CREATING EFFECTIVE WORKGROUPS

prepared by: Mary Margareth G. Balabag Jesryl M. Lagrimas Jovi T. Layasan

July 2011

Communication Communication is the transfer from one person to another by some method. It is the way of reaching others by transmitting ideas, facts, the feelings and values. Its goal is to have the receiver understand the meaning as it was intended. Interpersonal Communication Interpersonal communication is the process that we use to communicate our ideas, thoughts, and feelings to another person. Our interpersonal communication skills are learned behaviors that can be improved through knowledge, practice, feedback, and reflection. It also includes message sending and message reception between two or more individuals. This can include all aspects of communication such as listening, persuading, asserting, nonverbal communication, and more. A primary concept of interpersonal communication looks at communicative acts when there are few individuals involved unlike areas of communication such as group interaction, where there may be a large number of individuals involved in a communicative act. The Two Way Communication Process The two ways communication process is the method by which a sender reaches a receiver with a message. 8 steps of communication process: y Develop an idea- the sender wishes to transmit. This is the key step, because unless there is a worthwhile message, all other steps are somewhat useless. y Encode- convert the idea into suitable words, charts, or other symbols for transmission.

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Transmit- when the message is finally develop, step 3 is to transmit by the method chosen such as memo, phone call, or personal visit. Receive- transmission allows another person to receive a message. Decode- this is to decode the message so that it can be understood. Accept- once the receiver has obtained and decode a message, that person has the opportunity to accept or reject it. Use- in the communication process is for the receiver to use the information. Providing feedback- when the receiver acknowledges the message and responds to the sender.

Communication Channels Communication channels, the conceptualization of media that carry messages from sender to receiver, take two distinct forms: direct and indirect. Direct Channels Direct channels are obvious and easily recognized by the receiver. Both verbal and non-verbal information is completely controlled by the sender.
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Visual Communication Visual communication is the conveyance of ideas and information through creation of visual representations. Primarily associated with two dimensional images, it includes: signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, colors, and electronic resources, video and TV. Oral Communication Oral communication includes discussion, speeches, presentations, interpersonal communication and many other varieties. In face to face communication the body language and voice tonality plays a significant role and may have a greater impact on the listener than the intended content of the spoken words.
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Verbal channels rely on words, as in written or spoken communication. Non-verbal channels encompass facial expressions, controlled body movements (police present hand gestures to control traffic), color (red signals 'stop', green signals 'go'), and sound (warning sirens).

Indirect Channels Indirect channels are usually recognized subconsciously by the receiver, and are not always under direct control of the sender. Body language, comprising most of the indirect channel, may inadvertently reveal one's true emotions, and thereby either unintentionally taint or bolster the believability of any intended verbal message. Subconscious reception and interpretation of these signals is often described with arbitrary terms like gut-feeling, hunch, or premonition.

Para-language- nonverbalelements of speech. These include voice lesson quality, emotion and speaking style as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Context- refers to the conditions that precede or surround the communication. It consists of present or past events from which the meaning of the message is derived, though it may also, in the case of written communications, depend upon the statements preceding and following the quotation in question. Immediate surroundings may also color the perceived meaning of words; normally safe discourse may easily become contextually ambiguous or offensive in a restroom or shower hall. These influences do not constitute the message by themselves, but rather these extraneous nuances subtly change the message's effective meaning.

Ultimately, context includes the entire world, but usually refers to salient factors such as the following: y Physical milieu: the season or weather, current physical location and environment y Situational milieu: classroom, military conflict, supermarket checkout y Cultural and linguistic backgrounds y Developmental progress (maturity) or emotional state y Complementary or contrasting roles: boss and employee; teacher and student; parent, child, and spouse; friend or enemy; partner or competitor

It involves oral, written, and nonverbal signals between two or more individuals. Methods and technology- the method or the tool chosen to transfer the message from the sender to the receiver plays a key role in the communication episode. With the advancement of technology, we are capable of assembling and electronically storing, transmitting, processing, and retrieving words, numbers, and sounds around the globe. Cultural barriers- communication, as an exchange of meaning, is bounded by culture.

OVERCOMING BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION BARIERS OF COMMUNICATION

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Conflict assumptions- when an individual sends a communication to another, he or she is assuming that the receiver will use the same codes of past experience in interpreting the message that were used in sending it. Inadequate information- frequently a manager does not provide enough information for those receiving assignments to do h jobs adequately. Semantics- word usage is a major source of communication failure. Most words in the dictionary have multiple meanings. Emotional blocks- the significance of this communication is that any time the codes of past experience are used, the feelings and emotions present influence both sender and receiver at the time the message is exchanged. Nonverbal communication barrier-plays a critical role in the communication episode that many times serves as a confusing or reinforcement elements.Communication can be examined by focusing on how and what individuals communicates as well as by focusing on the communication relationships among individuals.

1. Awareness and understanding- this means learning not only at the content level but at the dynamic level of what goes on between you and other people when you communicate. 2. Social technology-knowledge of the techniques and method available to help administrators in overcoming communications problems is a major objective of this text. 3. Creating a supportive organizational climate- the organizational atmosphere is all-important. If it is threating and suppresses expression of individual s feeling, there will be serious breakdowns in communications at all levels of the hierarchy. 4. Goal setting-goals setting as an organization wide practice can help overcome communications barriers. When a boss and subordinates sit down periodically to define the subordinate s goals, which are part of the organization s goals, many of their perceptual distortions will be greatly reduced. 5. Self-awareness-it is assumed that the more managers are aware of their own needs, goals, feelings, and defenses, the better they will be able to cope with own growth and behavior.

6. Giving and receiving feedback-the impact one person has on another can be a major barrier t communicate. Managers need to have some idea of the impact they are having if they are to influence others effectively. 7. Working with the motivation of others- helping individuals use their own internal dynamos-the motivators- can increase both productivity and satisfaction. DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION

UPWARD COMMUNICATION Upward Communicationis the process of information flowing from the lower levels of a hierarchy to the upper levels. This type of communication is becoming more and more popular in organizations as traditional forms of communication are becoming less popular. The more traditional organization types such as a hierarchy, places people into separate ranks. Several problems that plague upward communication:

Downward communication is an organizational in an organization is the flow of information from higher to lower level of authority. Almost one-half of managerial communications are with subordinates, with the remainder divided among superiors, peers, and external recipients. Four solid foundation cornerstone that acts as prerequisite for effective approach:
 Develop a positive communication attitude- They must convince themselves that communication is an important part of their jobs.  Managers must continue to work to get informed- they need to seek out relevant information of interest to employees, share it, and help employees feel informed.  Plan for communication- they must do this at the beginning of a course of action.  Develop trust- trust in both sender and receiver is important in all communication.

1. Delay- is the unnecessarily slow movement of information up to higher levels. Managers hesitate to take problems upward because doing so implies an admission of failure. 2. Filtering- screen out information occurs because of the tendency for employees to tell a superior only what the employee thinks the superior wants to hear. 3. Short-circuiting- in an effort to avoid filtering, people shortcircuit around the superior which means that they skip one more step in communication hierarchy. 4. Needs for response- since employees initiates upward communication, they are now the senders, and they have strong expectations that feedback will occur.

LATERAL COMMUNICATION Lateral communication is a cross communication which is communication across chains of commands. It is necessary for job coordination with people in other departments. It is also develop because people prefer the informality of lateral communication. Theories 1. Social Exchange Theory Social exchange theory falls under the symbolic interaction perspective. The theory predicts, explains and describes when and why people reveal certain information about themselves to others. Social exchange theory argues the major force in interpersonal relationships is the satisfaction of both people s self-interest. Theorists say self-interest is not necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually enhance relationships. According to the theory human interaction is like an economic transaction, in that you may seek to maximize rewards and minimize costs. You will reveal information about yourself when the cost-rewards ratio is acceptable to you. As long as rewards continue to outweigh costs a couple will become increasingly intimate by sharing more and more personal information. The constructs of this theory include discloser, relational expectations, and perceived rewards or costs in the relationship. The underlying assumptions include that humans weigh out rewards versus costs when developing a relationship. The boundary conditions for this theory are that at least two people must be having some type of interaction. Social exchange also ties in closely with social penetration theory.

2. Social Penetration Theory Oftentimes, when a relationship begins to develop, it is customary for the individuals within the relationship to undergo a process of self-disclosure. Self-disclosure is sharing information with others that they would not normally know or discover. Self-disclosure involves risk and vulnerability on the part of the person sharing the information . The reason that self-disclosure is labeled as risky is because oftentimes, individuals undergo a sense of uncertainty and susceptibility in revealing personal information that has the possibility of being judged in a negative way by the receiver. Hence the reason that face-to-face communication must evolve in stages when an initial relationship develops. There are four different stages: Orientation stage: Within the orientation stage, individuals exchange very little amounts of information and they are very cautious in their interactions. Exploratory affective stage: Next, in the exploratory affective stage, individuals become somewhat friendlier and relaxed with their communication styles. Affective exchange: In the third stage, the affective exchange, there is a high amount of open communication between individuals and typically these relationships consist of close friends or even romantic partners. Stable stage: The final stage, the stable stage, simply consists of continued expressions of open and personal types of interaction. 3. Attribution Theory Attribution is a concept in social psychology referring to how individuals explain causes of behavior and events. Attribution theory is an

umbrella term for various theories that attempt to explain these processes. Fritz Heider first proposed a theory of attribution The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations (1958). It was further developed by others such as Harold Kelley and Bernard Weiner. Steps to the attribution process: 1 The first step of the attribution process is to observe the behavior or action. 2 The second step is to make judgments of interactions and the intention of that particular action. 3 The last step of the attribution process is making the attribution which will be either internal, where the cause is related the person, or external, where the cause of the action is circumstantial. TYPES Explanatory Attribution People make explanatory attributions to understand the world and seek reasons for a particular event. Explanatory attribution plays an important role in understanding what is happening around us. Predictive Attribution Attributions not only serve as an explanation of an event but it can also predict future events. People want to know and understand why the event happened, but they also want to prevent it from happening again. Once people know why the event happened, their future is more predictable. Interpersonal Attribution Sometimes, when your action or motives for the action are questioned, you need to explain the reasons for your action. Interpersonal attributions happen when the causes of the events involve two or more individuals. More specifically, you will always want to present yourself in the most positive light in interpersonal attributions.

Three dimensional model of attribution:

Bernard Weiner proposed that individuals have initial affective responses to the potential consequences of the intrinsic or extrinsic motives of the actor, which in turn influence future behavior. That is, a person's own perceptions or attributions determine the amount of effort the person will engage in activities in the future. Weiner suggests that individuals exert their attribution search and cognitively evaluate casual properties on the behaviors they experience. When attributions lead to positive affect and high expectancy of future success, such attributions should result in greater willingness to approach to similar achievement tasks in the future than those attributions that produce negative affect and low expectancy of future success. Eventually, su affective and ch cognitive assessment influences future behavior when individuals encounter similar situations.

Weiner's achievement attribution has three categories: y stable theory (stable and unstable) y locus of control (internal and external) y control (controllable or uncontrollable) Stability influence individuals' expectancy about their future; control is related with individuals' persistence on mission; causality influences emotional responses to the outcome of task. Fundamental attribution error As we make attributions, we may fall victim to the fundamental attribution error which is when we overemphasize internal attributions for others and underestimate external attributions.

Actor-observer bias Similar to the fundamental attribution error, we may overestimate external attributions for our own behavior and underestimate internal attributions.

Other views: consists of a set of techniques like roleplaying, brainstorming, focus groups, leadership groups, group therapy, sensitivity training, team building. New group technique: Creative Abrasion clashing of ideas to develop better creativity from the group

Group a number of individuals assembled together or having some unifying relationship borrowed originally from prehistoric Germanic kruppaz or a round mass, lump

3rd view - Viewed from the perspective of the internal nature of groups, how they form, structure, process and how they function and affect individual members, other groups and the organization

Comprehensive Definition: THE DYNAMICS OF GROUP FORMATION If a group exists in an organization, its members: 1. Are motivated to join 2. Perceive the group as a unified unit of interacting people 3. Contribute in various amounts to the group processes 4. Reach agreements and have disagreements through various forms of interaction Group dynamics the interacting forces within a small human group Kurt Lewin father of group dynamics, popularized the term in the 1930 s 1st view Normative view: how a group should be organized and conducted 3. Balance by Theodore Newcomb; groups are formed with similar attitudes toward commonly relevant objects and goals both Propinquity and Interaction play a role in this theory 4. Exchange based on reward-cost outcomes of interaction; a minimum positive level of an outcome must exist in order for 2nd view Social Psychology Theories of Group Formation: 1. Propinquity individuals affiliate with one another because of spatial or geographical proximity 2. Interaction by George Homan; groups are formed when they have activities, interaction, and sentiments. Major Element: INTERACTION

attraction or affiliation to take placepropinquity interaction and balance have roles in this theory Stages of Group Development 1st Stage : Forming 2nd Stage: Storming 3rd Stage: Norming 4th Stage: Performing 5th Stage: Adjourning Practicalities of Group Formation Economic Security Social

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Independent of the formal organization s structure Lacking a formal internal structure Mutual perception of membership Issue-oriented to advance the purpose of the members External forms Concerted member action, as a group

Other Types of Groups 1. Membership those to which the individual actually belongs 2. Reference those to which an individual would like to belong 3. In-Groups those who have or share the dominant values 4. Out-Groups those on the outside looking in 5. Formal Groups formally designated work groups (Ex. Committees, Cross-functional Teams) 6. Informal Groups form for political, friendship or common interest reasons

TYPES OF GROUPS 1. Primary Groups has a small size; has face to face interaction and communication; has feelings of comradeship, loyalty common sense of values among its members Ex. Family Group, Peer Group, Work Groups Self-managed Teams uses the power of primary groups; team members work together to perform a function such as planning, organizing and controlling the work, or produce a product or service Ex. Fed-Ex, 3M 2. Coalition Characteristics: 1. Interacting Group of Individuals 2. Deliberately constructed by the members for a specific purpose

IMPLICATIONS FROM RESEARCH ON GROUP DYNAMICS Schachter Study by Stanley Schachter; tested the effect of group cohesiveness and induction on productivity under highly controlled conditions

Experimental Groups : High cohesive, + induction High cohesive, - induction Low cohesive, + induction Low cohesive, - induction

SELF-MANAGED TEAMS A group of employees who are responsible for managing and performing technical task that result in a product or service being delivered to an internal or external customer

Problems: Group/Team Effectiveness Ways to use Groups to enhance satisfaction and performance: 1. Organizing work around intact groups 2. Having groups chafed with selection, training and rewarding of members 3. Using groups to enforce strong norms for behavior, with group involvement in off-the-job behavior 4. Distributing resources on a group rather than an individual basis 5. Allowing and perhaps even promoting intergroup rivalry so as to build within-groups solidarity 1. Team members aren t willing to give up past practices or set aside power and position. 2. Not all team members have the ability, knowledge or skill to contribute to the group. Team functioning slows because some member shoulder more responsibility than others 3. As team members, workers often face conflicts or challenges to their own personal beliefs. What works for the group often does not work for the individual

How to Make Teams More Effective: Support Commitment Rewards Communication Physical Space Group Size Member Cohesion

Factors that Affect the Success Level of Any Group/Team: 1. Type of Tasks conceptual or behavioral 2. Composition of the Group one type or mix member type Members: Shared dreams, No egos, see themselves as underdogs who are winning and pay personal price to succeed. Leaders: provide direction, meaning, trust, hope and display a bias towerd action, risk taking, and urgency (by Warren Bennis) + Equality/Fairness among members + Quick Adaptation = Group/Team Effectiveness

Group Effectiveness Enhancement: 1. 2. 3. 4. Team building Collaboration Group Leadership Resolving cultural/global Issues

TWO KINDS OF INTERGROUP CONFLICT Functional Conflict - when groups disagree on how to achieve goal, they end up selecting the best alternatives. This enhances organizational performance. It provides positive result. Dysfunctional when groups disagree on the alternatives presented, they end up w/o accomplishing anything. This hinders organizational performance. It provides negative result.

INTERGROUP CONFLICT Conflict - is the disagreement between two or more individuals or groups over an issue of mutual interest. It involves incompatible differences between parties that result to interference or opposition. CONFLICT VS. COMPETITION Conflict is directed against another party, whereas competition is directed toward obtaining a desired goal without interference from another party. For example, competition may exist between two sales people who compete for an annual performance award, but conflict may not exist so long as the two do not interfere or oppose each other. Intense competition can sometimes lead to conflict but conflict can result without the existence of competition.

Intergroup relations between two or more groups and their respective members are often necessary to complete the work required to operate a business. Groups interrelate to accomplish the organizational s goals and objectives and conflict can occur.

STAGES OF INTERGROUP CONFLICT

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Awareness of conflict there is an awareness of conflict at least one group. Emotional involvement all groups are already aware of the conflict. It is likely that the conflict would be resolved at this stage. Presence of conflict behavior the conflict has been resolved.

CAUSES OF INTERGROUP CONFLICT One of the most prominent reasons for intergroup conflict is simply the nature of the group. Also, individual members of a group often play a role

in the initiation of group conflict. Any given group embodies various qualities, values, or unique traits that are created, followed, and even defended.
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Problems will occur when the group loses focus of the organization's goals and becomes closed off from other groups. This will lead to miscommunication. SOLUTIONS TO INTERGROUP CONFLICT There are numerous choices available to circumvent conflict, to keep it from becoming damaging, and to resolve conflict that is more serious.Any resolution method should depend on why the conflict occurred, the seriousness of the conflict, and the type.A face-to-face meeting can be very effective in conflicts of misunderstanding or language barriers. The groups can discuss issues and relevant information, with or without a facilitator, to reach resolution. Where groups have differing goals, it may be prudent to establish some type of goal that can only be reached when the conflicting groups work together.A superordinate goal not only helps alleviate conflict, it focuses more on performance, which is what the organization needs to survive. Another stopgap solution to conflict is simply avoiding it. Although this does not resolve the problem, it can help get a group through a period of time, in which those involved may become more objective, or a greater, more immediate goal would have been met. Another solution is smoothing the groups by focusing on common interests and de-emphasizing the differences between them. This approach is especially effective on relatively simple conflicts and is viewed as a short-term remedy. Another quick fix is the authoritative command, where groups, who cannot satisfactorily resolve their conflict, are commanded by management.

Interdependence - Groups are mutually dependent of each other.

Ex. One group is dependent on another group in going to the next level of accomplishing its task or the output of one group is the input of another group.
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Goals Differences - different groups in the organization have different goals & expectations.

Ex. The marketing/sales group may have different expectation in achieving high profit as against the production group.
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Varying Perception - One group may look itself as the one that increases the bottom line to the others. There can be intergroup competition and this can provoke conflicts.

CONSEQUENCES OF INTERGROUP CONFLICT Within the groups, members will usually overlook individual differences in an effort to unite against the other side, and with this concerted effort the focus is on the task. The group can become more efficient and effective at what they do, and members can become more loyal, closely following group norms.

Although it is not always possible to change a person's beha vior, by focusing on the cause of the conflict and the attitudes of those involved, it will lead to a more permanent resolution. It is also possible to change the structural variables involving the conflicting groups, such as changing jobs or rearranging reporting responsibilities. This approach is much more effective when the groups themselves participate in structural change decisions.

NEGOTIATION it is a process by which two or more parties attempt to reach an acceptable agreement in a conflicting situation. The best way to resolve conflict is through negotiation.

FOUR FACTORS TO NEGOTIATE EFFECTIVELY (Mastenbroek): FIVE APPROACHES IN RESOLVING CONFLICT 1. Dominating (win-lose) - one group is dominating the other. Power is used in all its might just to win. 2. Accommodating (lose-win)- one group may give to the other group by minimizing its concerns. The group which gives in is on the losing side because the very important issues have not been resolved. 3. Collaborating (win-win)- both groups are willing to cooperate in order to come up with a favorable resolution to the problem. 4. Avoiding (lose-lose)- both groups avoid possible confrontations and anticipate that nothing will be accomplished to solve a problem, both are all on the losing side since all issues remain unresolved. 5. Compromise (neutral)- nothing is accomplished here. There is no distinct winner or loser. 6. Obtain substantial results. The activities should focus on the content of the negotiation Influence the balance power. Presentation of facts and expertise should dominate the negotiation process. Promote a conducive climate. Tension should be reduced. Obtain procedural flexibility. The negotiators should be allowed to have more options on how to conduct the negotiation process more effectively. NEGOTIATION PROCESS Preparation and planning 1. Understands the nature & background of the conflict. 2. Identifies the self-goals as well as other parties goals. 3. The negotiator prepares the strategy to be adopted by collecting possible information. 4. Understanding priority objectives of the other party.

Defining Rules Both parties arrive at the negotiation table & establish the basic rules & procedures that will guide the negotiation process. Clarification and Classification 1. Both parties exchange their demands & justify them 2. Present documents in support of their position Bargaining and problem solving 1. 2. 3. 4. The parties start bargaining with each other. Each party gives concession to another party. The critical issues may be settled later on. Negotiating parties should take a break to avoid heated arguments.

are to remain impartial, and to facilitate understanding among the group members. It s more effective when the team identifies its own problems. As a follow up, the team could brainstorm how to resolve each problem and develop an agreement to move ahead. CONCEPTUAL SKILLS An individual must understand conflict s causes, styles, strategies, tactics, and world-views. An individual must understand theories of how and why conflicts arise, where and when conflicts habitually occur, and the range of strategies and tactics that may be utilized to manage conflict. SKILL COMPETENCE An individual must become competent in a variety of basic communication skills. Two communication skills are required if parties hope to manage conflict productively, listening and asking questions.

Closure and implementation 1. The bargaining process is complete & the final agreement is written & signed. 2. Monitoring & implementation of agreement.

MANAGERIAL PROBLEM SOLVING Managers may use skills like making judgments, analytical skills, collecting, planning, etc. One of the main responsibilities of any manager or group leader is to resolve conflict. The two key goals for a group leader

TOP 10 GOOD TRAITS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A MANAGER

   

Self-motivation Great customer service skills Integrity and trustworthiness Being a team player

     

Conflict-Resolution abilities Knowledge of the industry Dependability Ability to remain calm Optimistic attitude Leadership skills

MANAGING DIVERSITY Developing the Multicultural Organization

 Reflects the contributions and interests of diverse cultural and social groups in the mission, operations and product or service  Acts on a commitment to eradicate social oppression in all forms within the organization  Includes the members of diverse cultural and social groups as full participants, especially in decisions that shape the organization  Follows through on broader external social responsibilities, including support of other institutional efforts to eliminate all forms of social oppression

SCIENTIFIC WAY OF SOLVING PROBLEMS Define the problem Look at potential causes for the problem Identify alternatives for approaches to resolve the problem Select and approach to resolve the problem Plan the implementation of the best alternative Monitor implementation of the plan Verify if the problem has been resolve

Stages: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Exclusionary organization Club organization Compliance organization Affirmative action organization Redefining organization Multicultural organization

Individual Approaches to Managing Diversity:

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Learning Empathy

Organizational Approaches to Managing Diversity

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Testing Training Mentoring Work/Family Programs

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REFERENCES: Belak, T. (n.d.). Intergroup Conflict in the Workplace.Mediate.com - US and World Leading Mediation Web Site Find Mediators. Retrieved June 29, 2011, from http://www.mediate.com/articles/belak1.cfm Conflict Management.(n.d.). CIOS - Home. Retrieved June 29, 2011, from http://www.cios.org/encyclopedia How to Make Your Mark Two Kinds of Conflict.(n.d.).How to Make Your Mark. Retrieved June 29, 2011from http://www.hermanjnajoli.com/2008/03/23/two-kinds-of-conflict/ Improving workforce productivity: The importance of creating effective teams - News - Jamaica Gleaner - Sunday | January 16, 2011. (n.d.).Jamaica Gleaner News Online. Retrieved June 30, 2011 from http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20110116/news/news6.html Interpersonal communication - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.(n.d.).Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved June 29, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_communication Luthans, F. (2005).Organizational behavior . Boston: McGraw-Hill.