CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATION

The basic mean of automation is to become a system automatic , mean it complete all the given task automatically, the definition of the automation is to anlyze and control all the process parameters in the plant or in a machine with the help of automatic device is called the automation. When a machine or a system is controlled by the another system or machine , then itis called an automatic system . in this type of system we can use the feedback control technology for the accurate operation of our system. In an automation system , all the components of the system works automatically , we only require the starting and stopping of the system remaining system works itself. Benefits of an automatic system We use the automatic sytem in these days and it is increased regularly because it has several benefits. Some of the benefits are as follows :1. Increasing productivity When a system change in an automatic system, its productivity is increased because there are no losses like tension, fatigue, laziness which are associated with manual system, so overall productivity increases. 2. Increase quality When we change a system in a automatic system, the quality of our product is increased because there is no chance of the error due to human beings , and all system works as they are instructed by the operator. 3. Reduce overall production cost When we change a system in an automatic system then overall production cost of the system is reduced because the manpower is reduced and rate of manufacturing is increased. 4. Increased safety at workplace The manpower required is reduced and all the work is done automatically by the machine, so the safety of the humankind is increased ay work-place and the chance of accidents are also reduced. 5. Flexibility to expand the system In an automatic system our system being more flexible because now we have only change some function of automation devices to change our requirement and our system works being changed, so the flexibility of our system is increased by automation.

AUTOMATION POSSIBILITY:
There is a desire to exercise superior control on process parameters. There is a desire to significantly reduce the human interaction. There is a desire to enhance the process efficiency. There is a benefit that prevention is better than cure. Repetitive and monotonous jobs is involved and each stage of production needs careful attention of operators to ensure good quality of final products. 6. Hazardous condition of operation can exist in plant.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Automation history: Following diagram describes the technological advancements in the field of automation.

P.L.C

Electronic control using logic gates

Hard wire logic control

Pneumatic control

Manual control

Fig 1.1 : technological advancement in automation

Manual control: All the action related to process control and taken by the operators. Simply manual controls is defined where all the final control element are adjusted manually to control process to meet the manufacturing process

requirements. Drawbacks of manual control:1. Due to human interference errors are introduced in control which largely effect the quality to final product. 2. The Production , safety , energy consumption and usage of raw material increase due to inaccuracy in manual control. 3. Due to above two effect difference in coast unvalued in manufacturing process and final product coast is largely reduced that will be direct loss for the manufacturer. Pneumatic control:1. Pneumatic system works on air pressure, feedback signals and set paints and controllers output all are in the term of air pressure. 2. Action were controlled by a simple manipulated of pneumatic values, which is turn were controlled by relay and switches. Advantage over manual control:1. Replaced bulky manual valves by pneumatic valves no need of involving huge man power to operate these valves. 2. Overall better control as compare formal system. Drawbacks: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Bulky and complex networks of pneumatic pipes. Transmission of pneumatic signal at long distance is difficult. Involved lot of networks to implement of new control logic. System subjected to air leakage problem. Huge power required to create air pressure. Longer project time.

Hardwired logic control:The contractor and relay together with hardwire timers and counters were used in achieving there desired level of automation.

Advantage over pneumatic control: 1. Replaced bulky pneumatic control panel. 2. Signal transmission for long distance is possible without droop. 3. Pneumatic is now limited to final control element only. 4. Air consumption reduced. 5. Response of electrical system is high and fast so accuracy of control is high. Drawbacks: 1. Bulky and complex networks of electrical network. 2. Involves lot of network to implement control logic. 3. Addition in logic is very difficult. Electrical control using logic gates: 1. The logic gates stated replacing the relays and auxiliary contactors in the control circuits. 2. The hardware timers and counters were replaced by electric timers. Advantage of electrical system: 1. Electric equaling is less space as compared to other system. 2. Timers and counter are more accurate. 3. Mathematical calculation are possible. 4. Less maintenance and greater reliability. Drawbacks: 1. Change is control logic not possible. 2. Skill professional are required to trouble shoot control logic. 3. Components are not interchangeable if application are different.

Chapter 2 INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION

Automation is the use of control systems and information technologies reducing the need for human intervention. In the scope of industrialization, automation is a step beyond mechanization. Whereas mechanization provided human operators with machinery to assist them with the muscular requirements of work, automation greatly reduces the need for human sensory and mental requirements as well. Automation plays an increasingly important role in the world economy and in daily experience . 2.1 AUTOMATION TOOLS: Engineers now can have numerical control over automated devices. The result has been a rapidly expanding range of applications and human activities. Computer-aided technologies now serve the basis for mathematical and organizational tools used to create complex systems. Notable examples include Computer-aided design (CAD software) and Computeraided manufacturing (CAM software). The improved the design, analysis, and manufacture of products has been beneficial for industry[1]. Information technology, together with industrial machinery and processes, can assist in the design, implementation, and monitoring of control systems. One example of an industrial control system is a programmable logic controller (PLC). PLCs are specialized hardened computers which are frequently used to synchronize the flow of inputs from (physical) sensors and events with the flow of outputs to actuators and events[3]. Human-machine interfaces (HMI) or computer human interfaces (CHI), formerly known as man-machine interfaces, are usually employed to communicate with PLCs and other computers. Service personnel who monitor and control through HMIs can be called by different names. In industrial process and manufacturing environments, they are called operators or something similar. In boiler houses and central utilities departments they are called stationary engineers[3]. Different types of automation tools exist:
y y

ANN - Artificial neural network DCS - Distributed Control System

6

y y y y y y y

HMI - Human Machine Interface SCADA - Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition PLC - Programmable Logic Controller PAC - Programmable automation controller Instrumentation Motion control Robotics

2.2 IMPACT: Automation has had a notable impact in a wide range of highly visible industries beyond manufacturing. Once-ubiquitous telephone operators have been replaced largely by automated telephone switchboards and answering machines. Medical processes such as primary screening in electrocardiography or radiography and laboratory analysis of human genes, sera, cells, and tissues are carried out at much greater speed and accuracy by automated systems. Automated teller machine has reduced the need for bank visits to obtain cash and carry out transactions. In general, automation has been responsible for the shift in the world economy from agrarian to industrial in the 19th century and from industrial to services in the 20th century . 2.3 APPLICATIONS OF AUTOMATION: (a) Automated Video surveillance: The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) started the research and development of automated Visual surveillance and Monitoring (VSAM) program 1997-99 and airborne Video Surveillance (AVS) program 1998-2002. Currently there is a major effort underway in the vision community to develop a fully automated tracking surveillance system. Automated video surveillance monitors people and vehicle in real time within a busy environment. Existing automated surveillance systems are based on the environment they are primarily designed to observe, i.e., indoor, outdoor or airborne, the amount of sensors that the automated system can handle and the mobility of sensor, i.e., stationary came vs. mobile ra camera. The purpose of a surveillance system is to record properties and trajectories of objects in a given area generate warnings or notify designated authority in case of occurrence of particular events[3] .
7

(b) Automated Highway Systems: As demands for safety and mobility have grown and technological possibilities have multiplied, interest in automation have grown. Seeking to accelerate the development and introduction of fully automated vehicles and highways, The United States Congress authorized more than $650 million over 6 years for intelligent transport systems (ITS) and demonstration projects in the 1991 Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA). Congress legislated in ISTEA that The secretary [of transportation] shall develop an automated highway and vehicle prototype from which future fully automated intelligent vehicle-highway systems can be developed. Such development shall include research in human factors to ensure the success of the man-machine relationship. The goal of this program is to have the first fully automated highway roadway or an automated test track in operation by 1997. This system shall accommodate installation of equipment in new and existing motor vehicles"[1]. Full automation commonly defined as requiring no control or very limited control by the driver; such automation would be accomplished through a combination of sensor, computer, and communications systems in vehicles and along the roadway. Fully automated driving would, in theory, allow closer vehicle spacing and higher speeds, which could enhance traffic capacity in places where additional road building is physically impossible, politically unacceptable, or prohibitively expensive. Automated controls also might enhance road safety by reducing the opportunity for driver error, which causes a large share of motor vehicle crashes. Other potential benefits include improved air quality (as a result of more-efficient traffic flows), increased fuel economy, and spin-off technologies generated during research and development related to automated highway systems[1] . (c) Automated manufacturing: Automated manufacturing refers to the application of automation to produce things in the factory way. Most of the advantages of the automation technology has its influence in the manufacture processes. The main advantage of the automated manufacturing are: higher consistency and quality, reduce the lead times, simplification of production, reduce handling, improve work flow and increase the morale of workers when a good implementation of the automation is made.
8

(d) Home Automation Home automation (also called demotic) designates an emerging practice of increased automation of household appliances and features in residential dwellings, particularly through electronic means that allow for things impracticable, overly expensive or simply not possible in recent past decades .

CHAPTER 3 PLC ARCHITECTURE

PLCs contain three basic sections: 1. Central processing unit (CPU). 2. Memory: EPROM, RAM, and so on. 3. Input/output section for communication with peripherals (ADC, DAC).

Fig 3.1 PLC structure As shown in fig 3.1 ,a PLC is basically a box with a number of inputs from, and a number of outputs to, the outside world. It can make decisions, store data, do timing cycles, do simple arithmetic, convert codes, and so on. The basic difference between this black box and a hardware logic system using IC chips or a relay controlled system, is that specific coded messages are stored in areas called program memory, which are PROM or ROM and RAM chips. It is, however, much easier to change a program when a different process is required than to rewire the control system. For example, it may take electricians a couple of weeks to require a pipe mill, whereas a programmer will spend only a fraction of this time to reprogram a PLC since no wires will have to be changed. In addition, various recipes can be stored in memory and accessed when required, making the program extremely flexible.

10

The system operates through interaction with the processor and program memory. When the power to the system is turned on, the processor reads the first instruction stored in memory and acts on this instruction. When completed, it goes back to the memory for the next instruction, and so on until task is complete. This operation is called the fetch-execute cycle. The processor communicates with the outside world via input and output modules .

3.1 THE PARTS OF A PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLER: Programmable logic controllers (PLC) can be considered to have three parts:

3.1.1 Input/output Section The I/O section contains input modules and output modules. Functionally, the input modules are equivalent to the signal converters (i.e. Analog to Digital or high power to low power). All modern PLC input modules use optical devices to accomplish electrically isolated coupling between the input circuit and the processor electronics.

Fig3.2 Input Output Assembly Fig 3.2 shows input output assembly. Inputs carry signals from the process into the controller. Outputs are the devices that the PLC uses to send changes out to the world.

11

3.2.2 The processor The processor of a PLC holds and executes the user program. In order to carry out this job, the processor must store the most up-to-date input and output conditions.

(a) Input image table: The input conditions are stored in the input image table, which is a portion of the processors memory. That is, every single input module in the I/O section has assigned to it a particular location within the input image table. That particular location is dedicated solely to the task of keeping track of the latest condition of its input terminal. As mentioned in earlier section, if the input terminal has 5v dc power fed to it by its input device, the location within the input image table contains a binary 1(HIGH); if the input terminal has no 5v dc power fed to it, the location contains a binary 0(LOW). The processor needs to know the latest input conditions because the user program instructions are contingent upon those conditions. In other words, an individual instruction may have one outcome if a particular input is HIGH and a different outcome if that input is LOW[4].

(b) Output image table: The output conditions are stored in the output image table, which is another portion of the processors memory. The output image table bears the same relation to the output interface of the I/O section that while terminals are analog inputs. You can directly connect any analog input to the processor via these terminals. Analog signal from these terminals is first converted to digital value via programmable peripheral interface (PPI). The I/O sections output modules are functionally the same as the output amplifiers. They receive a low power digital signal from the processor and convert it into a high power signal capable of driving an industrial load. A modern PLC output module is optically isolated, and uses a triac, power transistor or relay as the series connected load controlling device. Terminal 1 to 8 are these type of O/P terminals whereas terminal D/A is Analog output terminal from processor. Each output device is wired to a particular output terminal on the I/O interface. Thus, for example, if output module 1 receives a digital 1 by applying 5v dc to output terminal 1, thereby illuminating LED is extinguished. Besides 5v dc (TTL devices), I/O module are also for interfacing to other industrial levels, including 12v dc. The input image table bears to the
12

input modules. That is, every single output module has assigned to it a particular memory location is dedicated solely to the task of keeping track of the latest condition of its output module. Of course, the output situation differs from the input situation with regard to the direction of information flow is from the output image table to the output modules, while in the input situation the information flow is from the input modules to the input image table. The locations within the input and output image tables are identified by addresses, which refers to unique address of each terminal.

(c) Central processing unit The subsection of the processor that actually performs the program execution will be called the central processing unit (CPU) with reference to input and output image table CPU executes the user program and continuously updates the output image table. The output image table has a dual nature; its first function is to receive immediate information from the CPU and pass if on to the output modules of the I/O section; but secondly, it also must be capable of passing output information backward to the CPU, when the user program instruction that the CPU is working on calls for an item of output information. The input image table does not have its dual nature. Its single mission is to acquire information from the input modules and pass that information forward to the CPU when the instruction that the CPU is working on calls for an item of input information.

(d) User program memory A particular portion of the processors memory is used for storing the user program instructions. We will use the name user program memory to refer to this processor subsection. Before a PLC can begin controlling an industrial system, a human user must enter the coded instructions that make up the user program. This procedure called programming the PLC. As the user enters instructions, they are automatically stored at sequential locations within the user program memory. This sequential placement of program instructions is self-regulated by the PLC, with no discretion needed by the human user. The total number of instructions in the user program can range from a half dozen or so, for controlling a simple machine, to several thousand, for controlling a complex machine or process. After the programming procedure is complete, the human user manually switches the PLC out to PROGRAM mode

13

into RUN mode, which causes the CPU to start executing the program from beginning to end repeatedly.

(e) The complete scan cycle As long as the PLC is left in the RUN mode, the processor executes the user program over and over again. Figure depicts the entire repetitive series of events. Beginning at the top of the circle representing the scan cycle, the first operation is the input scan. During the input scan, the current status of every input module is stored in the input image table, bringing it up to date[6]. Following the input scan, the processor enters its user program execution. Sometimes called program scan. The program executes with reference to input and output image tables and updates output image table. Throughout the user program execution, the processor continuously keeps its output image table up to date, as stated earlier. However, the output modules themselves are not kept continuously up to date. Instead, the entire output image table is transferred to the output module during the output scan following the program execution.

(f) Data Memory: A PLC is a computer, after all. Therefore, it can perform arithmetic, numeric comparisons, counting, etc. Naturally the numbers and data can change from one scan cycle to the next. Therefore the PLC must have a section of its memory set aside for keeping track of variable data, or numbers, that are involved with the user program. This section of memory we will call data memory. When the CPU is executing an instruction for which a certain data value must be known, that data value is brought in from data memory. When the CPU executes an instruction that provides a numerical result, that result is put out into data memory. Thus, CPU can read from or write to the data memory. Understand that this relationship is different from the

relationship between the CPU and the user program memory. When the user program is executing, the CPU can only reads from the user program memory, never write to it.

(g) Operating System of PLC: The function of the operating system is to present the user with the equivalent of an extended machine or virtual machine that is easier to program than the underlying hardware. Due to this operating system, PLC is very easy to program. It can be programmed using electrical
14

schemes with familiar relay symbols so that a plant electrician can easily access the PLC. Even though he does not know the assembly language or even if he may not have any familiarity with computers and electronics, he will be able to program the PLC. The function of PLC Operating system is: 1. Loads the user program from programming device to program memory. 2. To read status of input devices. 3. To execute user program. 4. To form and update input image table. 5. As per the status of output image table controls the output devices. 6. To provide user-friendly functions. This O.S. makes supervision over entire system, so O.S. programs are said to running in supervisory mode. When the user completely enters his program in user memory, he transfers control from PROGRAM mode to RUN mode. In RUN mode the control of the whole system is transferred to operating system. Now operating system takes care of the whole system such that the whole system becomes automatic and appears as magic to users.

15

CHAPTER 4 SYSTEM OVERVIEW OF PLC

A PLC contains following important parts

4.1 CPU
It usually contains (but sometimes it is external and separate) an Arithmatic Logic Unit. This is the part that performs operations such as adding, subtracting ,multiplying ,dividing and comparing. As shown in fig 4.1,the buffer act as switches that isolate the lines on either side if required. A , B , C are latches that passes the data from one side to the other when told to do so. The busses are connected to memory chips, which stores digital numbers in location. The number is the data while the location is the address. Data can be sent to or brought from memory locations by either writing it or reading. R and W are signal lines that make CPU read or write. A Register is a temporary memory location where data is put to be manipluted and then taken away. The reset line when activated resets the program counter to zero The operations are carried outto a set of instruction ( the program) and these are decoded in the ID(instruction decoder).

Fig 4.1 Internal structure of CPU

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4.2 INPUT MODULE

The input module connects the input terminals to the rest of the system. Each terminal is usually electrically isolated from internal electronics by OPTO isolators. This is a way of passing on the status of the input (on or off) by use of LED and PHOTOTRANSISTORS . They have the advantage of reducing the effects of superiors pulses generated from electromagnetic sources. It is also a safety feature to prevent live voltages appearing on the input lines in the event of a fault. This part of system is on separate board connected to processor via cable. It allows the processor to communicate with the outside world. It is also called Data Acquisition System (DAS). This part of system provides 4 digital inputs consisting of 2 dc and 2 ac, 4 digital outputs consisting of 2 dc and 2 ac each. It also provides 8 analog inputs with following ranges: 1. 5v to +5v (one channel). 2. 0v to 10v (one channel). 3. 4mA to 20mA (one channel). 4. 0v to 5v (five channel).

17

4.3 OUTPUT MODULE

The output module contains switches activated by the CPU in order to connect two terminals and so allow current to flow in external circuit. This will activate devices such as pneumatic solenoid valves, hydraulic solenoid valves, motors, pipeline valves, heating element, e.t.c Care must be taken not to overload the contacts. The switch may be a transistor or a relay. Fig 4.3 shows a typical output arrangement. The terminals are numbered and these numbers are used in program.

Fig 4.3 Output module of plc

4.4 STYLES
The main styles are UNITARY, MODULAR and RACK mounting. As shown in fig 4.4, Unitary PLC contains every feature of a basic system in one box. They are attached to the machine being controlled.

Fig 4.4 Unitary PLCS

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Modular style uses a range of modules that slot together to build up a system. The basic modules are the power supply, the main module containing the CPU, the input module and the output module. Other modules such as A/D converters may be added. The main advantage is that the number of input and output terminals can be expanded to cope with changes to the hardware system. Modular PLCS may be designed to be fixed direct to a back panel. Usually they are arranged on a rack or rail or mounted inside a large cabinet for protection and security as in fig4.5.

Fig 4.5 Modular and rack mounting PLCS

RACK mounting is a similar concept to the modular design but the modules are on standard cards that slot into a standard rack inside a cabinet. These are flexible and allow expansion of the system.

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4.5 VOLTAGE SENSING RELAYS

They are used with analog devices that produce a voltage representing the variable. The unit is adjusted to trip a relay when a certain point is reached. Typically 24 V is applied to the PLC input. Another exa mple is a level measuring device that produces a voltage proportional to level and when the level reaches a certain depth, the voltage sensing relay trips and activates the PLC input.

4.6 INPUT VOLTAGES

Typical input voltages are 12 V and 24 V but sometimes they can be as low as 5 V or as high as 110V or 240 V. They may accept d.c or a.c . No two PCs are the same so you must take care to check the input ratings. 4.7 OUTPUT DEVICES Output devices are switched on by the PLC.These can be anything electrical such as following: 1. 2. 3. 4. D C motor ( to start a conveyor belt). A C motor ( to start a pump). Lights ( traffic lights) Alarms( fire alarm or oil level alarm)

Typical switching voltages are 12 V , 24 V, 110 V , and 240 V. In many cases , the PLC cannot switch the device directly because of hgh voltages or current needed. In this case power switching relays or transistors are used.

4.8 COMMUNICATING A PLC must communicate with other devices. This is needed to link them to programming devices and to other equipments. Many modern instruments and other devices send and receive information digitally so they are connected to the PLC by some form of network. The PLCs may form art of a larger system controlled by a mainframe computer. The PLCs must be linked to each other and to the computer by a network [7]. Links may be made through cables using serial data and parallel data. Parallel data may be through a ribbon cable (i.e, the ribbon cable linking a disk drive to a motherboard in a computer) or a screened multi-core cable. 4.8.1TWISTED PAIR When information is sent along two wires, often a twisted pair is used. To reduce the chances of picking up stray-electromagnetic signals from other lines running alongside it, the two insulated copper wires are twisted around each other as shown in fig 4.6.

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4.8.2 COAXIAL CABLE It is a kind of cable used to connect a TV set to rhe aerial. It is also used to connect the telephone exchanges to the telephone exchanges to the poles near to user. The cable has an inner conductor surrounded by a concentric conductor made from copper mesh and separated by a layer of insulation. The outer layer is usually grounded[7]. 4.8.3 FIBRE OPTICS Fibre optic cable are basically thin glass strands. When light is shone into one end of a strand, it is carried inside the fibre over enormous distance without losing its strength. They are not subjected to electromagnetic interference and the need to retransmit signals[7].

Fig 4.6 Different communication cables used in PLC

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Chapter 5

HARDWARE CONFIGURATION OF PLC

5.1 MICROCONTROLLER: Here we are using 89c51 microcontroller, which has one full duplex serial data receiver/transmitter, which is used for serial communication having interface with ICL232 chip. It has also two 16 bits timer/counter namely T0 and T1 which are used for timer and counter applications. Timer T1 is used to set baud rate for serial communication in program mode.

5.2 MEMORY: The system consists of four types of memory: a. 4k of EEPROM which is internal to 89c51 microcontroller. This memory is used to store the operating system. It has address from 0000h to 0fffh. It can only be accessed when the external access pin of controller is connected to +5v. In our system this pin is permanently connected with +5v so external program memory is accessed only when the address is beyond 0fffh. b. 8k of RAM which is used as data memory. The CPU can read data from and write data into this memory. This memory has address from 0000h to 1fffh. c. 8k of RAM which is used as data memory as well as program memory. The CPU can write program codes in and read program codes from this memory. This memory has address from 2000h to 3fffh. d. 8k of EEPROM, which is used as, program memory. The subroutines, which are helpful in executing the main program, are stored here. This memory has location from 4000h to 5fffh. 5.3 PROGRAMMMABLE PERIPHERAL INTERFACE (PPI): Here two 8255 are used as PPI. One is used to control the ADC and DAC, while other is used for Input/output interface. The addresses for the 8255 used to control ADC and DAC are: Port A: 6000h Port B: 6001h Port C: 6002h
22

Control Word: 6003h The addresses for the 8255 used for Input/output interfaces are: Port A: 8000h Port B: 8001h Port C: 8002h Control Word: 8003h

5.4 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER (ADC): Here ADC0809 is used as an 8 bit ADC. 8255 whose addresses are 6xxxh is used to give control signals to this ADC. The port pins of 8255 are connected with the control pins of ADC as shown below: 8255 Pins PB0 PB1 PB2 PB3 PB4 PC7 ADC Pins ADD0 (A) ADD1 (B) ADD2 (C) STC (Start of Conversion) OE (Output Enable) EOC (End of Conversion)

Note: Here PB4 is connected to OE pin of ADC through NOT Gate. So we have to give negative pulse by pin PB4 to pin OE to give Output Enable. This ADC is used to convert the real world analog data into digital form.

5.5 DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER (DAC): Here the only control signal is Start of Conversion, which is connected with PC0 of 8255 having address 6xxxh. For converting the digital data to analog form first make PC0 low and then put digital data on port0 of 89c51. Now make PC0 high. This particular part of the system is idle in our application, but it is kept for future expansion.

5.6 SERIAL COMMUNICATION: Here in-built transmitter/receiver of 89c51 is used for serial communication in conjunction with chip ICL232. Here the transmitter/receiver is of asynchronous type (UART). So the data is communicated byte by byte. The UART is working in serial communication mode 1. So the timer T1 is used to set the baud rate. The baud rate is set to 2400.

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5.7 SWITCHES AND INDICATORS: Switches: a. Power ON/OFF switch. b. Reset Switch. c. Program/Run mode Switch. Indicators: a. Power ON/OFF LED(red) b. Reset LED(red) c. Program mode LED(orange) d. Run mode LED(green) e. Fault LED(red, green, orange, yellow)

5.8 DIGITAL INPUT: DC Input: We have two digital DC inputs with following specifications: 1. 0v to 5v LOW 2. 20v to 25v- HIGH 3. Optocoupler Isolation. AC Input: We have two digital AC inputs with following specifications: 1. 0v to 10v-LOW 2. 20v to 25v-HIGH 3. 47 Hz to 63 Hz frequency. 4. Optocoupler Isolation.

5.9 DIGITAL OUTPUT: DC outputs: We here have two DC outputs with following specification: 1. 0v t0 3v-0v 2. 3.5v to 5v-24v 3. 0.5amp output current. 4. Optocoupler Isolation. AC outputs: We have two relays as AC outputs with following specification:
24

1. 0v to 3v- relay OFF 2. 3.5v to 5v- relay ON 3. Optocoupler Isolation. 4. Relay with12v, 4ohm.

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Chapter 6 LADDER LOGIC AND PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS OF PLC

Ladder logic is a programming language that represents a program by a graphical diagram based on the circuit diagrams of relay-based logic hardware. It is primarily used to develop software for Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) used in industrial control applications. The name is based on the observation that programs in this language resemble ladders, with two vertical rails and a series of horizontal rungs between them as shown in fig 6.1 . The degree of complexity of a PLC program depends upon the complexity of the application, the number and type of input and output devices and types of instruction used. The left vertical line of a ladder logic diagram represents the power or energised conductor. The output coil instruction represents the neutral or return path of the circuit. The right vertical line which represents the return path of the circuit on a hard-wired control line diagram is omitted. Ladder logic diagrams are read from left to right and top to bottom. Rungs are sometimes referred to as networks. A network may have several control elements but only have one output coil.

Fig 6.1 Basic ladder logic digram

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Ladder logic has contacts that make or break circuits to control coils. Each coil or contact corresponds to the status of a single bit in the programmable controller's memory. Unlike electromechanical relays, a ladder program can refer any number of times to the status of a single bit, equivalent to a relay with an indefinitely large number of contacts[5]. So-called "contacts" may refer to physical ("hard") inputs to the programmable controller from physical devices such as pushbuttons and limit switches via an integrated or external input module, or may represent the status of internal storage bits which may be generated elsewhere in the program. Each rung of ladder language typically has one coil at the far right. Some manufacturers may allow more than one output coil on a rung.
-- ( ) -- a -- (\) -- a

regular coil, energized whenever its rung is closed "not" coil, energized whenever its rung is open A regular contact, closed whenever its corresponding coil or an input which

-- [ ] --

controls it is energized.
-- [\] --

A "not" contact, open whenever its corresponding coil or an input which controls

it is energized. While ladder logic programs are still common , there are many other ways to program PLCs. The two common examples are statement list and function block diagrams. 6.1 STATEMENT LIST: These instructions include an operation and an operand. The operation to be performed is shown to the left. The operand , the item to be operated on is shown on the right. 6.2 FUNCTION BLOCK DIAGRAM: These instructions include rectangular functions with inputs shown on the left side of the rectangle and outputs shown on the right side.

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Fig 6.2 PLC PRGRAMMING FORMATS In addition to LAD, STL and FBD , multiple types of programming languages are used in PLCs. Each type of programming has its advantages and disadvantages. Factors such as application complexity , types of programming available for a specific PLC model, and user standards and preferences determine which type of programming is used for an application.

6.3 Programming concepts and example for a Plc: 6.3.1. Programming with the use of NO, NC switches:

The NO switch is a push switch which is remain in normally open condition, and when it is pushed it made a close circuit The NC switch is a switch which leave in close condition normally, mean provides a close path in normal condition and when it is pressed it makes a open circuit.

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Probl

l i usi

NO swit

i such a way, that when

switch is pressed li ht get on, and when switch released light get off ? ol ion:

Line NO / No %Q0.0 (output)

Probl

: Using two NO and one NC pb, make a circuit for a plc

when both NO pressed light get on and when NC pressed light get off..

sol ion:

29

Problem 3: Make the logic using NC, such that when pb pressed light get off after 3sec. Solution:

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Chapter 7 HOW TO USE PLC

y

Write program in STL language in file PLC on PC using NORTON EDITOR (Do not give any extension to the PLC file).

Switch on the PLC and confirm whether the power indicator LED ON or not. If it is ON, switch the PLC in PROGRAM mode. Confirm that the RED LED indicating the PROGRAM mode is ON. Now PLC is ready for receiving the control program written on PC.

y y y

Execute the program named PLC on PC in TC directory (i.e. TURBO C). Wait till the message PROGRAM IS TRANSMITTED SUCCESSFULLY. Switch the PLC in RUN mode by changing the switch on RUN mode and then press RESET switch. Confirm the GREEN LED indicating the RUN mode is ON.

If one of the four FAULT LEDs is ON then check the reason and again load whole of the program and repeat the above mentioned procedure.

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Fig 7.1 Step 7 Lite window

Fig 7.1 shows the step 7 lite window where entire ladder logic diagram is made and after that it is executed by the PLC.

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Chapter 8 APPLICATIONS OF PLC

It is difficult to define where a PLC cannot be used. Proper application of a PLC begins with conversion of information into convenient parameters to save money, time and effort and hence easy operation in plants and laboratories The areas where PLC is used maximum are as follows: 1. The batch processes in chemical, cement, food and paper industries which are sequential in nature, requiring time of event based decisions is controlled by PLCs. 2. In large process plants PLCs are being increasingly used for automatic start up and shut down of critical equipment. A PLC ensures that equipment cannot be started unless all the permissive conditions for safe start have seen established. It also monitors the conditions necessary for safe running of the equipment and trips the equipment whenever any abnormality in the system is detected. 3. The PLC can be programmed to function as an energy management system for boiler control for maximum efficiency and safety. 4. In automation of blender reclaimers 5. In automation of bulk material handling system at ports. 6. In automation for a ship unloaded. 7. Automation for wagon loaders. 8. For blast furnace charging controls in steel plants. 9. In automation of brick molding press in refractories. 10. In automation for galvanizing unit. 11. For chemical plants process control automation. 12. In automation of a rock phosphate drying and grinding system. 13. Modernization of boiler and turbo generator set. 14. Process visualization for mining application. 15. Criteria display system for power station. 16. As stored programmed automation unit for the operation of diesel generator sets. 17. In Dairy automation and food processing.
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18. For a highly modernized pulp paper factory. 19. In automation system for the printing industry. 20. In automation of container transfer crane. 21. In automation of High-speed elevators. 22. In plastic molding process. 23. In automation of machine tools and transfer lines. 24. In Mixing operations and automation of packaging plants. 25. In compressed air plants and gas handling plants. 26. In fuel oil processing plants and water classification plants. 27. To control the conveyor/classifying system. Thus PLC is ideal for application where plant machine interlock requirements are finalized at a later stage and need changes during engineering trial runs, commissioning or normal use. It can be used extensively to replace conventional relay controls in power stations, refineries, cement, steel, fertilizer, petrochemical, chemical industries etc. Applications can thus be extended from monitoring to supervision, control and management.

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Chapter 9 INTRODUCTION OF SCADA SYSTEM 9.1 SCADA SYSTEM:

SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. As the name indicates, it is not a full control system, but rather focuses on the supervisory level. It is a computer system for gathering and analyzing real time data. SCADA systems are used to monitor and control a plant or equipment in industries such as telecommunications, water and waste control, energy, oil and gas refining and transportation. A SCADA system gathers information, such as where a leak on a pipeline has occurred, transfers the information back to a central site, alerting the home station that the leak has occurred, carrying out necessary analysis and control, such as determining if the leak is critical, and displaying the information in a logical and organized fashion. SCADA systems can be relatively simple, such as one that monitors environmental conditions of a small office building, or incredibly complex, such as a system that monitors all the activity in a nuclear power plant or the activity of a municipal water system.

What is data acquisition? Data acquisition is the process of retrieving control information from the equipment which is out of order or may lead to some problem or when decisions are need to be taken according to the situation in the equipment[2]. So this acquisition is done by continuous monitoring of the equipment to which it is employed. The data accessed are then forwarded onto a telemetry system ready for transfer to the different sites. They can be analog and digital information gathered by sensors, such as flow meter, ammeter, etc. It can also be data to control equipment such as actuators, relays, valves, motors, etc. Why or where would you use SCADA? SCADA can be used to monitor and control plant or equipment. The control may be automatic, or initiated by operator commands. The data acquisition is accomplished firstly by the RTU's (remote Terminal Units) scanning the field inputs connected to the RTU ( RTU's may also be called a PLC - programmable logic controller). This is usually at a fast rate. The central host will scan the RTU's (usually at a slower rate.) The data is processed to detect alarm conditions, and if an alarm is present, it will be displayed on special alarm lists. Data can be of three main types. Analogue data (i.e. real numbers) will be trended (i.e. placed in
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graphs). igital data (on/off) may have alarms attached to one state or the other. ulse data (e.g. counting revolutions of a meter) is normally accumulated or counted. 9.2 ARCHITECT RE SCADA has two types of architecture , hardware architecture and software architecture

9.2.1 Hardware Archi ecture

The basic hardware of the SCADA system is distinguished into two basic layers: th e client layer which caters for the man machine interaction and the data server layer which handles most of the process data control activities. The data servers communicate with devices in the field through process controllers. rocess controllers, e.g. LC s, are connected to the data servers either directly or via networks or field buses that are proprietary (e.g. Siemens 1), or non-proprietary (e.g. rofi bus). Data servers are connected to each other and to client stations via an Ethernet LAN. ig.9.1. shows typical hardware architecture.

i 9.1 hardware architecture of SCADA

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9.2.2 Software Architecture

The SCADA products are multi-tasking and are based upon a real time database (RTDB) located in one or more servers. Servers are responsible for data acquisition and handling like polling controllers, alarm checking, calculatio logging and archiving) on a ns, set of parameters, typically to which those are connected. owever, it is possible to have dedicated servers for particular tasks, e.g. historian, datalogger, alarm handler. ig. 9.2 shows a SCADA architecture that is generi for the c product.

i 9.2 software architecture of SCADA

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CONCLUSION

Automation has become a very important part of the industry. Automation has reduced human labour and has increased the efficiency manifolds. It has lead to faster processing and manufacture of products.PLC and SCADA are playing a very important part in automation. The practical training in PLC and SCADA has enabled me to learn about the basic concepts of how the machines are controlled by the use of PLC and how its effect can be observed by the stimulator. the practical effect can be seen with the help of SCADA. Automation is currently being used iony

Industrial processes which include those of manufacturing, production, power generation, fabrication, and refining, and may run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes.

Infrastructure processes that may be public or private, and include water treatment and distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electrical power transmission and distribution, Wind Farms, civil defense siren systems, and large communication systems.

Facility processes occur both in public facilities and private ones, including buildings, airports, ships, and space stations. They monitor and control HVAC, access, and energy consumption

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REFERENCES

1.

Menzies, Thomas. R. National Automated Highway System Research Program, Washington D.C.: Transportation Research Board, 1998, pg 2-50.

2.

Scott, E.L. Automation and Society. Publishing City: Athens, Georgia: The Center for the study of Automation Society, 1969, pg 79-151.

3.

Vernon L. Trevathan, A Guide to the Automation Body of Knowledge, 2nd Edition ISA Publications, 1992, pg 275-290.

4. 5.

Frank Petruzella, Programmable Logic Controllers, 3rd edition, 2010, pg 5-120. Tony R. Kuphaldt, Design Science License, 3rd edition, 2010 Chapter 6: ladder logic and Chapter 10: multivibrator, pg 140-245.

6. 7.

P.W. Murrill, Fundamentals of Process Control Theory, 3rd Edition, 2008, pg-19-67. KEMA, Inc. Substation Communications: Enabler of Automation / an Assessment of Communications Technologies, UTC - United Telecom Council 2006, pg. 321.

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