Production analysis and concept of marginality 3.

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PRODUCTION ANALYSIS (THEORY OF FIRM)
The theory of the firm consists of a number of economic theories, which describe the nature of the firm (company or corporation), including its behavioural aspects and its relationship with the market. In the theory of production, we leargely discuss the relation between inputs and outputs. The inputs are what a firm buys (i.e. productive resource) and outputs (i.e. goods and services produced) what it sells. The firm can be defined as base of the production or as the smallest unit of production in an economy. The theory of production is the study of: factor of production and their organization, law of production, theories of population (in relation with an important and special factor of production - labour), production function, law of return to scale, Cost concepts and least- cost combination of factors, Production theory describes physical (technical & technological) conditions under which production take place, it brings out the relationship between output and inputs, i.e. various combination of inputs, and also explain how the least cost combination is arrived at. From the perception of business administration, the theories also look at the economic consequences of the different incentives influencing individuals working within companies, tackling issues such as pay, agency costs and corporate governance structures. FIRMS The Firm generally term for a commercial organization, such as, business, company, concern, corporation, enterprise, partnership, proprietorship etc those are engage with producing any sort of good or service. In economic analysis, firm is considered as the unit of production and used to describe a collection of individuals grouped together for economic gain. For many years, economists had little interest in what happened inside firms, preferring instead to examine the workings of the different sorts of industries in which firms operate, ranging from perfect competition to monopoly. Since the 1960s, however, sophisticated economic theories of how firms work have been developed. These have examined why firms grow at different rates and tried to model the normal life cycle of a company, from fast-growing start-up to lumbering mature business. The aim is to explain when it pays to conduct an activity within a firm and when it pays to externalise it through short- or longterm arrangements with outsiders. PRODUCTION Production is one of the three major economic activities that is done in the human society. Production in an economy is generally understood as the process of transforming inputs into outputs. It can also be defined as the process of creating utility, more precisely, the creation of want satisfying goods and services in a planned manner by using natural resources. In defining Production economic gives similar importance on value creation as creation of utility. For instance, cooking food for family members is definitely an activity for addition of utility, but cannot be recognized as economic production. Production, therefore, should be defined as not as only creation of utility, but creation (or addition) of value also.
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Production analysis and concept of marginality 3.1

PRODUCTION FUNCTION The production function relates the amount of output of a firm to the amount of inputs, typically capital and labor, required to produce the output. The production function is the relationship between the maximum amounts of output that can be produced by a firm (a unit of production) and the inputs required to make the output. It is defined for a given state of technological knowledge. It is important to keep in mind that the production function describes technology, not economic behavior. A firm may maximize its profits given its production function, but generally takes the production function as a given element of that problem. (In specialized long-run models, the firm may choose its capital investments to choose among production technologies.) Q= f (K, L) is an example of typical production function. Where, Q = Amounts of total output, K = capital and L = labour. f is the (algebraic) expression of the functional relationship between inputs (K=capital and L=labour) and output. The following three production concepts are very familiar in the production theory of economics. (i) Total Product: Total production (TP) is the amount of total physical product. It designates the total amount of output produced in physical units (ton, barrel, etc.) (ii) Average Product: Average product (AP) measures the total output divided by total units of input. It is a statistical measurement of output. (iii) Marginal Product: The marginal product (MP) of an input is the extra product or output added by 1 extra unit of that input while other inputs are held constant, i.e., the marginal product is the output produced by one more unit of a given input. LAW OF DIMINISHING MARGINAL RETURN: The law of diminishing marginal returns is a production-principle propounded by David Ricardo (1772-1823). The economic law states that if one input used in the manufacture of a product is increased while all other inputs remain fixed, a point will eventually be reached at which the input yields progressively Unit of Total Marginal Average smaller increases in output. For example, a labour Production Production Production 0 0 farmer will find that a certain number of 2,000 farm labourers will yield the maximum 1 2,000 2,000 output per worker. If that number is 1,000 exceeded, the output per worker will fall. 2 3,000 1,500
500

In common usage, the point of diminishing returns is a supposed point at which additional effort or investment in a given endeavor will not yield correspondingly

3 4 5

3,500 300 3,800 100 3,900

1,167 950 780

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Production analysis and concept of marginality 3.1

increasing results. The above table and the figures below show the mathematical and graphical example of diminishing marginal return of labour in a small agricultural firm.
Production Curve (Total Product) 5000 Total Product 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Unit of Input (Labour)
Marginal Product 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Unit of Input (Labour) Marginal Product Curve

SHORT RUN AND LONG RUN There is no fixed time that can be marked on the calendar to separate the short run from the long run, because, long run and the short run do not refer to a specific period of time such as 3 months or 5 years. The difference between the short run and the long run is the flexibility decision makers have. The short run is a period of time in which the quantity of at least one input is fixed and the quantities of the other inputs can be varied. The long run is a period of time in which the quantities of all inputs can be varied. The short run and long run distinction varies from one industry to another. An example of toothbrush manufacturing firm as well as industry can be considered here. A company in this industry will need the following inputs to manufacture toothbrushes: Raw materials (such as plastic) Labor Machinery A (new) factory In Short Run, Some inputs are variable and some are fixed. New firms do not enter the industry, and existing firms do not exit. On the other hand, in long Run, all inputs are variable; firms can enter and exit the market (in the industry). FACTOR PRODUCTIVITY AND RETURN TO SCALE: In economics, productivity is the amount of output created (in terms of goods produced or services rendered) per unit input used. For instance, labour productivity is typically measured as output per worker or output per labour-hour. With respect to land, the "yield" is equivalent to "land productivity". Thus, the factor productivity refers to productivity of individual factor, such as labour or land. Labour productivity is generally speaking held to be the same as the "average product of labour" (average output per worker or per worker-hour, an output which could be measured in physical terms or in price terms).It is not the same as the marginal product of labour, which refers to the increase in output that results from a corresponding increase in labour input. Some economists write of "capital productivity" (output per unit of capital goods employed), the inverse of the capital/output ratio. "Total factor productivity," sometimes
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Production analysis and concept of marginality 3.1

called multifactor productivity, also includes both labor and capital goods in the denominator (weighted by their incomes). Unlike labor productivity, the calculation of both capital productivity and total factor productivity is dependent on a number of doubtful assumptions and is subject to the Cambridge critique. Even measures of land and labor productivity should be used only when conscious of the role of the heterogeneity of these inputs to the production process Returns to scale refers to a technical property of production that predicts what happens to output if the quantity of all input factors is increased by some amount/ percentage. If output increases by that same amount, it is called constant returns to scale (CRTS), sometimes referred to simply as returns to scale. If output increases by less than that amount, it is decreasing returns to scale. If output increases by more than that amount, it is increasing returns to scale.

ECONOMY OF SCALE AND DISECONOMY OF SCALE Ecomony of scale (ES) describes- as the volume of production increases, the cost of producing each unit decreases. Therefore, building a large factory will be more efficient than a small factory because the large factory will be able to produce more units at a lower cost per unit than the smaller factory. When more units of a good or a service can be produced on a larger scale, yet with (on average) less input costs, economies of scale (ES) are said to be achieved. Alternatively, this means that as a company grows and production units increase, a company will have a better chance to decrease its costs. Just opposite to the economies of scale, diseconomies of scale (DS) also exist. This occurs when production is less than in proportion to inputs. What this means is that there are inefficiencies within the firm or industry resulting in rising average costs. ECONOMY OF SCOPE An economic theory stating that the average total cost of production decreases as a result of increasing the number of different goods produced. For example, McDonalds can produce both hamburgers and French fries at a lower average cost than what it would cost two separate firms to produce the same goods. This is because McDonalds hamburgers and French fries share the use of food storage, preparation facilities, and so forth duringdproduction. Another example is a company such as Proctor & Gamble, which produces hundreds of products from razors to toothpaste. They can afford to hire expensive graphic designers and marketing experts who will use their skills across the product lines. Because the costs are spread out, this lowers the average total cost of production for each product.

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