anaerobic filter Anaerobic fluidized bed Anaerobic lagoon Anaerobic migrating blanket reactor Batch system anaerobic digester Continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) Expanded granular sludge bed digestion (EGSB) Hybrid reactor Imhoff tank Internal circulation reactor (IC) One-stage anaerobic digester Submerged media anaerobic reactor Two-stage anaerobic digester Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket digestion (UASB)
Upflow and down-flow anaerobic attached growth

1.2.4 Site selection for Biogas Plant

Distance: The distance between the plant and the site of gas

consumption should be less in order to achieve economy in pumping of gas and minimizing gas leakage. For a plant capacity of 2 m3, the optimum distance is 10 m

Minimum gradient: For conveying the gas a minimum gradient Open space: The sun light should fall on the plant as

of 1% must be made available for the line

temperature between 15C to 30C is essential for gas generation at good rate

Water table: The plant is normally constructed underground for

ease of charging the feed and unloading slurry requires less labour. In such cases care should be taken to prevent the seepage of water and plant should not be constructed if the water table is more than 10 feet.

Seasonal run off: Proper care has to be taken to prevent the

interference of run off water during the monsoon. Intercepting ditches or bunds may be constructed

Distance from wells: The seepage of fermented slurry may

pollute the well water. Hence a minimum of 15 m should be maintained from the wells

Space requirements: Sufficient space must be available for day

to day operation and maintenance. As a guideline 10 to 12 m2 area is needed per m3 of the gas.

Availability of water: Plenty of water must be available as the Source of cow dung / materials for biogas generation: The

cow dung slurry with a solid concentration of 7% to 9% is used

distance between the material for biogas generation and the gas

plant site should be minimum to economize the transportation cost.

1.3 DIGESTER DESIGN The design of a digester is based on two factors: Based on the amount of waste available and the gas produced Based on the needs based on the wastes Most of the digesters are based on the second objective since it is easy to adjust the feed available than to have insufficient 1.3.1 Design characteristics based on the size Raw material availability: The gas production is proportional to the amount of raw material digested. Type of material: C/N ratio of the raw material should be in the optimum range for better digestion. If the raw material is an easily digestible one, the size of the digester can be reduced proportionally. Size of raw materials: The feed material should be cut into pieces so that the surface area for the reaction is the maximum. Also, the slurry produced should flow smoothly. The scum produced should be minimized. Heating requirements: If the digester is situated in cold areas, sufficient heating arrangements should be provided to keep the digestion temperature within the optimum range. Burying the digester under the ground helps to minimize the temperature fluctuations of the ambient around the digester Mixing requirements: Providing a mechanism of mixing the feed inside the digester helps to ensure the easy availability of feed to the bacteria for the reactions. Also it provides proper slurry flow inside the digester and avoids the formation of scum

Construction materials available: Use of locally available expertise and materials close to the site for the construction of a digester reduces the cost. Fabrication from corrosion resistant materials such as wood, ferrocement, concrete, brick or stone rather than metal may also reduce costs by extending equipment life. Larger digesters require proper maintenance also. Removal of inert wastes such as sand and rocks prevents wear on mechanical parts and extends equipment life

1.4 Biogas Technology

Biogas is produced from wet biomass through a biological conversion process that involves bacterial breakdown of organic matter by microorganisms to produce CH4, CO2 and H2O. The process is known as anaerobic digestion which proceeds in three steps. 1. 2. 3. Hydrolysis Acid formation Methane formation

Hydrolysis

Organic

waste

of

animal

and

plants

contains

carbohydrates in the form of cellulose, hemi cellulose and lignin complex

A group of anaerobic micro-organisms breakdowns organic material into simple and soluble organic

components, primarily acetates The hydrolysis depends on bacterial concentration, quality of substrate, pH (between 6 and 7) and temperature (30C to 40C) of digester contents

Acid Formation
Decomposed simple organic material is acted upon by acetogenic bacteria and converted into simple acetic acid

Methane Formation
Acetic acid so formed becomes the substrate strictly for anaerobic methanogeric bacteria, which ferment acetic acid to CH4 and CO2 Biogas consists of CH4 and CO2 traces of other gases as H2, CO, Gas mixture is saturated with water vapour N2, O2 and H2S

The methane content of biogas is about 60% which provides a high calorific value to find use in cooking, lighting and power generation Hydrolysis Phase: (C5H10O5) n + H2O n (C5H12O6) (Glucose)
Acid Phase: Methane Phase: n (C5H12O6) CH3CH (OH) COOH (Lactic acid) 4H2 + CO2 2H2O + CH4 CH3CH (OH) COOH +H2O +CO2 CH3COOH + CH4 (Acetic acid)

Table 1.2 Energy Density (Heating values) of various fuels Sl. No. 1 Primary Resources Coal: Anthracite Bituminous 2 Coke Brown coal: Lignite (old) Lignite (new) 3 Peat Crude petroleum Petrol 4 Diesel Natural gas Methane (85% CH4) Propane Hydrogen Energy Density 32-34 MJ/kg 26-30 MJ/kg 29 MJ/kg 16-24 MJ/kg 10-14 MJ/kg 8-9 MJ/kg 45 MJ/kg 51-52 MJ/kg 45-46 MJ/kg 50 MJ/kg, (42 MJ/m3) 45 MJ/kg, (38 MJ/m3 ) 50 MJ/kg, (45 MJ/m3) 142 MJ/kg, (12 MJ/m3)

Mixing Pit

Floating Gas Holder

Gas pipe

Spent slurry

Outlet tank

Inlet pipe

Outlet pipe Slurry Partition Wall

Support Pipe

Masonary work

Figure 1.1 Floating Drum Biogas Plant (KVIC Model)

Removable man hole cover Inlet

Gas Valve Gas Pipe Loose Cover

Gas 100mm Spent Slurry

Displacement tank Slurry Digester

Foundation

Figure 1.2 Fixed dome biogas plant (Janta model)

Table 1.3 Comparison between fixed and floating dome digesters Sl. No. Floating Drum 1 High capital investment High maintenance cost 2 Steel gas holder needs replacement due to corrosion 3 Life span Digester : 30 years Gas holder : 5 to 8 years 4 Drum space cannot be used for other purposes 5 Effect of low temperature during winter is more 6 Suitable for dung. Other organic materials will clog inlet pipe 7 Gas released at constant pressure Fixed Dome Low Low (no moving part) No steel gas holder Longer life span Space can be used for other purposes Less

8 9 10 11

Can be adapted / modified for other materials along with dung slurry Variable gas pressure may cause slight reduction in appliance efficiency. Gas pressure regulator is a must for engine applications Construction is known to Dome construction is a skilled masons but drum fabrication job & requires thorough requires workshop facility training of masons Locating & rectification of Difficult defects in drum are easy Requires less evacuation More work In areas of higher water Construction of plant is table, horizontal plants could difficult in high water table be installed areas

1.5 Factors affecting Anaerobic Digestion Temperature pH Availability of feed material Carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio Concentration of feed Mixing and Feeding rate Toxic materials Anaerobic condition Retention time 1.5.1 Temperature

Temperature has a significant effect on anaerobic digestion of organic material The optimum temperature for Mesophilic flora is 30 - 40 C and Thermophilic flora is 50 - 60 C As the temperature increases, the total retention period decreases and vice-versa

1.5.2 pH

Measure of pH value indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions and micro organisms are sensitive to pH of the digested slurry For optimum biogas production, pH can be varied between 6.8 and 7.2 Control on pH should be exercised by adding alkali when it drops below 6.6

1.5.3 Availability of feed material Steady supply of substrate and continuous operation of the digester ensures a higher output than intermittent use

1.5.4 Carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio

Methanogenic bacteria need carbon and nitrogen for its survival Carbon is required for energy while nitrogen for building cell protein The consumption of carbon is 30 to 35 times faster than that of nitrogen A favourable ratio of C : N can be taken as 30 : 1

1.5.5 Concentration of feed

The anaerobic fermentation of organic matter proceeds best if the feeding material contains 7-13 % of solid matter The usual materials fermented in a biogas plant normally contain higher percentage of solids and they are therefore usually diluted with water

From experiments, it is found that a 1:1 (by volume) slurry of cow dung and water, corresponding to a 10-12% of total solids, is effective for optimum gas production

1.5.6 Mixing Stirring of slurry inside the digester is desirable to simulate bacterial action resulting in higher gas production, though it is not always essential Continuous feeding of fresh waste into the digester always induces some movement in the mass of material in the digester, helping to expose fresh undigested material to the bacteria Normally, for small size plants, stirring is not provided 1.5.7 Toxic materials

The main toxic elements are : higher concentrations of ammonia, soluble sulfides, metallic salts of Cu, Zn, Ni, Na, K, Ca, Mg, etc

 The materials in solution can only be toxic to digestion 1.5.8 Anaerobic Conditions Inside the digester, strict anaerobic condition has to be maintained since the methane producing bacteria is sensitive to the presence of O2 1.5.9 Retention Time It is the average length of time a sample of waste remaining in the digester For batch digestion, it is simply the time from the start-up to the completion of the cycle

For continuous digestion, the HRT (Hydraulic Retention Time) is the ratio between the volume of the digester contents to the volume of feed (m3 / (m3/day)). The optimum retention time is found to vary between 14 to 60 days

1.6 BIOMASS
Biomass refers to the mass of biological material produced from

living processes which includes the materials derived from plants as well as animals
Chemically biomass refers to hydrocarbons containing hydrogen,

carbon and oxygen which can be represented by C6n(H2O)5n

Biomass is a scientific term for living mater, more specifically any

organic matter that has been derived from plants as a result of phosynthetic conversion process
Biomass is a sustainable resource that it is constantly being formed

by the interaction of air, water, soil and sunlight Biomass is a renewable energy resource derived from the carbonaceous waste of various human and natural activities.
The organic materials produced by plants, such as leaves, roots,

seeds, and stalks (stem) The term biomass is intended to refer to materials that do not directly go into foods or consumer products but may have alternative industrial uses. The total mass of living matter within a given unit of environmental area. Plant material, vegetation, or agricultural waste used as a fuel or energy source
Biomass is a complex mixture of organic materials, such as

carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, along with small amounts of minerals, such as sodium, phosphorus, calcium, and iron. The main components of plant biomass are carbohydrates (approximately 75%, dry weight) and lignin (approximately 25%), which can vary with plant type

Common sources of biomass

Woody biomass, Crop residues, Animal waste agricultural wastes, such as corn stalks, straw, seed hulls,

sugarcane leavings, bagasse, nutshells, and manure from cattle, poultry, and hogs

wood materials, such as wood or bark, sawdust, timber slash, municipal waste, such as waste paper and yard clippings

and mill scrap

Woody Biomass
This includes biomass in the form of trees; trees from forest, from farms, commercial plantations etc. The use of woody biomass is mainly for household and industrial application for making furniture, shelter, agricultural tools etc. Woody biomass also has applications supplying our energy needs. In rural areas, woody biomass is used as fuel wood for cooking purposes while in urban areas, characoal-an upgraded form woody biomass is used for cooking.

Crop Residues
This includes crops and plant residues produced in the field. These are the residues that remain after taking out seeds from the crops. For instance, husk, bagasse, cereal straw, nut shells etc. The crop residues have several applications. It can be used for livestock feeding, as manure together with animal dung as source of nutrients for soil.

Animal Waste
The animal dung and poultry manure come in this category. Animal waste is a good source of nutrients and is used as a fertilizer. Animal dung is also used for cooking either directly by burning or converting it into biogas, which is then burned to cook food. Thus animals also fulfill our needs.

1.6.1. Advantages

It is renewable source Energy storage is an in-built feature of it It is an indigenous source requiring little or no The pollutant emissions from combustion of

foreign exchange

biomass are usually lower than those from fossil fuels

Commercial use of biomass may avoid or reduce the

problems of waste disposal in other industries, particularly municipal solid waste in urban centres

The nitrogen rich bio-digested slurry and sludge

from a biogas plant serves as a very good soil conditioner and improves the fertility of the soil

Varying capacity can be installed; any capacity can The forestry and agricultural industries that supply

be operated, even at lower loads, with no seasonality involved

feed stocks also provide substantial economic development opportunities in rural areas.

1.7 BIOMASS CONVERSIONS

Physical Method (Briquetting and Pelletization processes) Direct

combustion,

such

as

wood

waste

and

bagasse

(sugarcane refuge)
Thermochemical conversion (gasification and liquefaction) Biochemical conversion (anaerobic digestion and fermentation)

1.7.1 Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is the chemical decomposition of a condensed substance by heating Pyrolysis of organic materials produces combustible gases, including carbon monoxide, hydrogen and methane, and other hydrocarbons

1.7.2 Gasification
Gasification is the process of converting solid fuels to gaseous fuel Gasification is a process that converts carbonaceous materials, such

as coal, petroleum, or biomass, into carbon monoxide and hydrogen by reacting the raw material at high temperatures with a controlled amount of oxygen and/or steam. The resulting gas mixture is called synthesis gas or syngas and is itself a fuel. 1.7.3 Fermentation
In a general sense, fermentation is the conversion of a carbohydrate

such as sugar into an acid or an alcohol

More specifically, fermentation can refer to the use of yeast to

change sugar into alcohol or the use of bacteria to create lactic acid in certain foods
Fermentation occurs naturally in many different foods given the right

conditions, and humans have intentionally made use of it for many thousands of years Sugars are the most common substrate of fermentation, and typical examples of fermentation products are ethanol, lactic acid, and hydrogen
Industrial fermentation, the breakdown and re-assembly of

biochemicals for industry, often in aerobic growth conditions In food science, fermentation may mean:
Fermentation (food), the conversion of carbohydrates into alcohols

or acids under anaerobic conditions used for making certain foods 1.7.4 Alcoholic Fermentation
In brewing, alcoholic fermentation is the conversion of sugar into

carbon dioxide gas (CO2) and ethyl alcohol This process is carried out by yeast enzymes

1.8 Types of Gasifiers

Counter-current fixed bed (Up draft gasifier) Co-current fixed bed (Down draft gasifier) Cross-flow gasifier Fluidized bed gasifier and Entrained flow gasifier Table 1.4 Typical composition of producer gas Sl.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Gas Carbon monoxide Hydrogen Methane Heavier hydrocarbons carbon dioxide Nitrogen Feed Water vapour % 18 22% 13 19% 1 5% 0.2 0.4 % 9 12% 45 55% 4%

Application of Biomass Gasification Processes Large scale applications (500 kW and above) 200C Medium scale applications (30-500 kW) Small scale applications (7-30 kW) 400C Micro scale applications (1-7 kW) 600C 950C 1300C Air

Gas

Drying Zone Distillation Zone (Pyrolysis zone) Reduction Zone Hearth Zone (Oxidation Zone) Grate Ash Zone

Figure 1.3 Updraft gasifier

1.8.1 Updraft Gasifier In the updraft gasifier the feed is introduced at the top and the Immediately above the grate the solid char (the residual solid air at the bottom of the unit via a grate remaining after the release of volatiles) formed higher up the gasifier is combusted and the temperature reaches about 1000C. Ash falls through the grate at the bottom and the hot gases pass Higher up the gasifier again, the biomass is pyrolysed and in the upwards and are reduced.

top zone, the feed is dried, cooling the gases to around 200300C In the pyrolysis zone, where the volatile compounds are released, considerable quantities of tar are formed which condenses

partly on the biomass higher up and partly leaves the gasifier with the product gas The temperature in the gasification zone is controlled by adding Due to the low temperature of the gas leaving the gasifier, the steam to the air used for gasification, or by humidifying the air overall energy efficiency of the process is high but so also is the tar content of the gas The filtering effect of the feed helps to produce a gas with a low particulate content

Biomass feed

Drying Zone

Pyrolysis Zone Heart Zone (Oxidation Zone) Reduction Zone Grate Gas Ash pit Figure 1.4 Downdraft Gasifier 1.8.2 Downdraft Gasifier In the downdraft gasifier, the feed and the air move in the same direction. The product gases leave the gasifier after passing through the hot zone, enabling the partial cracking of the tars formed during gasification and giving a gas with low tar content Because the gases leave the gasifier unit at temperatures about

Air

Air

9001000C, the overall energy efficiency of a downdraft gasifier is low, due to the high heat content carried over by the hot gas The tar content of the product gas is lower than for an updraft gasifier but the particulates content of the gas is high

Biomass feed

Drying Zone

Pyrolysis Zone

Air

Reduction Zone Gas

Oxidation Zone Grate Ash pit Figure 1.5 Cross draft Gasifier

1.9.3 Cross-flow Gasifier In a cross-flow gasifier the feed moves downwards while the air is introduced from the side, the gases being withdrawn from the opposite side of the unit at the same level A hot combustion/gasification zone forms around the entrance of the air, with the pyrolysis and drying zones being formed higher up in the vessel Ash is removed at the bottom and the temperature of the gas leaving

the unit is about 800900C Gives a low overall energy efficiency for the process and a gas with high tar content 1.9 Types of Zone 1.9.1 Pyrolysis zone Wood pyrolysis is an intricate process that is still not completely understood. The products depend upon temperature, pressure, residence time and heat losses. However following general remarks can be made about them. Upto the temperature of 200C only water is driven off. Between 200 and 280C carbon dioxide, acetic acid and water are given off. The real pyrolysis, which takes place between 280 and 500C, produces large quantities of tar and gases containing carbon dioxide (Tars can be easily defined as undesirable and problematic organic products of biomass gasification). Besides light tars, some methyl alcohol is also formed. Between 500 and 700C the gas production is small and contains hydrogen. Thus it is easy to see that updraft gasifier will produce much more tar than downdraft one. In downdraft gasifier the tars have to go through combustion and reduction zone and are partially broken down. 1.9.2 Combustion zone The combustible substance of a solid fuel is usually composed of elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. In complete combustion carbon dioxide is obtained from carbon in fuel and water is obtained from the hydrogen, usually

as steam. The combustion reaction is exothermic and yields a theoretical oxidation temperature of 1450C The main reactions, therefore, are: C + O2 = CO2 (+ 393 MJ/kg mole) (2) (1) 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O (- 242 MJ/kg mole) 1.9.3 Reaction zone The products of partial combustion (water, carbon dioxide and uncombusted partially cracked pyrolysis products) now pass through a red-hot charcoal bed where the following reduction reactions take place.

C + CO2 = 2CO C + H2O = CO + H2 CO + H2O = CO + H2 C + 2H2 = CH4

(- 164.9 MJ/kg mole) (- 122.6 MJ/kg mole) (+ 42 MJ/kg mole) (+ 75 MJ/kg mole)

(3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

CO2 + H2 = CO + H2O (- 42.3 MJ/kg mole)

Reactions (3) and (4) are main reduction reactions and being endothermic have the capability of reducing gas temperature. Consequently the temperatures in the reduction zone are normally 800-1000C. Lower the reduction zone temperature (~ 700-800C), lower is the calorific value of gas. Table 1.5 Biomass gasification chemical reactions Gasification stage Reaction formula Reaction heat Stage I: Exothermal C+ 1 2 O2CO Oxidation and other CO+ 1 2 O2CO2 exothermic reactions C+O2 CO2 (C6H10O5)nnCO2+nH2O H2+ 1 2 O2H2O CO+H2OCO2+H2 CO+3H2CH4+H2O

Stage II: Pyrolysis Stage III: Gasification (Reduction)

(C6H10O5)nCxHz+nCO (C6H10O5)nCnHmOy C+H2OCO+H2 C+CO22CO CO2+H2CO+H2O C+2H2CH4

Endothermic Endothermic

Exothermic

Table 1.6 Types of Biomass and Properties Type of Biomass Bagasse Coconut shells Coffee husks Cotton residues: stalks gin trash Maize: cobs stalks Palm-oil residues: fruit stems fibers shells debris Rice husk Straw Wood Peat Charcoal 5,000 11,000 15,000 15,000 14,000 12,000 8,400 - 17,000 9,000 - 15,000 25,000 - 32,000 63 40 15 15 9 10 10 - 60 13 - 15 1 - 10 19 4.4 0.25 - 1.7 1 20 0.5 - 6 Lower Heating Value (kJ/kg) 7,700 - 8,000 18,000 16,000 16,000 14,000 13,000 - 15,000 Moisture Content (%) 40 - 60 8 10 10 - 20 9 10 - 20 Ash Content (%) 1.7 - 3.8 4 0.6 0.1 12 2 3-7 5

1.10 Ethanol Fuel

Ethanol is also known as ethyl alcohol or fermentation alcohol Ethanol provides a valuable liquid fuel alternative to a transportation Ethanol is a colorless, clear liquid that looks like water and is It is widely used in medicines, lotions, tonics, colognes, rubbing Ethanol is more volatile than water, flammable, burns with a light blue

sector

completely miscible with it

compounds, and solvents and also for organic synthesis

flame, and has excellent fuel properties for spark ignition internal combustion engines

Ethanol has a somewhat sweet flavor when diluted with water; a more

pungent, burning taste when concentrated; and an agreeable ether-like odor

Ethanol is a member of the alcohol family and has the chemical

formula C2H5OH in which C, H, and O refer to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, in that order 1.11 Ethanol production
1. Fermentation of sugars derived from sugar, starch, or cellulosic materials 2. Reaction of ethylene with water

The former is favored for production of fuel. The latter has been used to make industrial grade ethanol for solvents, cosmetics, medicines, and so on, but purification of fermentation ethanol is displacing ethylene-derived ethanol for these applications 1.11.1 Production of ethanol from cellulosic biomass

Ethanol can be produced from biomass by the hydrolysis and sugar Biomass wastes contain a complex mixture of carbohydrate polymers In order to produce sugars from the biomass, the biomass is pre-

fermentation processes. from the plant cell walls known as cellulose, hemi cellulose and lignin. treated with acids or enzymes in order to reduce the size of the feedstock and to open up the plant structure. The cellulose and the hemi cellulose portions are broken down (hydrolyzed) by enzymes or dilute acids into sucrose sugar that is then fermented into ethanol. The lignin which is also present in the biomass is normally used as a fuel for the ethanol production plants boilers 1.11.2 Production of ethanol from sugar crops

The hydrolysis process breaks down the cellulosic part of the

biomass or corn into sugar solutions that can then be fermented into ethanol

Yeast is added to the solution, which is then heated. The yeast contains an enzyme called invertase, which acts as a The fermentation process takes around three days to complete and is

catalyst and helps to convert the sucrose sugars into glucose and fructose carried out at a temperature of between 250C and 300C 1.11.3 Production of ethanol from starch crops Corn grain contains about 70% starch, 10 to 11% crude protein, 4.5 to 6.0% oil, 6% hemicellulose, 2 to 3% cellulose, 1% lignin, and 1% ash and is the dominant choice for current fuel ethanol production by dry or wet milling operations

In a typical dry mill, grain is milled to a powder, heated with water

addition to about 851C, mixed with alpha-amylase enzyme, held for up to an hour, heated further to 110 to 1501C to liquefy the starch and reduce

bacteria levels, cooled back to about 85C, and held with more alpha amylase for about 1 hour the stream is cooled further, and glucoamylase enzyme added to complete conversion to sugars known as dextrose

This overall saccharification operation occurs by the hydrolysis (C6H10O5) n+nH2OnC6H12O6

reaction: C6H12O6 is a glucose sugar molecule formed when the alpha bonds

linking n units of C6H10O5 in long chains of starch are broken and combined with n molecules of water, H2O Yeast then ferment glucose to ethanol and carbon dioxide C6H12O62C2H5OH+2CO2

Enzymes / acid Corn wet mill Oil CGM CGF Wet milling Corn

Pretreatment

Cellulosic Biomass

Starch Hydrolysis Grinding Sugar

Heat / Chemicals Corn

Fermenting Organisms Cane juice Cane sugar ethanol

Fermentation

Sugarcane Bagasse Sugar Extraction DDGS

Sugarcane Vinasse

Product Recovery

Lignin and Other residuals

Ethanol Figure 1.6 Process Flow for Ethanol Production

Corn dry mill

The process flow for ethanol production is explained below

A simplified process flow diagram for production of ethanol from cane

sugar, corn, and cellulosic biomass. All have similar fermentation and ethanol recovery operations but use different approaches to release sugars and generate different co-products

Sugar can be directly extracted from sugarcane, and the residual

bagasse is used as a boiler fuel to provide much of the energy for the extraction and ethanol production and recovery operations

In a corn dry mill, corn is ground, and enzymes and heat are added to

hydrolyze starch to sugars for conversion to ethanol, while the oil, protein, and fiber in corn are recovered after fermentation as an animal feed known as DDGS (Distillers Dried Grains)

Wet mills first fractionate corn to separate corn oil, corn gluten meal

(CGM), and corn gluten feed (CGF) to capture value for food and animal feed, and the starch can then be hydrolyzed to sugars for fermentation to ethanol

For cellulosic biomass, heat and acids or enzymes hydrolyze the

hemicellulose and cellulose portions to release sugars that can be fermented to ethanol

1.12 Biodiesel
Biodiesel is a non-toxic, biodegradable diesel fuel made from vegetable oils, animal fats, and used or recycled oils and fats

Biodiesel is made using the process of transesterification Biodiesel is produced by chemically reacting a fat or oil with an alcohol, in the presence of a catalyst (sodium hydroxide) The product of the reaction is a mixture of methyl esters, which are known as biodiesel and glycerol, which is a high value co-product Transesterification is the process of using an alcohol (e.g., methanol or ethanol) in the presence of a catalyst, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, to chemically break the molecule of the raw renewable oil into methyl or ethyl esters of the renewable oil with glycerol as a by-product

Biodiesel can be made from various components such as; vegetable oil, animal fats, and waste or recycled oils and fats, such as waste fryer oil Biodiesel is made by mixing methanol and sodium hydroxide to make sodium methoxide The sodium methoxide is then mixed with vegetable oil and allowed to settle Glycerin forms on the bottom, while the methyl esters (biodiesel) float to the top

Biodiesel Production Three Basic Methods to Making Biodiesel There are three basic methods of biodiesel (methyl ester) production from oils and fats. They are; Base catalyst transesterification of the oil with methanol. Directed acid catalyzed esterification of the oil with methanol. Conversion of the oil to fatty acids, and then to methyl esters with acid catalysis

Methanol & Catalyst

Finished Biodiesel Methyl Esters Neutralization and Methanol Removal

Dryer

Oil Reactor Separator Glycerol (50%)

Water Washing

Water Acid Free Fatty Acid Acidulation and FFA Separation Acid

Wash Water

Crude Glycerol (85%)

Methanol Removal

Methanol / water rectification

Water

Methanol Storage Figure 1.7 Process flow for Biodiesel Production

Figure 1. 7 shows the schematic diagram of the processes involved in biodiesel production from feedstocks containing low levels of free fatty acids

This includes soybean oil, canola (rapeseed) oil and higher grades of waste restaurant oils. First the methanol and the catalyst (sodium hydroxide) are mixed. After the methanol and catalyst are mixed, they go into a reactor, where the oil is added to the mix and agitated for approximately one hour at 60C.

Glycerin and methyl esters are the two major products created after the reaction is complete and the excess methanol has been removed from the mixture

Gravity is used to separate the two products, since they have different densities After separation from the glycerol, the methyl esters enters a neutralization step and then pass through a methanol stripper, usually a vacuum flash process before water washing

Acid is added to biodiesel to neutralize any residual catalyst and to split any soap that have formed during the reaction Soaps will react with acid to form water soluble salts and free fatty acids The salts will be removed during the water washing step and the free fatty acids will stay in the biodiesel The water washing step is intended to remove any remaining catalyst, soaps, salts methanol, or free glycerol from the biodiesel The glycerol stream leaving the separator is only about 50% glycerol It contains some of excess methanol and most of the catalyst and soap In this form, the glycerol has little value and disposal may be difficult The methanol contents requires glycerol to be treated as hazardous waste

The first step in refining the glycerol is usually to add acid to split soaps into free fatty acids and salts The free fatty acids are not soluble in the glycerol and will rise to the top where they can be removed and recycled After acidulation and separation of the free fatty acids, the methanol in the glycerol is removed by vacuum flash process, or another type of evaporator

At this point the glycerol should have a purity of approximately 85% and is typically sold to a glycerol refiner The methanol that is removed from the methyl ester and glycerol streams will tend to collect any water that may have entered the process This water should be removed in a distillation column before the methanol is returned to the process

1.13 Energy Plantations Cultivation of any type of plants that store enormous amount of solar energy within and thereby posses high fuel value is termed as Energy Plantations Common species of plantations Eucalyptus Casuarina Terminalia Leucaena Sagassum (seaweed) Water Hyasynth Acavia

Example: Design a biogas plant suitable to fulfil the cooking needs of a family of 12 members. Estimate daily requirement of biogas, the number of animals required and size of the digester. Make necessary assumption. Assume 350 litres of biogas is required per day per person for cooking and average production of dung per animal per day as 10 kg. Also assume average gas production from dung is about 40 litres/kg of fresh dung; slurry density as 1090kg/m3 and retention period is 50 days. Step -1: Amount of gas required per day Number of family members = 12 (adults) (Two children may considered as equivalent to one adult for cooking energy purpose only) Considering 350 litres/day/person for cooking Total amount of gas required = 12 350 = 4200 litres/day (1000 litres of gas is equivalent to 1 m3 of gas) Step 2: Number of animals required to fulfil daily gas requirement Amount of gas produced from a kg of fresh dung = 40litres/kg Total amount of dung required = Total gas required / gas per kg of dung = 4200/40 = 105kg Thus in order to have 105 kg of dung, number of cows required = 105/10 = 10.5 say 11 cows Step 3: Design of digester and gas holder In order to make slurry, water should be added to equal amount of dung Total mass of slurry = dung + water Density of slurry Volume of slurry per day Retention period of slurry = 105 + 105 = 210 kg = 1090 kg/m3 = Total mass of slurry / density = 210/1090 = 0.192m3 = 50 days

Total volume of the digester

= per day volume of slurry retention period = 0.192 50 = 9.63 m3

As about 90% volume is occupied by the slurry Therefore required volume of digester Dimension of the digester Depth to diameter ratio should between 1 and 1.3
D 2 3 1.3D = 10 .7 m 4

= 9.63 / 0.9 = 10.7m3

Thus diameter of digester Depth of the digester

D H

= 2.188 m = 2.844 m

1. A community biogas plant is used for the following needs of a village having 100 adults and 50 children. Cooking needs of the people of the village and five lamps of 100CP used for one hour in the evening. Assume 350 litres of biogas is required for cooking per person per day; 125 litres of biogas required for lighting per lamp per hour and average production of dung per animal per day as 10 kg. Also assume average gas production from dung is about 40 litres/kg of fresh dung; slurry density as 1090kg/m3 and retention period is 50 days. Calculate the size, depth and dome height of the digester and the number of cows required to feed the plant. Take dome height as 0.25D. and Depth as 1.3D, where D is the diameter of the digester. Number of family members = 100+25 = 125 members (Since two children may considered as equivalent to one adult for cooking purpose only) Step-1: Gas required for cooking alone Gas required for lighting Total amount of biogas required Step-2: Total amount of dung required Number of cows required Total mass of slurry Density of slurry Therefore volume of slurry Retention period Therefore required volume of the digester Step-3: Dimension of digester Assume depth to diameter ratio as 1.3D:1.0D
D 2 1.3D = 113 .08 m 3 4

= 350 125 = 43,750 litres/day = 125 5 1 = 625 litres/day = 43,750 + 625 = 44375litres/day = 44375/40 = 1109.375 kg = 1109.375/10 = 110.93 = 111 say = 1109.375 + 1109.375 = 2218.75kg = 1090kg/m3 = 2218.75/1090 = 2.0355m3 = 50 days = 2.0355 50 = 101.78 m3 = 101.78/0.9 = 113.08 m3

As about 90% volume is occupied by the slurry

Diameter of the digester Depth of the digester Digester dome height

D H

= 4.80m = 1.3 4.80 = 6.24 m

Hdome = 0.25 4.80 = 1.2m.

2. Design a biogas plant suitable to fulfil the cooking needs of a family of 6 adults and 4 children. Estimate daily requirement of biogas, the number of animals required and size of the digester. Make necessary assumption. Assume average of 400 litres of biogas required per day per person for cooking, average production of dung per animal per day as 10 kg. Also assume average gas production from dung is about 40 litres/kg of fresh dung; slurry density as 1090kg/m3 and retention period is 45 days. Step-1: Number of family members Gas required for cooking alone Total amount of biogas required Step-2: Total amount of dung required Number of cows required Total mass of slurry Density of slurry Therefore volume of slurry Retention period Therefore required volume of the digester Step-3: Dimension of digester Assume depth to diameter ratio as 1.3D:1.0D
D 2 1.3D = 7.339 m3 4

= 6+2 = 8 members = 400 8 = 3,200 litres/day = 3,200 litres/day = 3200/40 = 80 kg = 80/10 = 8 = 80+ 80 = 160 kg = 1090kg/m3 = 160/1090 = 0.1467m3 = 45 days = 0.1467 45 = 6.6055 m3 = 6.6055/0.9 = 7.339 m3

(Since two children may considered as equivalent to one adult for cooking purpose only)

As about 90% volume is occupied by the slurry

Diameter of the digester Depth of the digester Digester dome height

D H

= 1.929 m = 1.3 1.929 = 2.508 m

= 0.2D to 0.25D = 0.3858 m to 0.4823 m.

Fuel derived from organic matter (obtained directly from plants, or indirectly from agricultural, commercial, domestic, and/or industrial wastes) instead of from fossil products. See also fossil fuels. any fuel derived from renewable biological sources, as plants or animal waste; esp., a liquid fuel for automotive engines made from corn or soybean oil

Biofuels are fuels derived from living plants, animals or their byproducts which are not more than 20-30 years old. Biofuels contain stored solar energy and are a renewable source of energy, since the plants can be grown again. Unlike petroproducts, all biofuels are biodegradable and do not damage the environment when spilled. As demand and prices of crude oil increase, more countries are encouraging the use of biofuels by offering tax incentives. Wood from trees and manure from cattle (cow dung) are the most widely used biofuels used for cooking and other household applications in poor countries. Biogas for cooking is derived from industrial and household waste by the anaerobic digestion. Biogas contains methane. Chemical processes can also be used to produce biogas from industrial waste. Microalgae may be used as an energy source in future, as their yield per acre is the highest compared to other sources.

Pyrolysis:

transformation of a substance produced by the action of heat

Pyrolysis is the chemical decomposition of condensed substances by heating, that occurs spontaneously at high enough temperatures. The word is coined from the Greekderived elements pyro "fire" and lysys "decomposition". The decomposition of a material or compound due to heat in the absence of oxygen or any other reagents

pyrolytic - Of, relating to, or produced by pyrolysis

A thermal degradation of carbonaceous material in an oxygen-free reactor. Pyrolytic oils, fuel gas, chars, and ash are produced in quantities that are highly dependent on temperature, residence time, and the amount of heat applied. A process which involves heating biomass to drive off the volatile matter, leaving behind the black residue we know as charcoal. More sophisticated pyrolysis techniques have been developed recently to collect volatiles gaseous compounds that are otherwise lost to the system. ...

the heating and cracking of organic material to produce light hydrocarbons and char (the same process that produces oil and conventional diesel). Pyrolysis produces a substance called bio-oil that can be made into transportation fuels, plastics, and other products.

The destruction of a chemical compound by heating or burning. is the process where organic compounds decompose when heated without burning.

Pyrolysis is the decomposition of organic matter by heating without oxygen. It can be carried out in vacuum or using water. Find out more about pyrolysis. The transformation of a substance into one or more other substances by heat alone without oxidation.

The second stage of ignition during which energy causes gas molecules given off by a heated solid fuel to vibrate and break into pieces. Regardless of whether a fuel was originally a liquid or solid, the overall burning process will gasify the fuel. ...

is the thermal decomposition of organic materials into gases, oils, and char. Decomposition of a chemical by extreme heat.

Pyrolysis is the process of thermal decomposition to produce gases, liquids (tar), and char (solid residue). These pyrolysis products can all be used as fuels, with or without prior upgrading, or they can be utilized as feedstocks for chemical or material industries

Ratio compared to Dry Air (%) Gas By volume By weight

Molecular Mass -M(kg/kmol)

Boiling Point Chemical Symbol (K) (oC)

Oxygen

20.95

23.20

32.00

O2

90.2

-182.95

Nitrogen

78.09

75.47

28.02

N2

77.4

-195.79

Carbon Dioxide

0.03

0.046

44.01

CO2

194.7

-78.5

Hydrogen

0.00005

~0

2.02

H2

20.3

-252.87

Argon

0.933

1.28

39.94

Ar

84.2

-186

Neon

0.0018

0.0012

20.18

Ne

27.2

-246

Helium

0.0005

0.00007

4.00

He

4.2

-269

Krypton

0.0001

0.0003

83.8

Kr

119.8

-153.4

Xenon

9 10-6

0.00004

131.29

Xe

165.1

-108.1