INTRODUCTION Geometry

Geometry (Greek ; geo = earth, metria = measure) arose as the field of knowledge dealing with spatial relationships. Geometry was one of the two fields of pre-modern mathematics, the other being the study of numbers. Classic geometry was focused in compass and straightedge constructions. Geometry was revolutionized by Euclid, who introduced mathematical rigorand the axiomatic method still in use today. His book, The Elements is widely considered the most influential textbook of all time, and was known to all educated people in the West until the middle of the 20 century.
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Table of Geometry, from the 1728 Cyclopaedia.

In modern times, geometric concepts have been generalized to a high level of abstraction and complexity, and have been subjected to the methods of calculus and abstract algebra, so that many modern branches of the field are barely recognizable as the descendants of early geometry. (See areas of mathematics and algebraic geometry.)

Differentiation
The concept of a derivative in the sense of a tangent line is a very old one, familiar to Greek geometers such as Euclid (c. 300 BC), Archimedes(c. 287212 BC) and Apollonius of Perga (c. 262190 BC).[1] Archimedes also introduced the use of infinitesimals, although these were primarily used to study areas and volumes rather than derivatives and tangents; see Archimedes' use of infinitesimals. The use of infinitesimals to study rates of change can be found in Indian mathematics, perhaps as early as 500 AD, when the astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476550) used infinitesimals to study the motion of the moon.[2] The use of infinitesimals to compute rates of change was developed significantly by Bh skara II (1114-1185); indeed, it has been argued that many of the key notions of differential calculus can be found in his work, such as "Rolle's theorem".
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The Persian mathematician, Sharaf al-D n al-T s (1135[5]

1213), was the first to discover the derivative of cubic polynomials, an important result in differential calculus; his Treatise on

Equations developed concepts related to differential calculus, such as the derivative function and the maxima and minima of curves, in order to solve cubic equations which may not have positive solutions.[6]

The modern development of calculus is usually credited to Isaac Newton (1643 1727) and Gottfried Leibniz (1646 1716), who provided independent and unified approaches to differentiation and derivatives. The key insight, however, that earned them this credit, was the fundamental theorem of calculus relating differentiation and integration: this rendered obsolete most previous methods for computing areas and volumes, which had not been significantly extended since the time of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen).
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For their ideas

on derivatives, both Newton and Leibniz built on significant earlier work by mathematicians such as Isaac Barrow (1630 1677), Ren Descartes (1596 1650), Christiaan Huygens (1629 1695), Blaise Pascal (1623 1662) and John Wallis (1616 1703). Isaac Barrow is generallly given credit for the early development of the derivative.
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Nevertheless, Newton and Leibniz remain key figures in the

history of differentiation, not least because Newton was the first to apply differentiation to theoretical physics, while Leibniz systematically developed much of the notation still used today. Since the 17th century many mathematicians have contributed to the theory of differentiation. In the 19th century, calculus was put on a much more rigorous footing by mathematicians such asAugustin Louis Cauchy (1789 1857), Bernhard Riemann (1826 1866), and Karl Weierstrass (1815 1897). It was also during this period that the differentiation was generalized to Euclidean spaceand the complex plane.

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