QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY AND ITS ADVANCES

QUANTUM CRYPTOLOGY AND ITS ADVANCES

Hridya Ramesh Mrs.Malini Thomas Asst.Professor Ms.Sreekala V Lecturer

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering Sahrdaya College of Engineering & Technology, Kodakara, P.B.No.17, Thrissur, 680684.

ABSTRACT In this era, the need for security has attained paramount importance. As more of our sensitive information is stored in computers the need of data security becomes increasingly important. Protecting this information against unauthorized usage is therefore a major concern for both operating systems and users alike. Cryptography is one such method of safeguarding sensitive data from being stolen or intercepted by unwanted third parties. Traditional cryptology is certainly clever, but as with all encoding methods in codebreaking history, it's being phased out. Quantum Cryptology is based on physics and not mathematics, unlike the present ones. By harnessing the unpredictable nature of matter at the quantum level, physicists have figured out a way to exchange information on secret keys. Attaching information to the photons spin is the essence of Quantum Cryptology.In brief, the processes of encoding (cryptography) and decoding (crypto analysis) information or messages (called plaintext) into an otherwise meaningless data (cipher text) combined are cryptology.and when the keys used for this process are photons, its called Quantum Cryptology.

INTRODUCTION In our contemporary world,security has attained paramount importance. The necessity for security has increased beyond everything. And that is why ways of staying secure has to developed and implemented. The concept of cryptology dates back to B.C. Its a method used to encrypt our data securely. Though present day security systems offer a good level of protection, they are incapable of providing a "trust worthy" environment and are vulnerable to unexpected attacks. Many organizations posses valuable information they guard closely. As more of this information is stored in computers the need of data security becomes increasingly important. Protecting this information against unauthorized usage is therefore a major concern for both operating systems and users alike. Cryptography is one such method of safeguarding sensitive data from being stolen or intercepted by unwanted third parties. Traditional cryptology is certainly clever, but as with all encoding methods in code-breaking history, it's being phased out. Quantum Cryptology is based on physics and not mathematics, unlike the present ones. By harnessing the unpredictable nature of matter at the quantum level, physicists have figured out a way to exchange information

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QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY AND ITS ADVANCES

on secret keys. The foundation of quantum physics is the LITERATURE REVIEW unpredictability factor. This unpredictability is pretty much defined by Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle. This principle says, essentially, that it's impossible to know both an object's position and velocity -at the same time. But when dealing with photons for encryption, Heisenberg's principle can be used to our advantage. To create a photon, quantum cryptographers use LEDs , a source of unpolarized light, capable of creating just one photon at a time, which is how a string of photons can be created, rather than a wild burst. Through the use of polarization filters, we can force the photon to take one state or another -- or polarize it. The thing about photons is that once they're polarized, they can't be accurately measured again, except by a filter like the one that initially produced their current spin. So if a photon with a vertical spin is measured through a diagonal filter, either the photon won't pass through the filter or the filter will affect the photon's behavior, causing it to take a diagonal spin. In this sense, the information on the photon's original polarization is lost, and so, too, is any information attached to the photon's spin. Attaching information to the photons spin is the essence of Quantum Cryptology. Quantum cryptography uses photons to transmit a key. Once the key is transmitted, coding and encoding using the normal secret-key method can take place. In brief, the processes of encoding (cryptography) and decoding (crypto analysis) information or messages (called plaintext) into an otherwise meaningless data (cipher text) combined are cryptology.and when the keys used for this process are photons, its called Quantum Cryptology. From a security perspective computer systems have 3 general goals with corresponding threats to them as listed below: The first one data confidentiality is concerned with secret data remaining secret. More specifically if the owner of some data has decided that the data should be available only to certain people and no others, then the system should guarantee that release of data to unauthorized people does not occur. Another aspect of this is individual privacy. The second goal, data integrity, means that unauthorized users should not be able to modify any data without the owner's permission. Data modification in this context includes not only changing the data, but also removing data and adding false data as well. Thus it is very important that a system should guarantee that data deposited in it remains unchanged until the owner decides to do so.
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SECURITY NEED FOR SECURITY

QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY AND ITS ADVANCES

The third goal, system availability, means that nobody can disturb the system to make unstable. It must be able to ensure that authorized persons have access to the data and do not suffer form denial of service. Virus: Basically a virus is a piece of code that replicates itself and usually does some damage. In a Types of Data Threats sense the writer of a virus is also an intruder, often with high technical skills. In the same breath it must be said Intruders: In security literature people who are nosing around places where they have no business being are called intruders or sometimes adversaries. Intruders can be broadly divided as passive and active. Passive intruders just want to read the files they are not authorized to. Active intruders are more malicious and intend to make unauthorized changes to data. Some of the common activities indulged by intruders are: that a virus need not always be intentional and can simply be a code with disastrous run time errors. The difference between a conventional intruder and a virus is that the former refers to person who is personally trying to break into a system to cause damage whereas the latter is a program written by such a person and then released into the world hoping it causes damage. The most common types of viruses are: executable program viruses, memory resident viruses, boot sector Casual Prying: non-technical users who wish to read other people's e-mail and private files mostly do this. Snooping: This term refers to the breaking of the security of a shared computer system or a server. Snooping is generally done as a challenge and is not aimed at stealing or tampering of confidential data. User authentication: It is a method employed by the operating system or a program of a computer to determine the identity of a user. Types of user authentication are: Authentication using passwords, authentication using It is very important that potential intruders (and their corresponding activities) are taken into consideration before devising a security system. This is essential as the level of threat and intended damage differ from one to another. physical objects (like smart cards, ATM cards etc.), authentication using biometrics (like Finger prints, retinal pattern scan, signature analysis, of voice user recognition etc.). Inherent problems Commercial Espionage: This refers to the determined attempts to make money using secret data. For example an employee in an organization can secure sensitive data and sell it away to rival companies for monetary gains. AN OVERVIEW OF SOME OF THE PRESENT DAY DATA SECURITY SYSTEMS: viruses, device driver viruses, macro viruses, source code viruses, Trojan horses etc.

authentication are password cracking, duplication of

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QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY AND ITS ADVANCES

physical objects and simulation of biometrics by artificial objects.

Anti-virus software: An antivirus software scans every executable file on a computer's disk looking for viruses known in its database. It then repairs, quarantines or deletes an infected files. However a clever virus can infect the anti-virus software itself. Some of the popular anti-virus soft wares are K7, PCcillin, MCcafee,Eset Nod32 etc. CRYPTOLOGY Cryptography is the method in which a message or file, called plain text,is taken and encrypted into Firewalls: It is a method of preventing unauthorized access to a computer system often found in network computes. A firewall is designed to provide normal service to authorized users while at the same time preventing unauthorized users from gaining access to the system. In reality they add a level of inconvenience to legal users and their ability to control illegal access may be questionable. They also stop ones computer from sending malicious software to another computer. In the public-key cryptology (PKC) method, a user chooses two interrelated keys. He lets anyone who Cryptography: Cryptography is the method in which a message or file, called plain text, is taken and encrypted into cipher text in such a way that only authorized people know how to convert it back to plane text. This is done commonly in four ways: Secret key cryptography, public key cryptography, one way function cryptography and digital signatures. wants to send him a message know how to encode it using one key. He makes this key public. The other key he keeps to himself. In this manner, anyone can send the user an encoded message, but only the recipient of the encoded message knows how to decode it. Even the person sending the message doesn't know what code the user employs to decode it. The other usual method of traditional cryptology is secret-key cryptology (SKC). In this method, only one key is used by both Bob and Alice. The same key
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QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY

cipher text in such a way that only authorized people know how to convert it back to plain text. There are limitless possibilities for keys used in cryptology. But there are only two widely used methods of employing keys: public-key cryptology and secret-key cryptology. In both of these methods (and in all cryptology), the sender (point A) is referred to as Alice. Point B is known as Bob.

is used to both encode and decode the plaintext. Even the 4

QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY AND ITS ADVANCES

algorithm used in the encoding and decoding process can be announced over an unsecured channel. The code will remain uncracked as long as the key used remains secret.

would take a trillion years to break with conventional computers could possibly be cracked in much less time with quantum computers. This means that secret-key cryptology (SKC) looks to be the preferred method of transferring ciphers in the future. But SKC has its problems as well. The chief problem with SKC is how the two users agree on what secret key to use. The problem with secret-key cryptology is that there's almost always a

Traditional cryptology is certainly clever, but as with all encoding methods in code-breaking history, it's being phased out. Traditional Cryptology Problems The keys used to encode messages are so long that it would take a trillion years to crack one using conventional computers. The problem with public-key cryptology is that it's based on the staggering size of the numbers created by the combination of the key and the algorithm used to encode the message. These numbers can reach unbelievable proportions. What's more, they can be made so that in order to understand each bit of output data, you have to also understand every other bit as well. This means that to crack a 128-bit key, the possible numbers used can reach upward to the 1038 power. That's a lot of possible numbers for the correct combination to the key. The keys used in modern cryptography are so large, in fact, that a billion computers working in conjunction with each processing a billion calculations per second would still take a trillion years to definitively crack a key [source: Dartmouth College]. This isn't a problem now, but it soon will be. Current computers will be replaced in the near future with quantum computers, which exploit the properties of physics on the immensely small quantum scale.Since they can operate on the quantum level, these computers are expected to be able to perform calculations and operate at speeds no computer in use now could possibly achieve. So the codes that
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place for an unwanted third party to listen in and gain information the users don't want that person to have. This is known in cryptology as the key distribution problem. It's one of the great challenges of cryptology: To keep unwanted parties - from learning of sensitive information. Quantum physics has provided a way around this problem. By harnessing the unpredictable nature of matter at the quantum level, physicists have figured out a way to exchange information on secret keys. Quantum physics Photons are some pretty amazing particles. They have no mass, they're the smallest measure of light, and they can exist in all of their possible states at once, called the wave function. This means that whatever direction a photon can spin in -- say, diagonally, vertically and horizontally -- it does all at once. Light in this state is called unpolarized. This is exactly the same as if you constantly moved east, west, north, south, and up-anddown at the same time. The foundation of quantum physics is the

unpredictability factor. This unpredictability is pretty much defined by Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle. This principle says, essentially, that it's impossible to know both an object's position and velocity -- at the same time. But when dealing with 5

QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY AND ITS ADVANCES

photons for encryption, Heisenberg's principle can be used to our advantage. To create a photon, quantum cryptographers use LEDs -light emitting diodes, a source of unpolarized light. LEDs are capable of creating just one photon at a time, which is how a string of photons can be created, rather than a wild burst. Through the use of polarization filters, we can force the photon to take one state or another -- or polarize it. If we use a vertical polarizing filter situated beyond a LED, we can polarize the photons that emerge: The photons that aren't absorbed will emerge on the other side with a vertical spin ( | ). The thing about photons is that once they're polarized, they can't be accurately measured again, except by a filter like the one that initially produced their current spin. So if a photon with a vertical spin is measured through a diagonal filter, either the photon won't pass through the filter or the filter will affect the photon's behavior, causing it to take a diagonal spin. In this sense, the information on the photon's original polarization is lost, and so, too, is any information attached to the photon's spin.

using the normal secret-key method can take place. But how does a photon become a key? How do you attach information to a photon's spin?

Fig. 2 Photons as keys. This is where binary code comes into play. Each type of a photon's spin represents one piece of information -- usually a 1 or a 0, for binary code. This code uses strings of 1s and 0s to create a coherent message. For example, 1110010011 could correspond to h-e-l-l-o. So a binary code can be assigned to each photon -- for example, a photon that has a vertical spin ( | ) can be assigned a 1. Alice can send her photons through randomly chosen filters and record the polarization of each photon. She will then know what photon polarizations Bob should receive. When Alice sends Bob her photons using an LED, she'll randomly polarize them through either the X or the + filters, so that each polarized photon has one of four possible states: (|), (--), (/) or (\ ) . As Bob receives these photons, he decides whether to measure each with either his + or X filter -- he can't use both filters together. Keep in mind, Bob has no idea what filter to use for each photon, he's guessing for each one. After the entire transmission, Bob and Alice have a non-encrypted discussion about the transmission. 6

Fig 1 Polarization of photons.

Using Quantum cryptology Quantum cryptography uses photons to transmit a key. Once the key is transmitted, coding and encoding
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QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY AND ITS ADVANCES

Bob and Alice can agree on binary assignments, say 1 for photons polarized as ( \ ) and ( -- ) and 0 for photons polarized like ( / ) and ( | ). This means that their string of photons now looks like this: 11110000011110001010. The reason this conversation can be public is because of the way it's carried out. Bob calls Alice and tells her which filter he used for each photon, and she tells him whether it was the correct or incorrect filter to use. Their conversation may sound a little like this: Bob: Plus Alice: Correct Bob: Plus Alice: Incorrect Bob: X Alice: Correct Since Bob isn't saying what his measurements are -only the type of filter he used -- a third party listening in on their conversation can't determine what the actual photon sequence is. Here's an example. Say Alice sent one photon as a ( / ) and Bob says he used a + filter to measure it. Alice will say "incorrect" to Bob. But if Bob says he used an X filter to measure that particular photon, Alice will say "correct." A person listening will only know that that particular photon could be either a ( / ) or a ( ), but not which one definitively. Bob will know that his measurements are correct, because a (--) photon traveling through a + filter will remain polarized as a (--) photon after it passes through the filter. After their odd conversation, Alice and Bob both throw out the results from Bob's incorrect guesses. This leaves Alice and Bob with identical strings of polarized protons. It my look a little like this: -- / | | | / -- -- | | | -- / | and so on. To Alice and Bob, this is a meaningless string of photons. But once binary code is applied, the photons become a message.
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Which can in turn be translated into English, Spanish, Navajo, prime numbers or anything else the Bob and Alice use as codes for the keys used in their encryption.

Fig 4.3 Interception Detection

The goal of quantum cryptology is to thwart attempts by a third party to eavesdrop on the encrypted message. In cryptology, an eavesdropper is referred to as Eve. In modern cryptology, Eve (E) can passively intercept Alice and Bob's encrypted message -- she can get her hands on the encrypted message and work to decode it without Bob and Alice knowing she has their message. Eve can accomplish this in different ways, such as wiretapping Bob or Alice's phone or reading their secure emails. Quantum cryptology is the first cryptology that safeguards against passive interception. Since we can't 7

QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY AND ITS ADVANCES

measure a photon without affecting its behavior, Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle emerges when Eve makes her own eavesdrop measurements.

filter. Alice will tell him this is correct, but Bob will know that the photon he received didn't measure as ( -- ) or ( | ). Due to this discrepancy, Bob and Alice will know

Here's an example. If Alice sends Bob a series of polarized photons, and Eve has set up a filter of her own to intercept the photons, Eve is in the same boat as Bob: Neither has any idea what the polarizations of the photons Alice sent are. Like Bob, Eve can only guess which filter orientation (for example an X filter or a + filter) she should use to measure the photons. After Eve has measured the photons by randomly selecting filters to determine their spin, she will pass them down the line to Bob using her own LED with a filter set to the alignment she chose to measure the original photon. She does to cover up her presence and the fact that she intercepted the photon message. But due to the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, Eve's presence will be detected. By measuring the photons, Eve inevitably altered some of them.Say Alice sent to Bob one photon polarized to a ( -- ) spin, and Eve intercepts the photon. But Eve has incorrectly chosen to use an X filter to measure the photon. If Bob randomly (and correctly) chooses to use a + filter to measure the original photon, he will find it's polarized in either a ( / ) or ( \) position. Bob will believe he chose incorrectly until he has his conversation with Alice about the filter choice. After all of the photons are received by Bob, and he and Alice have their conversation about the filters used to determine the polarizations, discrepancies will emerge if Eve has intercepted the message. In the example of the ( -- ) photon that Alice sent, Bob will tell her that he used a +
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that their photon has been measured by a third party, who inadvertently altered it. Alice and Bob can further protect their transmission by discussing some of the exact correct results after they've discarded the incorrect measurements. This is called a parity check. If the chosen examples of Bob's measurements are all correct -- meaning the pairs of Alice's transmitted photons and Bob's received photons all match up -- then their message is secure. Bob and Alice can then discard these discussed measurements and use the remaining secret measurements as their key. If discrepancies are found, they should occur in 50 percent of the parity checks. Since Eve will have altered about 25 percent of the photons through her measurements, Bob and Alice can reduce the likelihood that Eve has the remaining correct information down to a one-in-a-million chance by conducting 20 parity checks

PROBLEMS OF QUANTUM CRYPTOLOGY Despite all of the security it offers, quantum cryptology also has a few fundamental flaws. Chief among these flaws is the length under which the system will work: Its too short. The original quantum cryptography system, built in 1989 by Charles Bennett, Gilles Brassard and John Smolin, sent a key over a distance of 36 centimeters [source: Scientific American]. Since then, newer models have reached a distance of 150 kilometers (about 93 8

QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY AND ITS ADVANCES

miles). But this is still far short of the distance requirements needed to transmit information with modern computer and telecommunication systems. The reason why the length of quantum cryptology capability is so short is because of interference. A photons spin can be changed when it bounces off other particles, and so when it's received, it may no longer be polarized the way it was originally intended to be. This means that a 1 may come through as a 0 -- this is the probability factor at work in quantum physics. As the distance a photon must travel to carry its binary message is increased, so, too, is the chance that it will meet other particles and be influenced by them.

opposite polarization, meaning the polarization the other photon would take could be predicted. It transmitted its information to its entangled partner. This could solve the distance problem of quantum cryptography, since there is now a method to help predict the actions of entangled photons.

Fig 4.4 Spooky Action Of Photon SOLUTION DEVELOPED One group of Austrian researchers may have solved this problem. This team used what Albert Einstein called spooky action at a distance. This observation of quantum physics is based on the entanglement of photons. At the quantum level, photons can come to depend on one another after undergoing some particle reactions, and their states become entangled. This entanglement doesnt mean that the two photons are physically connected, but they become connected in a way that physicists still don't understand. In entangled pairs, each photon has the opposite spin of the other -- for example, ( / ) and (\ ). If the spin of one is measured, the spin of the other can be deduced. Whats strange (or spooky) about the entangled pairs is that they remain entangled, even when theyre separated at a distance. The Austrian team put a photon from an entangled pair at each end of a fiber optic cable. When one photon was measured in one polarization, its entangled counterpart took the
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Even though its existed just a few years so far, quantum cryptography may have already been cracked. A group of researchers from Massachusetts Institute of Technology took advantage of another property of entanglement. In this form, two states of a single photon become related, rather than the properties of two separate photons. By entangling the photons the team intercepted, they were able to measure one property of the photon and make an educated guess of what the measurement of another property -- like its spin -- would be. By not measuring the photons spin, they were able to identify its direction without affecting it. So the photon traveled down the line to its intended recipient none the wiser.

QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY AND ITS ADVANCES

The MIT researchers admit that their eavesdropping method may not hold up to other systems, but that with a little more research, it could be perfected. Hopefully, quantum cryptology will be able to stay one step ahead as decoding methods continue to advance.

The goal of position-based cryptography is to use the geographical position of a party as its only credential. For example, one would like to send a message to a party at a geographical position pos with the guarantee that the party can decrypt the message only if he or she is physically present at pos.

POSITION BASED QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY Here the study of position-based cryptography in the quantum setting is investigated. The aim is to use the geographical position of a party as its only credential. This has interesting applications, e.g., it enables two military bases to communicate over insecure channels and without having any pre-shared key, with the guarantee that only parties within the bases learn the content of the conversation. There are schemes for several important positionbased cryptographic tasks: position-verification, authentication, and key exchange, and we prove them unconditionally secure, i.e., without assuming any restriction on the adversaries (beyond the laws of quantum mechanics). Unlike key-distribution, which is possible under cryptographic hardness assumptions alone, position-based cryptography is impossible under any hardness assumptions. Thus, this is the first example of a cryptographic task that we are aware of which is impossible in the standard complexity-based setting but becomes possible when using quantum methods. We also present schemes for which we can merely conjecture security; proving them secure (or insecure) remains an interesting challenge. The results open up a fascinating new direction of quantum cryptography where security of protocols is solely based on the laws of physics. A central task in position-based cryptography is the problem of position-verfication. We have a prover P at position pos, wishing to convince a set of verifiers V0; : : : ; Vk (at different points in geographical space) that he (i.e. the prover) is indeed at that position pos. The prover can run an interactive protocol with the verifiers in order to do this. The main technique for such a protocol is known as distance bounding. A verifier sends a random nonce to P and measures the time taken for P to reply back with this value. Assuming that communication is bounded by the speed of light, this technique gives an upper bound on the distance of P from the verifier.

The set of verifiers cannot distinguish between the case when

they are interacting with an honest prover at pos and the case when they

are interacting with multiple colluding dishonest provers, none of whom

are at position pos. Their impossibility result holds even if we make

computational hardness assumptions, and it also rules out most other

interesting position-based cryptographic tasks. A model in which verifiers

can broadcast large bursts of information and there is a bound on the is known as the Bounded Retrieval Model (BRM)). In this model, constructs informationtheoretically secure protocols for the task of position verification as well as position-based key exchange (wherein the verifiers, in addition to verifying the position claim of a prover, also exchange a secret key with the prover). The BRM has its drawbacks. Firstly, it requires

amount of information that the set of adversaries can retrieve. (this model

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the verifiers to be able to broadcast large bursts of information and this might be difficult to do; secondly, and perhaps more importantly, the bound on the amount of information that an adversary retrieves might be hard to impose.

This scheme prove security for the above tasks without any restriction on the power of the adversaries; they may have unbounded classical and quantum memory, and they may have unbounded computing power; the only assumption is that the laws of quantum mechanics hold. Therefore, our results show that positionbased quantum cryptography is one of the rare examples besides QKD for which there is a strong separation between classical cryptography and quantum cryptography, in that the latter offers unconditional security whereas the former does not offer any security if the adversary is unrestricted. It should be stressed that our work exhibits far greater power of quantum world then what QKD vs. classical key agreement demonstrates. In particular, QKD provides informationtheoretic security, while standard key agreements provide only computational security. However, one can argue that computational security, in some cases, given sufficiently strong cryptographic hardness assumptions is good enough and there is no need for more costly quantum implementation. In contrast, position-based key agreement (as well as other position-based cryptographic tasks) are provably impossible to achieve in the classical cryptographic setting, even if we assume that P is different from NP and there are cryptographically hard problems that are provably impossible to break. This demonstrates an existence of a task that is impossible in the classical setting and is readily realizable using quantum communication. An additional attractive feature of all our solutions is that our schemes merely require one of the verifiers, V0, to prepare individual qubits and send them to P, and P needs to measure them immediately upon arrival. No quantum computation is needed, and all other communication may be classical.

This work, initiates the study of position-based cryptography in the quantum setting. By going to the quantum setting, one may be able to circumvent the impossibility result thanks to the following observation. If some information is encoded into a quantum state, then the above attack fails due to the no-cloning principle: the adversary can either store the quantum state or send it to a colluding adversary (or do something in-between, like store part of it), but not both. Thus, going to the quantum setting may indeed be a promising approach. We put forward quantum cryptographic schemes for several position-based tasks: position-verification, authentication, and key exchange, and we prove these scheme unconditionally secure against an arbitrary coalition of adversaries. As already mentioned, a position-verification scheme can be used to convince the verifiers V0; : : : ; Vk of the geographic position pos of P. A position-based authentication scheme on the other hand convinces the verifiers that a message m originates from P at position pos. Finally, a position-based key exchange scheme ensures that the verifiers share a secret key with P at position pos, and anyone that is not at position pos does not have any information regarding the key. If this is possible, and the key is sufficiently long, then perfectly secure communication with a device only located in a certain position is possible.
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Classical cryptographic protocols in a quantum world CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORKS Our main contribution is showing the existence of classical two-party protocols for the secure evaluation (SFE) of any polynomial-time function that are secure against quantum attacks under reasonable computational assumptions (for example, it suffices that the learning with errors problem be hard for quantum polynomial time). We show that a large class of classical security analyses remain valid in the presence of quantum attackers as long as the underlying computational primitives (encryption schemes, pseudorandom generators, etc) resist quantum attack. In what follows, we distinguish two basic settings: in the standalone setting, protocols are designed to be run in isolation, without other protocols running simultaneously; in network settings, the protocols must remain secure even when the honest participants are running many other protocols (or copies of the same protocol) concurrently. Protocols that are secure in arbitrary network settings are called universally composable. Modeling stand-alone security with quantum adversaries: We describe a security model for two party protocols in the presence of a quantum attackers. Proving security in this model amounts to showing that a protocol for computing a function f behaves indistinguishably from an ideal protocol in which of is computed by a trusted third party. Our model captures both classical and quantum protocols, though we only apply it to classical ones. The new model is significantly more general than existing stand-alone models of security. This allows us to design protocols assuming that all participants share a uniformly random common reference string (CRS). By the modular composition theorem, we can then use the DL coin-flipping protocol to generate the CRS.
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In this computer-centric era, the relevance of security systems have increased to great heights. Though present day security systems offer a good level of protection, they are incapable of providing a trustworthy environment and are vulnerable to unexpected attacks or third party interception. The need to secure our data is the prime aim of most firms.One of the most advanced techniques used for solving this issue is cryptology. Cryptology means the encoding of our sensitive information into forms unrecognizable by others. But traditional cryptology methods have a lot of flaws. And that is where the necessity of Quantum Cryptology lies. It is very important that potential intruders (and their corresponding activities) are taken into consideration before devising a security system. This is exactly what Quantum Cryptology helps in. Photons being the keys of transmission can be highly unpredictable by a third party. By observing the spin of these photons interception by unauthorized parties can be detected. This makes Quantum Cryptology one of the most efficient means of hiding data. Another feature of Quantum Cryptology is that it is purely physics, while all the other present cryptography techniques are based on mathematics. Current computers will be replaced in the near future with quantum computers, which exploit the properties of physics on the immensely small quantum scale. Since they can operate on the quantum level, these computers are expected to be able to perform calculations and operate at speeds no computer in use now could possibly achieve. So the codes that would take a trillion years to break with conventional computers could possibly be cracked in much less time with quantum computers.

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Hopefully these computers will be able to increase the speed of decoding into just minutes and thus make cryptography worthwhile and encourage the se widespread use of cryptology in everyday life. Position Based Quantum Cryptology is technique being developed to enhance the present quantum cryptography scenario. It is based on sending confidential encoded data to a specific person seated in a specific position of geographical earth. This ensures that our secure data does not fall into wrong hands. It avoids possible interceptions and unauthorized access. Presently, cryptography is used only by the higher level authorities such as in government affairs and military. Soon, it could reach down to the common man, helping him secure his data from intruders and

[5] H. Buhrman, S. Fehr, and C. Schaffner, unpublished results, 2010. [6] http://www.garykessler.net/library/crypto.html#purpo [7] A. S. Holevo, Information-theoretical aspects of quantum measurement, Problemy Peredaci Informacii, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 3142 [8] N. Chandran, S. Fehr, R. Gelles, V. Goyal, and R. Ostrovsky, Position-based quantum cryptography, 2010, (full version), ArXiv eprints/ 1005.1750. [9] N. Chandran, B. Kanukurthi, R. Ostrovsky, and L. Reyzin, Privacy amplification with asymptotically optimal entropy loss, in STOC10. New York: ACM Press, 2010, pp. 785 794. [10] V. Giovannetti, S. Lloyd, and L. Maccone, Quantum cryptographic ranging, Journal of Optics B, vol. 4, no. 4, p. 042319, Aug 2002. [11] R. A. Malaney, Location-dependent communications using quantum entanglement, Phys. Rev. A, vol. 81, no. 4, p. 042319, Apr 2010. [12] http://enggseminars.blogspot.com/2009/02/quantumc ryptography.html [13] http://e-articles.info/e/a/title/QuantumCryptography/ .

eavesdroppers.

REFERENCES [1] Proceedings of the International Conference CRYPTO-2011 and CRYPTO-2010 http://www.iacr.org/conferences/crypto2011/accepte d-papers-list.htm

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Sahrdaya College Of Engineering and Technology

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