Electrical Earthling: Construction, Faults & Protection

Electrical Earthling
Construction, Faults & Protection

Given the importance of electric power as one of the basic elements of
economic and social development has provided a lot of countries support the
electricity sector, by producing power electricity projects resulting in a
significant expansion in using devices & equipments run on electricity.

2011
[t T{xw mx| [t T{xw mx| [t T{xw mx| [t T{xw mx|
Modern Academy for Engineering & Technology
1/1/2011
ELECTRICAL EARTHLING

Hossam Ahmed Zein
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Introduction
Given the importance of electric power as one of the basic elements of economic and social development
has provided a lot of countries support the electricity sector, by producing power electricity projects
resulting in a significant expansion in using devices & equipments run on electricity.
In other way exist the electrical dangerous like fires, electric shocks and other so we must use (Earth
Leakage Circuit Breakers) for electrical leakage protection. (Will be mentioned in details)
Likely to feel the normal person that often do not impact the ground on the electrical systems or devices
through its normal operating, Which give the false impression that it is possible to separate the ground
without notice any effects as a result it appears (seemingly only) that the b ground good contact with the
ground poor is not a do not know the importance of the effectiveness of the ground unless it conducted
periodic surveys from time to time.
The grounding is required to provide for the safety of the electrical system and the staff a
t the facility and this is known in general among some of people, but is not clear the most of them how to
achieve that.
Benefits:
Firstly: personal protection of electric shocks caused by Isolation failure.
Secondly: protection from Electrical Discharging.
Thirdly: Protect devices from sudden changes in Voltage source.
Fourthly: Reduce the likelihood of damage as a result of lightning or fault currents, Lightning Strikes,
Static Discharges, EMI and RFI signals and Interference.
Fifthly: Functional earthling in electrical power system.
The agencies and organizations all have recommendations and / or standards for grounding, to
ensure that personnel safety is being protected. The organizations that provide guide lines/rules for
grounding are: The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), European Committee for
Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC), Underwriters Laboratories (UL), National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA), American National Standards Institute (ANSI), Mine Safety Health Administration
(MSHA), Occupational Safety Health Administration (OSHA), Telecommunications Industry Standard (TIA)
and others.
Instrument And Devices Must be Earthed:
To make Good ground Network, it is necessary to ground the following elements: - All metal objects
vertically and more than 240 cm in length or extended horizontally and more than 150 cm in length and
are exposed to contact. - All electrical appliances. - All Albriz exits --' '=- and lighting units.


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General Concepts
Step Voltage :
The difference in surface Potential experienced by a person bridging a distance of 1 meter with his feet
without contacting any grounded object.
Touch Voltage ;
Potential difference between rise and surface potential at the point where the person standing while in
the same time having his hand contact with grounded structure.
Mesh Voltage :
The max. touch voltage within a mesh of groun grid.
Transferred Voltage :
A special case of touch voltage where a voltage is transferred into or out a substation from or to a remote
point external to the substation site.


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Standards
Ideal Ground Resistance should be Zero ohm But practically, it must be lower than 25 ohm for power
systems & 5 ohm For Telecommunication System achieved by increasing no. of ground electrodes.
It is at least 2,4 m in length and in contact with the soil. There are 3 variables that affect the
resistance of a ground electrode:
a) The ground material Itself.
b) The length/depth of the ground electrode.
Very effective way of lowering resistance is to drive ground electrodes deeper. Because the
earth is in layers resistivity changes and varies considerably on the layer and the depth within
that layer.
c) Diameter of the ground electrode.
Increasing the diameter of the ground electrode has very little effect in lowering the
resistance. For example you could double the diameter of a ground electrode and your
resistance would only decrease by as much as 10 %.

d) Chemical Treatment OF the soil:
Making a hole Beside the grounding electrode with max. distance 10 cm and filled of salts
Mg
3
SO4 '--- ----Or Cu2SO4 '=-' --- Or =- -'- till 30 cm from surface level .
By making circular tenth around the electrode with (45 cm-Diameter) & (30 cm-Depth) and
filled with pre-mentioned chemicals ,with no direct contact to the electrode other else
corrosion Occur.
The chemicals recommended to be Cu2SO4 with around (18-40 Kg) as its cheap , Good
electrical conductivity and the long run effect (2 years)
Flood the grounding hole with water for good absorption of salts (chemicals) periodically
that what rain water do.

Largest copper conductor Diameter
) mm 2 (
diameter to the Ground conductor copper
Electrode ) mm 2 (
1 1
1.5 1.5
2.5 2.5
4 4
6 6
10 10
16 16
25 16
35 16
50 25
70 35
95 50
120 70
150 70
185 95
240 120
300 150
400 185

The allowed Current passing through the Grounding conductor

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Conductor
Diameter
(2 mm)
Allowed Current for long
time (A)
Instantaneous Current
(A/sec.)
Cu AL Cu Al
16 150 - 2500 -
25 200 160 4000 2700
35 280 200 5500 3700
50 480 250 8000 5300
70 590 320 11500 7400
95 780 430 11600 10500
185 1380 760 32500 21000

Relation between Leakage Current Intensity & Its passing through time in human body
Current (mA) passing through time
Biological effect on Human
body
0 0.5 ---- -`'- ' .-' -=- -= '--'
0.5 5 ----
.-- '--''- '-=`'- -=' ---
-- - ` ---' .- .'=-' '--`'
'- '`' .-`-'
5 30 -' -=
'-+' --- .= '---` ---
.--- -- -' =- '-- ----
30 50 -` --
-'-' .-- '=-- -= -' =- ---
'-= -
50 '-- -=
---' -- .- . - ---- -'
---' -- .- = =-- --= '`' += - '-= .-`-'
'-- -= .- `
---' -- .- . .-`-' =-- --= '`' += - '-=
---' -- .- = '-= -= -

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E) Number of ground electrodes
In this design, more than one electrode is driven into the
ground and connected in parallel to lower the resistance. For
additional electrodes to be effective, the spacing of additional
rods needs to be at least equal to the depth of the driven rod.
F) Ground system design
Mentioned After .


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Ground electrode:
You can use one of the following means of grounding pole, namely:
1 - Extensions of metal pipes for water.
2 - Reinforcing rods --'--' '-- of the building.
3 - A metal conductor is extended around the building and not less than 75 cm from the surface of the
earth.
4-Specialised Industrial Electrodes:
i. Made Electrode: It is a metal rod or pipe not less than 240 cm in
length buried vertically in contact with the soil unless the ground is
rocky and can be placed diagonally 45 degrees to the vertical level, or
buried in a trench --= at a depth of 75 cm from the surface of the
earth at least.
ii. Plate Electrode: It is a sheet metal may be copper (1.5 mm-thick) OR
Iron (6.35mm-min. thickness) , with min. expose area 186 m
2
a.
Free Of grease or Oils because they undermine the viability of the properties of the
grounding of the conductivity.

The Electrode consists of three basic components:
1. Ground conductor
2. The connection/bonding of the conductor to the ground electrode
3. The ground electrode itself.

The resistance of a ground electrode has 3 basic components:
A) The resistance of the ground electrode itself and the connections to the electrode.
it's connection is generally very low, ground rods are generally made of highly
conductive/low resistance material such as copper of copper clad.

B) The contact resistance of the surrounding earth to the electrode.

The Bureau of Standards has shown this resistance to be almost negligible providing that the
ground electrode is free from paint, grease etc. and that the ground electrode is in firm
contact with the earth
B) The resistance of the surrounding body of earth around the ground electrode. The resistance of a
ground
The ground electrode is surrounded by earth which is made up of concentric shells all having the
same thickness. Those shells closest to the ground electrode have the smallest amount of area

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resulting in the greatest degree of resistance. Each subsequent shell incorporates a greater
area resulting in lower resistance. This finally reaches a point where the additional shells offer
little resistance to the ground surrounding the ground electrode.

Types Of grounding
According to the Protective Device
Earth grounding
is an intentional connection from a circuit
conductor usually the neutral to a ground
electrode placed in the earth.
Equipment grounding
is to ensure that operating equipment within a
structure is properly grounded.
These two grounding systems are required to prevent
differences in potential from a possible flashover from a
lightning strike.
According to the Design Simplicity
Simple grounding systems consist of single
ground electrode driven into the ground. The
use of a single ground electrode is the most
common form of grounding.
Where: outside your home or place of
business.
1. Complex grounding systems consist of
multiple ground rods, connected, mesh or
grid networks, ground plates, and ground
loops.
o Where: at power generating substations,
central offices, and cell tower sites.
According to its Design techniques
a. Single ground electrode.
b. Multiple ground electrodes connected.
c. Mesh network.
d. Ground plate.

Complex networks increase the
amount of contact with the
surrounding earth and lower
ground resistances.

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According to its fuctionality :-
1. Functional grounding: this kind of grounding is related to the proper work of the system like (neutral
point grounding, reactors grounding ..etc.)
2. Protective grounding: This kind related to personal protection due electric shocks and its about
connecting all conducting of non-current carrier with earth
3. Lighting Protection: Protect the system from lighting discharging any traveling waves or equip the
substation with equipments to discharge the lighting as it happen

Ground Fault Protection
Circuit Breakers
Electrical circuits Protected by Normal cit. breakers (15-20) -- 60 mA Cause human Death and its so
sensitive for the lowest current .
Types Of Circuit breakers:
1
st
Type: it shutdown the cit. when the passing current about 6 mA .
2
nd
Type: it shutdown the cit. when the passing current about 20 mA .
Where Cit. Breakers Connected (Elcb):
i. Elcb circuit breaker Connected on the main power line for General protection for all circuits,
(Main Protection)

But it cause total current break down for any current leak in any following circuits (lighting)
ii. Using two cit. breakers , one (normal) for the main lighting board and the other (Elcb) for the
main power board .

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iii. Could be used for distinct device ( air conditioner ) condition that this device must be earthed. Or
for apart of home or some place (Individual Protection)


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Structural lightning protection
Design considerations
Structural lightning protection design considerations
BS 6651 (Protection of structures against lightning) clearly advises strict adherence to the
provision of a conventional Lightning Protection System (LPS)
other device or system for which claims of enhanced protection are made.

The principle components of a conventional structural lightning protection system, in
accordance with BS 6651 are:

Air Termination Network

Down Conductors

Structural lightning protection
esign considerations
Structural lightning protection design considerations
Lightning Protection System (LPS) - to the total exclusion of any
accordance with BS 6651 are:
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Structural lightning protection &

to the total exclusion of any

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Earth Termination Network

Bonding (to prevent side flashing)

Other areas that need to be looked at:

Corrosion

Inspection, testing, records and maintenance

Air termination network
On high risk structures such as explosive factories, no part of the roof should be more than
2.5m from an air termination conductor. This is generally achieved by applying a 5m x 10m
mesh to the roof.

However, for most structures, a mesh of 10m x 20m is considered sufficient, giving a
maximum distance from any part of the roof to the nearest conductor of 5m.
Air terminations for tall
conducting structures
The zone of protection does not seem to be applied because of the
need to interconnect the down conductors of the tall block to the
air termination of the lower block.

In such cases it is necessary to connect t
up to the lower down conductors to facilitate this inter connection,
even though this extension is within the zone of protection of the
tower.

The 'Zone of Protection' offered by an air termination network is considered to be
heights up to 20m. Above this height, the zone of protection is determined by the 'Rolling
Sphere Method'.
This involves rolling an imaginary sphere of 60m radius over a structure. The areas touched
by the sphere are deemed to require protection.
the sides of the building.

Zones of protection

Bonding (to prevent side flashing)
Other areas that need to be looked at:
Inspection, testing, records and maintenance
n conductor. This is generally achieved by applying a 5m x 10m
The zone of protection does not seem to be applied because of the
need to interconnect the down conductors of the tall block to the
In such cases it is necessary to connect the lower air termination
up to the lower down conductors to facilitate this inter connection,
even though this extension is within the zone of protection of the
The 'Zone of Protection' offered by an air termination network is considered to be
by the sphere are deemed to require protection. On tall structures, this can obviously include
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n conductor. This is generally achieved by applying a 5m x 10m
The 'Zone of Protection' offered by an air termination network is considered to be 45 for
On tall structures, this can obviously include


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Down conductors
Down conductor siting and distancing is often dictated by architectural circumstances. There
should be one down conductor for every 20m
or ground level (whichever is greater). These should be evenly spaced and distances apart of
more than 20m avoided if possible.

If the building is above 20m in height or of an abnormal risk this distance
to 10m.

They should be routed as directly as possible from the air termination network to the earth
termination network to avoid risks of side flashing. Re
BS 6651 recommends that the length of condu
times the width of its open side.

BS 6651 allows the use of 'natural conductors' such as rebars and structural steelwork,
provided that they are electrically continuous and adequately earthed.

Lightning Protection Scheme to BS 6651 using the reinforced concrete within the
structure for down conductors

Earth termination network
Each down conductor must have a separate earth termination. Moreover provision should be
made in each down conductor, for disconnection from the earth for testing purposes. This is
achieved with a test clamp (see below).

BS 6651 stipulates
the resistance to earth
lightning protection
measured at any
should not exceed 10

the test clamp
disconnected, the
resistance of each
individual earth should

should be one down conductor for every 20m or part thereof of the building perimeter at roof
more than 20m avoided if possible.
If the building is above 20m in height or of an abnormal risk this distance
termination network to avoid risks of side flashing. Re-entrant loops are also to be avoided.
BS 6651 recommends that the length of conductor forming the loop should not exceed eight
times the width of its open side.
provided that they are electrically continuous and adequately earthed.
ction Scheme to BS 6651 using the reinforced concrete within the
structure for down conductors

Inner area requires no conductors as it is within the zone of protection
determined by the rolling sphere

Earth termination network
conductor must have a separate earth termination. Moreover provision should be
achieved with a test clamp (see below).
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or part thereof of the building perimeter at roof
If the building is above 20m in height or of an abnormal risk this distance should be reduced
entrant loops are also to be avoided.
ctor forming the loop should not exceed eight
ction Scheme to BS 6651 using the reinforced concrete within the

Inner area requires no conductors as it is within the zone of protection
conductor must have a separate earth termination. Moreover provision should be
that
of the
system
point,
ohms.
With
be no

Hossam Ahmed Zein
more than ten times the number of down conductors in the complete system. eg fo
system with 15 down conductors, the individual earth readings should be no more than 10 x
15 = 150 ohms.

Several types of earth electrode are permissible, but by far the most commonly used are
deep driven earth rods. BS 6651 states that the combined e
should be no less than 9m whilst each individual earth rod should be no less than 1.5m in
length.

Deep driven
earth electrode

Parallel earth rod electrodes
Where ground conditions make
of rods coupled to one another by conductors can be used. If possible, the earth rods must
be spaced at a distance at least equal to their driven depth.

If earth rods cannot be driven in a parall
ensuring that the spacing/depth ratio is still maintained.

High resistivity soil conditions can be overcome by backfilling earth rods with a suitable
medium such as Marconite conductive concrete which effe
the earth rod and hence its surface area, thus lowering resistance to earth.

more than ten times the number of down conductors in the complete system. eg fo
deep driven earth rods. BS 6651 states that the combined earth rod length of a system
Deep driven
earth electrode

Oblong test or
junction clamp
Parallel earth rod electrodes
Where ground conditions make deep driving of earth rods impossible, a matrix arrangement
be spaced at a distance at least equal to their driven depth.
If earth rods cannot be driven in a parallel line a "Crows Foot" configuration can be used,
ensuring that the spacing/depth ratio is still maintained.
medium such as Marconite conductive concrete which effectively increases the diameter of
Spacing of parallel earth rod electrode

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more than ten times the number of down conductors in the complete system. eg for a
arth rod length of a system
Oblong test or
junction clamp
deep driving of earth rods impossible, a matrix arrangement
el line a "Crows Foot" configuration can be used,
ctively increases the diameter of
earth rod electrode

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Bonding
All metal work, including water pipes, gas pipes, handrails, air conditioning
cladding, metal roofs etc, in the vicinity of the LPS must be bonded to it, to avoid the danger
of side flashing.

For the same reason, the LPS earth should be bonded to the main electrical earth, as well as
any other earthing system present i

All metal work, including water pipes, gas pipes, handrails, air conditioning
any other earthing system present in the structure.

Example of side flashing

If the lightning protection system on a structure is hit by lightning, then the
current flowing through the system and the resistance/impedance offered by the
conductor path will determine themagnitude of the potential difference seen by the
lightning conductors with respect to true earth.

The lightning conductors can, instantaneously, have a potential magnitude of
megavolts (1,000,000V) with respect to true earth.

Typically, at instant of discharge:
Potential difference at A = 1,500,000V
Potential difference at B = 0V

Bonding to prevent side
flashing
1 Air termination
2 Down conductor
3 Bond to aerial
4 Bond to vent
5 Bond to re-
6 Bond to metal staircase
7 Bond to metal window frame
8 Bond to vent pipe
9 Bond to steel door/frame
10 Test clamp
11 Indicating plate
12 Main earthing terminal of
electrical installation
13 Earth termination point

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All metal work, including water pipes, gas pipes, handrails, air conditioning units, metal
If the lightning protection system on a structure is hit by lightning, then the
current flowing through the system and the resistance/impedance offered by the
otential difference seen by the
The lightning conductors can, instantaneously, have a potential magnitude of
Bonding to prevent side
Air termination
Down conductor
Bond to aerial
Bond to vent
-bar
Bond to metal staircase
Bond to metal window frame
to vent pipe
Bond to steel door/frame
Test clamp
Indicating plate
Main earthing terminal of
electrical installation
Earth termination point

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Corrosion
BS 6651 contains tables of materials suitable for use in lightning protection system
components. Adherence to these requirements is vital to avoid corrosion problems.

The correct choice of material and installation design should ensure a life span of 30 years
for the earth electrode system.

Measurement
There are three methods of Earth ground testing methods :
1) Soil Resistivity (using stakes)
Why: Soil Resistivity is most necessary when deter-mining the design of the grounding system for new
installations (green field applications) to meet your ground resistance requirements.

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Lowest Resistance is petter ,if it was high enough could be overcomed with more elaborate ground
systems
Requirements: replacing the electrode as deeper as possible
where, soil and water exist (-= .-=) water
table.
where there is a stable temperature, i.e. below
the frost line.

Depend on:

Soil Content of Moisture : The Soil Resistivity decreases significantly due increasing of its content of
moisture


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Temperature: If temp. of Soil was too high the Soil Resistivity increase & if temp. was too low (subzero)
then the moisture will freeze and the Resistivity will increase .
Electric Current : If the current was too high then it will produce a heat all over the carrying conductors
,this heat will dry the moisture and increase the resistivity .
Depth of Soil : that the content of moisture increases as we get deeper within the ground unless re a rock
base.
2) Fall-of-Potential (using stakes) : The Fall-of-Potential test method is used to measure the ability of an
earth ground system or an individual electrode to dissipate energy from a site.
Procedure: >
Disconnect the earth electrode
i. Two stakes (inner & outer) are placed in
the soil in a direct line, away from the
earth electrode with indicated table
ii. Connect earth tester to the electrode
iii. Using Ohms Law (V = IR), a known current
is generated by the test device between
the outer stake (auxiliary earth stake) and
the earth electrode, while the drop in
voltage potential is measured between the
inner earth stake and the earth electrode.

3) Selective (using 1 clamp and Auxiliary stakes)
The earth electrode of interest does not need to be
disconnected from its connection to the site.
Much safer and easier way
Procedure: >
i. a special clamp is placed around the earth electrode, which
eliminates the effects of parallel resistances in a grounded
system
ii. is very similar to the Fall-of-Potential testing, providing all
the same measurements.
4) Stake-less [UNILAP GEO X](using 2 clamps only)
Comparative advantage:
o measure earth ground loop resistances for parallel / multi-
grounded systems using only current clamps.
o Used inside buildings, on power pylons or anywhere you
dont have access to soil.
Produce operating safety and Less Dangerous.

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If there is only one path to ground, the Stakeless method will not provide an acceptable value and
the Fall-of-Potential test method must be used.
Procedure :>
i. Two clamps are placed around the earth ground rod or the connecting cable and each are
connected to the tester.
ii. A known voltage is induced by one clamp, and the current is measured using the second clamp.
iii. The tester automatically determines the ground loop resistance at this ground rod.

Some Practical Examples:

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Cellular sites/microwave and radio towers
At most locations there is a -legged tower with
each leg individually grounded. These grounds
are then connected with a copper cable. Next
to the tower is the Cell site building, housing
all the transmission equipment. Inside the
building there is a halo ground and a MGB,
with the halo ground connected to the MGB.
The cell site building is grounded at all corners
connected to the MGB via a copper cable and
the corners are also interconnected via copper
wire. There is also a connection between the
building ground ring and the tower ground
ring.
Electrical Substations
A substation is a subsidiary station on a transmission and distribution system where voltage is normally
transformed from a high value to low value. A typical substation will contain line termination structures,
high-voltage switchgear, one or more power transformers, low-voltage switchgear, surge protection,
controls, and metering.


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Lightning protection at commercial/industrial sites
Most lightning fault current protection systems follow the design of having all four corners of the building
grounded and these are usually connected via a copper cable. Depending on the size of the building and
the resistance value that it was designed to achieve, the number of ground rods will vary.

Stakeless measurement
First, perform a Stakeless
measurement on:
The individual legs of the
tower and the four corners of
the building (cell
sites/towers)
All grounding connections
(electrical substations)
The lines running to the
remote site (remote
switching)
The ground stakes of the
building (lightning protection)
3-pole Fall-of-Potential
measurement
This measurement should be
recorded and measurements
should take place at least
twice per year.
This measurement is the
resistance value for the entire
site.

Selective measurement
The resistances should be
measured on:
Each leg of the tower and
all four corners of the
building (cell sites/towers)
Individual ground rods and
their connections (electrical
substations)
Both ends of the remote
site (remote switching)
All four corners of the
building (lightning protection)

Measuring of High Voltage Trans. Towers 1

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Remote switching sites (known as slick sites)
Where digital line concentrators and other telecommunications equipment is operating.
The remote site is typically grounded at either end of the cabinet and then will have a series of ground
stakes around the cabinet connected by copper wire.

Stackless method

Fall of potential 1 Fall of potential 2

Electrical Earthling: Construction, Faults & Protection

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Construction, Faults & Protection

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