Biogas as a Residential Energy Source For South Asia

Daniel Thomas ME 5080 Term research paper December 11, 2003

Biogas as a Residential Energy Source for South Asia

Daniel Thomas, 1

Abstract Because of high population growth and high growth trends in energy consumption, South Asia will become increasingly important in global energy consumption. The high proportion of residential energy use for cooking and current high reliance on biomass give sustainable biogas energy great potential in this region. A first and second law analysis of biogas use, as applied to domestic cooking, was conducted. 11, 380 kJ of captured cooking heat can be obtained from one livestock unit per day by digesting the manure and burning the biogas, since the second law effectiveness of this process is about 47%. Only 9580 kJ/LU-day is obtained from burning the same quantity of dried manure. In addition, biogas can be generated from other organic feed stocks and produces an effluent with high fertilizer value in addition to the methane-rich gas. When other benefits such as financial savings, public health, nutrient retention, time savings, and convenience are considered, biogas becomes an even more viable energy source for South Asia.

Biogas as a Residential Energy Source for South Asia

Daniel Thomas, 2

Introduction to regional energy use South Asia is usually defined as the five nations that comprise the Indian subcontinent: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka (Figure 1). This is an area with a rapidly growing population and energy consumption. Figure 2 shows that the population of the region, already at 22%, is increasing as a fraction of the worlds population.
2000 World Population
USA, 278.4 Rest of Americas, 550.3 Europe, 729.8 Pacific, 31.2

Rest of Asia, 2349.5

Africa, 784.3 South Asia, 1342

2025 World Population

USA, 325.6 Rest of Americas, 734.6

Europe, 703.4 Pacific, 40.8

Rest of Asia, 2897.6

Africa, 1298.2 South Asia, 1833.8

Figure 1: Nations of South Asia, with current population in millions.1

Figure 2: 2000 and 2025 population of South Asia as a fraction of world population.2

The energy consumption of South Asia is also increasing rapidly, as demonstrated by Figure 3. This trend is even more evident in Figure 4, where the normalized growth trends show that the Middle East, Asia and Oceana are the regions with the largest growth rates in energy consumption. Looking into this region in more detail, Figure 5 shows that the large countries of South Asia have energy consumption growth trends significantly steeper than those of the larger Asia and Oceana region. The large increases in population stimulate large increases in energy consumption, since a large proportion of the energy is consumed by the residential sector (Figure 6). With less developed industry and commercial sectors, much of the consumption is of energy suitable for household cooking and agriculture. This is reflected in Figure 7, which shows that the heavy

Biogas as a Residential Energy Source for South Asia

Daniel Thomas, 3

reliance on biomass. Almost 90% of Nepals energy comes from biomass, which is a stark contrast to the 4% shown on the USA series, included for comparison. India has large coal resources and more industry than the other countries shown, but still relies on biomass for 18% of its total energy consumption. These patterns are typical of much of the rest of Asia and Africa, so conclusions reached for South Asia may well be equally applicable in these other regions.

140 120

Consumption (Quads)

100 80 60 40 20 0 1992

North America South and Central Am. Western Europe Eastern Europe Middle East Africa Asia & Oceana

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Year

Figure 3: Primary energy consumption by region, 1992 2001.3

Fraction of Max. Consumption

0.9
North America South and Central Am.

0.8

Western Europe Eastern Europe Middle East Africa Asia & Oceana

0.7

0.6

0.5 1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Year

Figure 4: Normalized energy consumption by region, 1992 2001.4

Biogas as a Residential Energy Source for South Asia

Daniel Thomas, 4

Fraction of Max. Consumption

0.9

0.8

India Pakistan Bangladesh

0.7

United States

0.6

0.5 1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Year

Figure 5: Normalized energy consumption by country, 1992 20015

100%

100%

Percentage of total energy requirement

80%

Percentage of total energy requirement

80%

60%

60%

40%

40%

20%

20%

0%
India Pakistan Bangladesh Nepal Sri Lanka USA

Country

0%
India Pakistan Bangladesh Nepal Sri Lanka USA

Industry/ Construction Energy Conversion

Transportation Losses

Household/ Agriculture
Coal Oil

Country
Gas Biomass Other

Figure 6: Energy end-use by sector.

Figure 7: Energy sources for South Asia countries.7

The countries of South Asia and other developing nations have rapidly increasing energy demands but are also those that will be most negatively affected by global warming. There has therefore been considerable interest in moving to sustainable energy sources in their early growth phase. Because of the high cost involved in renewable energy technologies such as wind and photovoltaic solar, biomass is a very viable solution, if it can be used in a sustainable way. (Deforestation, nutrient loss and smoke are major concerns.)

Biogas as a Residential Energy Source for South Asia

Daniel Thomas, 5

Introduction to biogas Biogas consists mostly of methane, and is the product of anaerobic digestion of organic material. The production of biogas is a natural process, but it has only been harnessed for energy production since about 1950. The basic process is shown in Figure 8, and can use crop wastes, livestock manure, human excrement and urine, by-products of agricultural industries, forest litter or aquatic wastes and weeds as feedstock. This can be a continuous process, with wastes fed through one port to the digester and slurry exiting at another. The main requirement of the digester is that it be airtight so that oxygen does not enter and the biogas is trapped for use. Many designs have been developed, the most common of which are the fixed dome (Figure 9), floating dome (Figure 10) and polyethylene bag (Figure 11) digesters.

Crop Residue Domestic Waste

Fuel

Mechanical Energy Heat and Light Electrical Energy

Methane Generator

Sludge Nutrients returned to soil Improved soil structure

Animal Wastes Night Soil

Increase in organic matter

Figure 8: Basic biogas production process with main product uses.8

Figure 9: Fixed dome bio-digester design developed and used extensively in China.

Figure 10: Floating dome bio-digester design developed and used extensively in India

Biogas as a Residential Energy Source for South Asia

Daniel Thomas, 6

Figure 11: Short version of the polyethylene bag biogas digester design, shown installed in an earthen ditch.

Efficiency Analysis of biogas energy In calculating a first-law efficiency for biogas use, it is interesting to compare the efficiency of using biogas generated from a given quantity of feedstock to the efficiency of direct combustion of the same material. For an example, cooking was chosen since it is the largest enduse in most of South Asia. Cattle manure was chosen as the fuel since it is a very widely used fuel and often the main alternative to fuel wood (the use of which leads to deforestation). A 500 kg head of cattle (= 1 Livestock Unit, LU) produces about 40 kg manure per day, as shown in Figure 12. Although cattle produce more manure per livestock unit than other animals, cattle manure has a higher moisture content, so the amount of volatile solids is about equal to that for other livestock. Figure 13 shows the composition of manure for several types of livestock, the majority being carbohydrates of easy (E) or slow (S) digestibility. The typical composition of cattle manure is given in more detail in Table 1.
45.0 Production per Livestock Unit (kg/LU) 40.0 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 35.4 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 Dairy cattle Beef cattle Swine
VS

37.8

26.4

15.7

26.0

24.0

3.1

3.9

2.0 Sheep
Water

4.3 Poultry

5.3 Horses

4.0

Figure 12: Daily manure production for various livestock, showing proportion of solids to liquids.9

Figure 13: Composition of manure for various livestock.10

Biogas as a Residential Energy Source for South Asia

Daniel Thomas, 7

Table 1: Composition of cattle manure on a mass basis.11

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Mass basis
CH4 CO2

2.0 2.0 36.0

1.0 14.5 11.9

Component

Characteristic composition C6H10O5 C6H10O5 C6H10O5 C57H104O6 C5H7O2N C2H4O2

Mass fraction 12% 19% 43% 7% 16% 3%

Lignin Carbohydrates (S) Carbohydrates (E) Lipid Protein Volatile Fatty Acids

72.6 60.0

Molar basis
H2 N2

Figure 14: Typical Composition of Biogas on mass and molar basis.

The anaerobic digestion of all of these components can be considered with the basic reaction:
a b n a b n a b C n H a Ob + n H 2 O + CO2 + + CH 4 4 2 2 8 4 2 8 4

The yield of methane from this reaction can thus be calculated with Bushwells formula:12
YTh = (n / 2 + a / 8 b / 4) 22.4 12n + a + 16b
3 mCH 4 / kgVS

If all the volatile solids (using composition given in Table 1) were consumed to produce methane in this reaction, the theoretical yield of methane and biogas (using the composition given in Figure 14) would be:
total lignin carb carb lipid protein VFA YTh = y ligninYTh + y carbS YTh . + y carbE YTh + y lipid YTh + y proteinYTh + yVFAYTh manure YTh = .12 (0.415) + .19 (0.415) + .43 (0.415) + .07 (1.014) + .16 (0.496) + .03(0.370) 3 = 0.470 mCH 4 / kgVS 3 = 0.783 m BG / kgVS

But the lignin, slowly digestible carbohydrates, and volatile fatty acids are not digested in a typical biogas digester retention period (< 3 months), so the ultimate methane yield from the same manure would be as follows. The volume of biogas is again found using the typical biogas composition in Figure 14.

Biogas as a Residential Energy Source for South Asia

Daniel Thomas, 8

Actual Biogas Yeild (m3/kg)

0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 with sugar, urea with cattle urine Manure
0.063 0.087 0.087 0.091 0.081 0.21 0.24 0.26 0.24 0.22

24 days digestion

80 days digestion

with sugar, lime

with leaves

Figure 15: Actual production of biogas for various manure mixtures after 24 and 80 days digestion.13
carb lipid protein YUtotal = y carbE YTh . + y lipid YTh + y proteinYTh

Figure 16: Typical efficiencies and capital cost of stoves commonly used in South Asia.14

YUmanure = .43 (0.415) + .07 (1.014) + .16 (0.496)

3 = 0.329 mCH 4 / kgVS 3 = 0.547 m BG / kgVS

= 0.0100 kmol BG / kg VS
However, lower retention times result in actual biogas yields being less than half of this ultimate yield (Figure 15). Variations in feedstock composition can also play an important role in determining this final yield. Once the biogas yield of manure has been calculated, the energy produced by the combustion of biogas is found using the following balanced combustion equation, based on values shown in Figure 14.
.726 CH 4 + .119 CO2 + .010 N 2 + .145 H 2 + .7985 (O2 + 3.76 N 2 ) .845 CO2 + 1.597 H 2 O + 3.012 N 2

E = ni h f,i ne h f,e
R P

E manure = (101,170 kJ / kmol BG ) (718,711 kJ / kmol BG ) = 617,541 kJ / kmol BG (0.010 kmol BG / kgVS ) = 6,177 kJ / kg VS

Biogas as a Residential Energy Source for South Asia

Daniel Thomas, 9

In cooking the efficiency of the stove in using this energy of combustion varies considerably. Gas stoves are much more efficient than typical biomass stoves, with efficiencies between 55% and 60% (Figure 16). This gives a useful heat value of:
Quseful = stove E = 0.60 6117 kJ / kgVS = 3670 kJ / kgVS

With a typical output of 3.1 kgvs/LUday for cattle (Figure 12), this becomes:
Quseful = 11,377 kJ / LU day

Table 2 shows other typical uses for this same energy output. All across South Asia, manure is collected and dried for burning, so it is also interesting to compare this output to that given by simply burning the same quantity of manure. Because of the complex structure of the hydrocarbons involved, the energy from combustion of the manure is best found from the higher heating value, calculated using the Dulong formula:15 HHVBtu / lb = 14490 mC + 61000 mH + 5550 mS = 14490 0.48 + 61000 0.066 = 25,517 Btu / lbVS Tillman gives the following equation for finding the lower heating value from the HHV:16
LHVBtu / lb = HHVBtu / lb (1050 MC f + 9 mH 1050) LHVKJ / kg = [10970 (1050 0.10 + 9 0.065 1050)] 2.326 = 23,770 kJ / kgVS = 73,690 kJ / LU day
80000

kJ / kg Btu / lb

Table 2: Other uses of calculated energy available from biogas produced daily by 1 LU.17
kJ/kg or kJ/LU-day
60000

Use Daily cooking Single mantle lamp 2 hp engine 24 h refrigeration 24 h incubation

Quantity 2.3 persons 10.7 hours 1.7 hours 1.1 ft3 2.1 ft3

40000

20000

Direct combustion Qreaction

Biogas combustion Quseful

Figure 17: Total and useful energy produced by burning manure directly or the biogas derived from it.

Biogas as a Residential Energy Source for South Asia

Daniel Thomas, 10

A typical traditional stove in which the manure would be burnt only has an efficiency of 13%, giving a final useful energy of: Quseful = stove LHV = 0.13 73,690 kJ / LU day = 9,580 kJ / LU day These results are shown graphically in Figure 17. Although much more heat is produced by just burning the manure, the lower stove efficiencies cause the final useful heat to be lower than if the same amount of manure had been used to produce biogas which was used for the cooking. In this case the first law analysis allows the most useful comparison between different uses for the original biomass fuel. A second law analysis using the availability of the manure would be difficult, due to the complicated organic components; the standard chemical availability of proteins, carbohydrates or lipids is not available. However, a useful second law analysis of the biogas combustion can be done beginning with the balanced combustion equation:
.726 CH 4 + .119 CO2 + .010 N 2 + .145 H 2 + .7985 (O2 + 3.76 N 2 ) .845 CO2 + 1.597 H 2 O + 3.012 N 2

The adiabatic flame temperature for the reaction is found by satisfying the following equation:

n h = n h
e e i P R

f ,i

ne h f,e
P

Tad = 1981 K

However, the actual flame temperature is usually significantly lower, as confirmed by Gatade and Rao18, and can be found using Gaydon and Wolfhards correction factor:19 Tactual = (0.8)Tad = 1585 K = 1112C The chemical availability is as follows, using the standard chemical availability of the methane and hydrogen components of the biogas:
a fch = ni aich
i

= 0.726 830,745 + 0.145 235,382 kJ / kmolBG = 637,251 kJ / kmolBG

This gives a second law efficiency of: = (1 T0 / TR ) Quseful a fch

Biogas as a Residential Energy Source for South Asia

Daniel Thomas, 11

(1 300 K / 1585 K ) (0.6) 617,541 kJ / kmol BG 637,251 kJ / kmol BG

= 47.1 % This second law efficiency would be useful in improving the efficiency of the biogas stoves, or

other uses of the gas (Table 2). Advantages and disadvantages of biogas energy Economics: Since biogas digesters currently being developed and used in South Asia are largely for rural, low-income family cooking the economic benefits of the energy source are very important. The initial capital cost is high, but this has been lowered by government subsidy and micro-loan programs. In a field study of four 3 m3/day biogas digesters operating in rural India, Pande found all produced net annual savings of Rs. 1000 3000.20 The plant shown in Table 3 was financed partially by government subsidy but mostly by the owner through initial payment and loan. This analysis accounts for regular maintenance as well as eventual replacement of parts and construction repair. Table 4 shows another analysis which shows similar net savings in situations in which the manure was previously used for either fuel or fertilizer. If this plant were financed with 25% government subsidy and a loan paid in five installments, net savings would be about Rs. 500 for the first five years and about Rs. 1500 after repaying the loan.
Table 3: Typical costs and savings of a 4 m3/day biogas digester in rural India.21 CONSTRUCTION: Construction cost: Bricks (4000) Cement (30 bags) Brick ballast 3 Sand (100 ft ) 3 Morang (80 ft ) Labour Other costs: Pipe (20 ft) Sockets and valves Paint (2 l) Stove Lamp Total Initial payment by owner Government subsidy Loan 4,980.00 1,920.00 1,440.00 250.00 150.00 320.00 900.00 641.00 160.00 62.00 44.00 250.00 125.00 5,621.00 621.00 2,140.00 2,860.00 OPERATION: Annual Expenses Manure (36 tons) Interest on loan (12%) Depreciation on equipment (10%) Depreciation on construction (7%) Maintenance Gross Annual Savings Annual fuel and lighting expenses Value of improved manure (20 tons) Net Annual Savings Gross savings - expenses Add back depreciation Average Net savings while repaying loan (first 7 years) Net savings after repaying loan (after 7 years) 2,867.00 2,000.00 357.00 64.00 334.00 112.00 3,640.00 2,040.00 1,600.00 1,171.00 773.00 398.00 871.00 1,528.00

Biogas as a Residential Energy Source for South Asia Table 4: Cost and Income analysis of a 6 m3/day biogas plant.22

Daniel Thomas, 12

Operation: In a study of 97,000 biogas plants installed in India by the non-government organizations Action for Food Production and Canadian Hunger Foundation, 87% of the plants were still operating after about 10 years, although many were running inefficiently.23 Much of the inefficient operation was due to not feeding the digester sufficiently, as were about 30% of the non-functioning plants. However, as shown in Figure 18 defects in plant and stove components were also major problems. Problems with defective components also accounts for the low rate of operation for plants installed over 10 years before the study (Figure 19).

Biogas as a Residential Energy Source for South Asia

Daniel Thomas, 13

100 90 80 70 Percent
Social Problems: loss of cattle, moving of cattle, family dispute, etc. Technical Problems: pipelin leak, broken dome valve, etc. Construction Defects: dome cracking Others: flooding, not feeding, fire, lack of space, sickness, etc.

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Till 1990 1990-94 1994-96 1996-98 Year of Installation

Functional Non-Functional

Figure 18: Reason for digester non-functionality.24

Figure 19: Functionality rate and age of digesters.25

Public Health: The lack of oxygen in a biogas digester that results anaerobic digestion also means many other micro-organisms are not able to survive. There are a few pathogens that survive (e.g. Ascaris lumbricoides, ringworm), but most have a high die-off rate (Figure 20). The National Academy of Sciences report on biogas generation from human and animal wastes concluded that anaerobic digestion is most effective practical treatment of human excreta.26 Because of the harsh conditions in the slurry product, die-off continues outside of digester.

98.5 100
Die-off, %

99 89

100 90

100

80 60 40 20 Mycobacterium tuberculosis Poliovirus Parasite cysts Salmonella ssp. Salmonella typhosa Ascaris 0
g N /kg dung
2

0.401

0.014

1.8695

1.8515

Fresh slurry Organic N

Evaporated slurry Ammonia N

Figure 20: Pathogen die-off during anaerobic digestion.27

Figure 21: Nitrogen retention in biogas digester slurry. 28

Biogas as a Residential Energy Source for South Asia

Daniel Thomas, 14

Nutrient retention: Aside from the energy produced, perhaps the most important benefit of biogas production is the potential for retention of Nitrogen, Potassium, Phosphorous and other nutrients. The digestion process only removes traces of nitrogen with the gas, and most of the nitrogen in the slurry is preserved in organic form, not ammonia which easily evaporates after spreading on the field (Figure 21). This is better retention than in aerobic cultures, where much more of the nutrients are used by bacteria for cell growth. Therefore the biogas digester slurry, contrary to common preconceptions in South Asia, has a greater fertilizer value than the dung itself. This is demonstrated by a University of Tropical Agriculture study in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.29 The study compared average yields of cassava fertilized with manure vs. biogas digester effluent from cow and pig manure. As shown in Figure 22 and Figure 23, the fertilizing with biogas digester effluent resulted in a significant increase in yield of both biomass and protein. Feedstock diversity: Most of the biogas digesters currently in use are fed with livestock manure, but there are many other potential feedstocks. As mentioned earlier, crop wastes, livestock manure, human excrement and urine, by-products of agricultural industries, forest litter or aquatic wastes and weeds all can be used as feedstock. An interesting example is the potential of water hyacinth, an aquatic weed that grows vigorously throughout South Asia. It is usually removed from drains and ponds periodically, but usually goes to waste, as it has little value as livestock fodder. Studies by Singh and Kumar show that it can be effectively substituted for cattle manure in biogas generators if sun-dried (Figure 24).30

Figure 22: Average cassava biomass yield.31

Figure 23: Average cassava protein yield.32

Biogas as a Residential Energy Source for South Asia

Daniel Thomas, 15

7 Biogas produced (liters) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7 14 23 30 Digestion period (days) 43 60

0% W.H. 30% W.H. 50% W.H. 70% W.H. 100% W.H.

Figure 24: Effect of substitution of water hyacinth for cattle manure on biogas production.33 (Total feedstock mass =500 g)

Other benefits: Other important benefits of biogas energy include the following: It is a clean burning fuel (manure combustion is especially sooty). It allows time savings in fuel collection and cooking. One study showed savings of at least 1 hour in households using biogas. The fuel is easy to store and use. It results in reduced transfer of fungus and other pathogens to next years crop.

Biogas as a Residential Energy Source for South Asia

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References
AskAsia Resources. Maps. www.askasia.org/image/maps/asias1.htm 12-13-2003. Johnstone, Patrick, and Mandryk, Jason, Operation World, WEC International: Bulstrode, 2001. 3 Energy Information Agency, International Total Primary Energy and Related Information, Table E1: World Total Primary Energy Consumption, www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/iea/tablee1.html 12-13-2001. 4 Ibid. 5 Ibid. 6 United Nations Statistics Division, 1998 Energy Balances and Electricity Profiles, http://unstats.un.org/unsd/energy/balance/tables.htm 7 Ibid. 8 National Academy of Sciences. Methane Generation from Human, Animal, and Agricultural Wastes. NAS: Washington, D.C., 1977. p 6. 9 National Academy of Sciences, p 41. 10 Moller, H. B., Sommer, S. G., Ahring, B. K. Methane productivity of manure, straw and solid fractions of manure. Biomass and Bioenergy. July 2003. p 7. 11 Ibid. 12 Moller, H. B., et al. p 6. 13 National Academy of Sciences, p 69. 14 U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Fueling Development: Energy Technologies for Developing Countries, OTA-E-516 Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, April 1992. 15 Hougen, O. A., Watson, K. M., Ragatz, R. A., Chemical Process Principles: Part I, Material and Energy Balances. 2nd Ed. New York: Wiley, 1954. p 401. 16 Tillman, D. A. The Combustion of Solid Fuels and Wastes. San Diego: Academic P., 1991. p 87. 17 National Academy of Sciences, p 45. 18 Gatade, S. P., Rao, B. H. All India Seminar on Renewable Sources of Energy. Burning Characteristics of Gobar Gas. Allahabad, India: Eastern P, 1982. p B-5.1 19 Tillman. p 37. 20 Pande, B. M. Performance of Bio-Gas Plants: A Field Study. Lucknow, India: Appropriate Technology Development Association, 1985. p 49. 21 Ibid. 22 National Academy of Sciences, p 121. 23 Dutta, S., Rehman, I. H., Malhotra, P, Venkata, R. P. Biogas: the Indian NGO Experience. New Delhi: Tata Energy Research Institute, 1997. p 16. 24 Ibid. 25 Ibid. p 17 26 National Academy of Sciences, p 56. 27 Ibid. p 55. 28 Ibid. p 50. 29 Chau, Le Ha. Biodigester effluent versus manure from pigs or cattle as fertilizer for production of cassava foliage. Livestock Research of Rural Development. Vol 10. No. 3, 1998. <www.cipav.org.co/lrrd/lrrd10/3/chau1.htm> 30 Singh, S., Kumar, M. All India Seminar on Renewable Sources of Energy. Utility of Eichornia Crassipes as a Source of Bio Gas. Allahabad, India: Eastern P, 1982. p B-3.3 31 Chau, Le Ha. 32 Ibid. 33 Singh, S., Kumar, M. p B-3.1
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