ROCKET PROPULSION

Introduction Thrust Conservation of Momentum Impulse & Momentum

Introduction
Isaac Newton stated in his third law of motion that "for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction." It is upon this principle that a rocket operates. Propellants combustion are combined where in a they

chamber

chemically react to form hot gases, which are then accelerated and ejected at high velocity through a nozzle, thereby

imparting momentum to the engine. The thrust force of a rocket motor is the reaction experienced by the motor

structure due to ejection of the high velocity matter. This is the same phenomenon, which pushes a garden hose backward as water flows from the nozzle, or makes a gun recoil when fired.

Thrust
Thrust is the force that propels a rocket or spacecraft and is measured in pounds, kilograms or Newtons. Physically speaking, it is the result of pressure, which is exerted on the wall of the combustion chamber. The figure to the right shows a combustion chamber with an opening, the nozzle, through which gas can escape. The pressure distribution within the chamber is asymmetric; that is, inside the chamber the pressure varies little, but near the nozzle it decreases somewhat. The force due to gas pressure on the bottom of the chamber is not compensated for from the outside. The

Based on work compiled and edited by Robert A. Braeunig

resultant force F due to the internal and external pressure difference, the thrust, is opposite to the direction of the gas jet. It pushes the chamber upwards. To create high-speed exhaust gases, the necessary high temperatures and pressures of combustion are obtained by using a very energetic fuel and by having the molecular weight of the exhaust gases as low as possible. It is also necessary to reduce the pressure of the gas as much as possible inside the nozzle by creating a large section ratio. The section ratio, or expansion ratio, is defined as the area of the exit Ae divided by the area of the throat At. The thrust F is the resultant of the forces due to the pressures exerted on the inner and outer walls by the combustion gases and the surrounding atmosphere, taking the boundary between the inner and outer surfaces as the cross section of the exit of the nozzle. As we shall see in the next section, applying the principle of the conservation of momentum gives
F = q x Ve + (Pe - Pa) x Ae

where q is the rate of the ejected mass flow, Pa the pressure of the ambient atmosphere, Pe the pressure of the exhaust gases and Ve their ejection speed. Thrust is specified either at sea level or in a vacuum.

Conservation of Momentum
The linear momentum (p), or simply momentum, of a particle is the product of its mass and its velocity. That is,
(2.1) p=mxv

Newton expressed his second law of motion in terms of momentum, which can be stated, as "the resultant of the forces acting on a particle is equal to the rate of change of the linear momentum of the particle". In symbolic form this becomes
(2.2) F = dp / dt

Which is equivalent to the expression F=ma. If we have a system of particles, the total momentum P of the system is the sum of the momenta of the individual particles. When the resultant external force acting on a system is zero, the total linear momentum of the system remains constant. This is called the principle of conservation of linear momentum. Let's now see how this principle is applied to rocket mechanics. Consider a rocket drifting in gravity free space. The rocket's engine is fired for time t and, during this period, ejects gases at a constant rate and at a

Based on work compiled and edited by Robert A. Braeunig

constant speed relative to the rocket (exhaust velocity). Assume there are no external forces, such as gravity or air resistance. The figure below-left (a) shows the situation at time t. The rocket and fuel have a total mass M and the combination is moving with velocity v as seen from a particular frame of reference. At a time changed to that shown below right (b). A mass t later the configuration has M has been ejected from the

rocket and is moving with velocity u as seen by the observer. The rocket is reduced to mass M- M and the velocity v of the rocket is changed to v+ v.

Because there are no external forces, dP/dt=0. We can write, for the time interval t
(2.3) 0= P/ t = (P2 - P1) / t

Where P2 is the final system momentum, figure (b), and P1 is the initial system momentum, figure (a). We write
(2.4) 0 = {[(M M) x (v + v) + ( M x u)] - [M x v]} / t

If we let t approach zero, v/ t approaches dv/dt, the acceleration of the body. The quantity M is the mass ejected in t; this leads to a decrease in the mass M of the original body. Since dM/dt, the change in mass of the body with time, is negative in this case, in the limit the quantity M/ t is replaced by -dM/dt. The quantity u-(v+ v) is Vrel, the relative velocity of the ejected mass with respect to the rocket. With these changes, equation (2.4) can be written as
M x (dv/dt) = (u - v) x (dM/dt), or

(2.5)

M x (dv/dt) = Vrel x (dM/dt)

The right-hand term depends on the characteristics of the rocket and, like the left-hand term, has the dimensions of a force. This force is called the thrust, and is the reaction force exerted on the rocket by the mass that leaves it. The rocket designer can make the thrust as large as possible by designing the rocket to eject mass as rapidly as possible (dM/dt large) and with the highest possible relative speed (Vrel large). Refer problem #2.1 (use your browser's "back" function to return) In rocketry, the basic thrust equation is written as
(2.6) F = q x Ve + (Pe - Pa) x Ae

Based on work compiled and edited by Robert A. Braeunig

where q is the rate of the ejected mass flow, Ve is the exhaust gas ejection speed, Pe is the pressure of the exhaust gases at the nozzle exit, Pa is the pressure of the ambient atmosphere, and Ae is the area of the nozzle exit. The product qVe, which we derived above (Vrel x dM/dt), is called the momentum, or velocity, thrust. The product (PePa)Ae, called the pressure thrust, is the result of unbalanced pressure forces at the nozzle exit. As we shall see latter, maximum thrust occurs when Pe=Pa. Equation (2.6) then becomes F=qVe and the nozzle is said to be adapted.

Impulse & Momentum

In the preceding section we saw that Newton's second law may be expressed in the form
F = dp/dt

Multiplying both sides by dt and integrating from a time t1 to a time t2, we write
F x dt = dp

F dt = p2 - p1, or

(2.7)

p1 + F dt = p2

The integral is a vector known as the linear impulse, or simply the impulse, of the force F during the time interval considered. The equation expresses that, when a particle is acted upon by a force F during a given time interval, the final momentum p2 of the particle may be obtained by adding its initial momentum p1 and the impulse of the force F during the interval of time. When several forces act on a particle, the impulse of each of the forces must be considered. When a problem involves a system of particles, we may add vectorial the momenta of all the particles and the impulses of all the forces involved. When can then write
(2.8) (2.9) P1 + P1 + F dt = P2 (F x t) = P2

For a time interval t, we may write equation (2.8) in the form Let us now see how we can apply the principle of impulse and momentum to rocket mechanics. Consider a rocket of initial mass M which it launched vertically at time t=0. The fuel is consumed at a constant rate q and is expelled at a constant speed Ve relative to the rocket. At time t, the mass of the rocket shell and remaining fuel is M-qt, and the velocity is v. During the time interval t, a mass of fuel q t is expelled. Denoting by u the absolute velocity of the expelled fuel, we apply the principle of impulse and momentum between time t and time t+ t. Please note, our derivation neglects the effect of air resistance.

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We write
(2.10) (M - qt) x v - g x (M - qt) x t = (M - qt - q t) x (v + v) + q t x u

We divide through by t and replace u-(v+ v) with Ve, the velocity of the expelled mass relative to the rocket. As t approaches zero, we obtain
(2.11) -g x (M - qt) = (M - qt) x (dv/dt) - (q x Ve)

Separating variables and integrating from t=0, v=0 to t=t, v=v, we obtain
(2.12) (2.13) dv = [(q x Ve) / (M - qt) - g ] dt v = Ve x LOG[ M / (M - qt) ] - g x t

which equals Refer example problem #2.2 Integrating the above equation from t=0 to t=t gives the distance traveled by the rocket during the burn. We obtain
(2.14) d = Ve x { t + t x LOG[ M / (M - qt) ] + M x LOG[ (M - qt) / M ] / q } - g x t2 / 2

Refer example problem #2.3 The term -gt in equation (2.13) is the result of the earth's gravity pulling on the rocket. It should be pointed out that in practice the value of g decreases with increasing altitude, however, letting g equal the acceleration of gravity at ground level (32.2 ft/s2 or 9.81 m/s2) yields a close approximation. Also note, gt is directed vertically downward. If a rocket's trajectory is at an angle other than vertical, -gt should be replaced by -gtsin(ta), where ta is the tilt angle, i.e. the angle between the earth's surface and the rocket's thrust vector. For a rocket drifting in gravity-free space or in earth orbit, -gtsin(ta)=0 and can thus be omitted. Equation (2.13) then becomes
(2.15) v = Ve x LOG[ M / (M - qt) ]

For many spacecraft maneuvers it is necessary to calculate the duration of an engine burn required to achieve a specific change in velocity, v. Rearranging variables in the preceding equation yields
(2.16) t = M x [ 1 - ( 1 / EXP[ V / Ve ] ) ] / q

Refer example problem #2.4

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As stated earlier, the equations derived in this section neglect the effect of air resistance. Drag forces can have a significant influence on a rocket moving through an atmosphere.

Based on work compiled and edited by Robert A. Braeunig

ROCKET PROPULSION
Combustion Specific Impulse Engines / Nozzles Solid Fuel Geometry

Combustion
The combustion process involves the oxidation of constituents in the fuel that are capable of being oxidized, and can therefore be represented by a chemical equation. During a combustion process the mass of each element remains the same. Consider the reaction of methane with oxygen
CH4 + 2 O2 --> CO2 + 2 H2O

This equation states that one kmol of methane reacts with two kmol of oxygen to form one kmol of carbon dioxide and two kmol of water. This also means that 16 kg of methane react with 64 kg of oxygen to form 44 kg of carbon dioxide and 36 kg of water. All the initial substances that undergo the combustion process are called the reactants, and the substances that result from the combustion process are called the products. The above combustion reaction is an example of a stoichiometric mixture. That is, there is just enough oxygen present to chemically react with all the fuel. The highest flame temperature is achieved under these conditions. However, it is often desirable to operate a rocket engine at a "fuel-rich" mixture ratio. Mixture ratio is defined as the mass flow of oxidizer divided by the mass flow of fuel. Consider the following reaction of kerosene(1) with oxygen,
C12H26 + 12.5 O2 --> 12 CO + 13 H2O

Given the molecular weight of C12H26 is 170 and that of O2 is 32, we have a mixture ratio of
O/F = (12.5 x 32) / 170 = 2.35

which is typical of many rocket engines using kerosene, or RP-1, fuel. As we have seen previously, F=qVe, that is, thrust is equal to the product of the propellant mass flow rate and the exhaust gas ejection speed. The ideal exhaust velocity is given by
(2.17) Ve = SQRT[ (2 x k / (k - 1)) x (R' x Tc / M) x (1 - (Pe / Pc) (k-1)/k) ]

Based on work compiled and edited by Robert A. Braeunig

where k is the specific heat ratio, R' is the universal gas constant (49,720 ft-lb/slug-oR in U.S. units, or 8,314 N-m/kg-oK in SI units), Tc is the combustion temperature, M is the average molecular weight of the exhaust gases, Pc is the combustion chamber pressure, and Pe is the pressure at the nozzle exit. Specific heat ratio(2) varies depending on the composition and temperature of the exhaust gases, but it is usually about 1.20. The thermodynamics involved in calculating combustion temperatures are quite complicated, however, flame temperatures generally range from about 4,500 to 6,500o F (2,500-3,600o C). Chamber pressures can range from about about 10 to 250 atmospheres. Pe should be equal to the ambient pressure at which the engine will operate, more on this later. Refer Table 1 for sample values of adiabatic flame

temperature, average molecular weight, and specific heat ratio for some common rocket propellants at various mixture ratios and pressures.

Adiabatic Flame Temperature (T), Molecular Weight (M), and Specific Heat Ratio (k)
Propellants (reactants) O/F Oxidizer Liquid Oxygen LO2 Fuel T Liquid Hydrogen 5.00 M LH2 k T Liquid Hydrogen 6.00 M LH2 k Kerosene C12H26 T 2.25 M k T 2.60 M k T 2.10 M k 25 50 75 100 3220o K 3280o K 3310o K 3330o K 11.7 11.8 11.8 11.8 g/mol g/mol g/mol g/mol 1.21 1.21 1.21 1.21 3380o K 3470o K 3510o K 3550o K 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.5 g/mol g/mol g/mol g/mol 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 3400o K 3470o K 3510o K 3540o K 21.2 21.4 21.4 21.5 g/mol g/mol g/mol g/mol 1.22 1.22 1.22 1.22 3510o K 3610o K 3660o K 3700o K 22.5 22.7 22.9 22.9 g/mol g/mol g/mol g/mol 1.22 1.21 1.21 1.21 3220o K 3270o K 3300o K 3320o K 21.7 21.8 21.8 21.9 g/mol g/mol g/mol g/mol 1.23 1.23 1.23 1.23 Pressure (atmospheres)

Liquid Oxygen LO2

Liquid Oxygen LO2

Liquid Oxygen LO2

Kerosene C12H26 DimethylHydrazine (CH3)2NNH3 DimethylHydrazine

Nitrogen Tetroxide N2O4 Nitrogen Tetroxide N2O4

T 3320o K 3400o K 3440o K 3480o K 2.60 23.5 23.6 23.7 M 23.4

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(CH3)2NNH3 Nitric Acid (RFNA) HNO3 Ammonium Perchlorate NH4ClO4 DimethylHydrazine (CH3)2NNH3 Aluminum + PBAN

k T 2.70 M k T 2.40 M k

g/mol 1.22

g/mol 1.22

g/mol 1.22

g/mol 1.22

2950o K 2980o K 3000o K 3010o K 22.3 22.4 22.4 22.5 g/mol g/mol g/mol g/mol 1.21 1.21 1.21 1.21 3390o K 3450o K 3490o K 3510o K 25.5 25.7 25.8 25.8 g/mol g/mol g/mol g/mol 1.27 1.26 1.26 1.26

Table 1, Adiabatic flame temperature is the temperature acheived by a combustion process that takes place adiabatically, that is, with no heat entering or leaving the system. It is the maximum temperature that can be acheived for the given reactants. Molecular weight is the average molecular weight of the combustion products. Specific heat ratio is the ratio of constant-pressure specific heat to constantvolume specific heat, i.e. Cp/Cv.

From equation (2.17) we see that high chamber temperature and pressure, and low exhaust gas molecular weight results in high ejection velocity, thus high thrust. Based on this criterion, we can see why liquid hydrogen is very desirable as a rocket fuel. Refer example problem #2.5 It should be pointed out that in the combustion process there will be a dissociation of molecules among the products. That is, the high heat of combustion causes the separation of molecules into simpler constituents which are then capable of recombining. Consider the reaction of kerosene with oxygen. The true products of combustion will be an equilibrium mixture of atoms and molecules consisting of C, CO, CO2, H, H2, H2O, HO, O, and O2. Dissociation has a significant effect on flame temperature.

(1) In dealing with combustion of liquid hydrocarbon fuels it is convenient to express the composition in terms of a single hydrocarbon, even though it is a mixture of many hydrocarbons. Thus gasoline is usually considered to be octane, C8H18, and kerosene is considered to be

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dodecane, C12H26. (2) Specific heat, or heat capacity, represents the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance one degree C. Specific heat is measured at constant-pressure, Cp, or at constant-volume, Cv. The ratio Cp/Cv is called the specific heat ratio, represented by k.

Specific Impulse
The specific impulse of a rocket, Isp, is the ratio of the thrust to the flow rate of the weight ejected, that is
(2.18) Isp = F / (q x g)

where F is thrust, q is the rate of mass flow, and g is the acceleration of gravity at ground level. Specific impulse is expressed in seconds. When the thrust and the flow rate remain constant throughout the burning of the propellant, the specific impulse is the time for which the rocket engine provides a thrust equal to the weight of the propellant consumed. For a given engine, the specific impulse has different values on the ground and in the vacuum of space because the ambient pressure is involved in the expression for the thrust. It is therefore important to state whether specific impulse is the value at sea level or in a vacuum. For an adapted nozzle, the specific impulse on the ground is equal to Ve/g. There are a number of losses within a rocket engine, the main ones being related to the inefficiency of the chemical reaction (combustion) process, losses due to the nozzle, and to losses due to the pumps. Overall, the losses affect the efficiency of the specific impulse. This is the ratio of the real specific impulse (at sea level, or in a vacuum) and the theoretical specific impulse obtained with an ideal nozzle from gases coming from a complete chemical reaction. Calculated values of specific impulse are about 10% higher than those attained in practice. Refer example problem #2.6

The equation for specific impulse is often given as Isp = F / q. This form of the equation stems from the practice of expressing mass flow rate in the units lb/s. But, as we know, pounds are a unit of force (or weight), not mass. If we express mass in its proper units, q is then given in the units slug/s, and Isp = F / (q x g). The latter equation yields Isp in the units of seconds whether

Based on work compiled and edited by Robert A. Braeunig

using U.S. units or S.I. units.

Engines / Nozzles
A typical rocket motor consists of the combustion chamber, the nozzle, and the injector, as shown in the figure below. The combustion chamber is where the burning of propellants takes place at high pressure. The chamber must be strong enough to contain the high pressure generated by, and the high temperature resulting from, the combustion process. Because of the high temperature and heat transfer, the chamber and nozzle are usually cooled. The chamber must also be of sufficient length to ensure complete combustion before the gases enter the nozzle. The function of the nozzle is to convert the chemical-thermal energy generated in the combustion chamber into kinetic energy. The nozzle converts the slow moving, high pressure, high temperature gas in the combustion chamber into high velocity gas of lower pressure and temperature. Since thrust is the product of mass and velocity, a very high gas velocity is desirable. Nozzles consist of a convergent and divergent section. The minimum flow area between the convergent and divergent section is called the nozzle throat. The flow area at the end of the divergent section is called the nozzle exit area. The nozzle is usually made long enough (or the exit area is great enough) such that the pressure in the combustion chamber is reduced at the nozzle exit to the pressure existing outside the nozzle. It is under this condition, Pe=Pa where Pe is the pressure at the nozzle exit

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a nd Pa is the outside ambient pressure, that thrust is maximum and the nozzle is said to be adapted, also called optimum or correct expansion. When Pe is greater than Pa, the nozzle is under-extended. When the opposite is true, it is over-extended. We see therefore, a nozzle is designed for the altitude at which it has to operate. At the Earth's surface, at the atmospheric pressure of sea level (14.7 psi or 0.1 MPa), the discharge of the exhaust gases is limited by the separation of the jet from the nozzle wall. In the cosmic vacuum, this physical limitation does not exist. Therefore, there have to be two different types of engines and nozzles, those which propel the first stage of the launch vehicle through the atmosphere, and those which propel subsequent stages or control the orientation of the spacecraft in the vacuum of space. The figure above-right shows three different exhaust nozzles. The most efficient nozzle (1) is contoured to the exhaust stream, allowing the escaping gas to expand just enough to fill the nozzle. A nozzle that lets the gas expand too much (2), or too little (3), wastes the energy and thrust potential of the exhaust system. The nozzle throat area, At, can be found if the total propellant flow rate is known and the propellants and operating conditions have been selected. Assuming perfect gas law theory, we have
(2.19) At = (q / Pt) x SQRT[ (R' x Tt) / (M x k) ]

where q is the propellant mass flow rate, Pt is the gas pressure at the nozzle throat, Tt is the gas temperature at the nozzle throat, R' is the universal gas constant, and k is the specific heat ratio. Pt and Tt are given by
(2.20) Pt = Pc x [1 + (k - 1) / 2] -k/(k-1)

(2.21)

Tt = Tc x [1 / (1 + (k - 1) / 2)]

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where Pc is the combustion chamber pressure and Tc is the combustion chamber flame temperature. Refer example problem #2.7 The hot gases must be expanded in the diverging section of the nozzle to obtain maximum thrust. The pressure of these gases will decrease as energy is used to accelerate the gas. We must find that area of the nozzle where the gas pressure is equal to the outside atmospheric pressure. This area will then be the nozzle exit area. Mach number Nm is the ratio of the gas velocity to the local speed of sound. The Mach number at the nozzle exit is given by the perfect gas expansion expression
(2.22) Nm2 = (2 / (k - 1)) x [(Pc / Pa) (k-1)/k - 1]

where Pa is the pressure of the ambient atmosphere. The nozzle exit area, Ae, corresponding to the exit Mach number is given by
(2.23) Ae = (At / Nm) x [(1 + (k - 1) / 2 x Nm2)/((k + 1) / 2)] (k+1)/(2(k-1))

The section ratio, or expansion ratio, is defined as the area of the exit Ae divided by the area of the throat At. Refer example problem #2.8 For additional information, please see Supplement #1: Optimizing Expansion for Maximum Thrust. At the end of this section

Solid Fuel Geometry

A solid fuel's geometry determines the area and contours of its exposed surfaces, and thus its burn pattern. There are two main types of solid fuel blocks used in the space industry. These are cylindrical blocks, with combustion at a front, or surface, and cylindrical blocks with internal combustion. In the first case, the front of the flame travels in layers from the nozzle end of the block towards the top of the casing. This so-called end burner produces constant thrust throughout the burn. In the second, more usual case, the combustion surface develops along the length of a central channel. Sometimes the channel has a star shaped, or other, geometry to moderate the growth of this surface.

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The shape of the fuel block for a rocket is chosen for the particular type of mission it will perform. Since the combustion of the block progresses from its free surface, as this surface grows, geometrical considerations determine whether the thrust increases, decreases or stays constant.

Fuel blocks with a cylindrical channel (1) develop their thrust progressively. Those with a channel and also a central cylinder of fuel (2) produce a relatively constant thrust, which reduces to zero very quickly when the fuel is used up. The five pointed star profile (3) develops a relatively constant thrust which decreases slowly to zero as the last of the fuel is consumed. The 'cruciform' profile (4) produces progressively less thrust. Fuel in a block with a 'double anchor' profile (5) produces a decreasing thrust which drops off quickly near the end of the burn. The 'cog' profile (6) produces a strong inital thrust, followed by an almost constant lower thrust.

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Rocket Propulsion - Supplement #1 Rocket Nozzle Design: Optimizing Expansion for Maximum Thrust
A rocket engine is a device in which propellants are burned in a combustion chamber and the resulting high pressure gases are expanded through a specially shaped nozzle to produce thrust. The function of the nozzle is to convert the chemical-thermal energy generated in the combustion chamber into kinetic energy. The nozzle converts the slow moving, high pressure, high temperature gas in the combustion chamber into high velocity gas of lower pressure and temperature. Gas velocities from 2 to 4.5 kilometers per second can be obtained in rocket nozzles. The nozzles which perform this feat are called DeLaval nozzles (after the inventor) and consist of a convergent and divergent section. The minimum flow area between the convergent and divergent section is called the nozzle throat. The flow area at the end of the divergent section is called the nozzle exit area. Hot exhaust gases expand in the diverging section of the nozzle. The pressure of these gases will decrease as energy is used to accelerate the gas to high velocity. The nozzle is usually made long enough (or the exit area great enough) such that the pressure in the combustion chamber is reduced at the nozzle exit to the pressure existing outside the nozzle. It is under this condition that thrust is maximum and the nozzle is said to be adapted, also called optimum or correct expansion. To understand this we must examine the basic thrust equation:
F = q x Ve + (Pe - Pa) x Ae

where F = Thrust q = Propellant mass flow rate Ve = Velocity of exhaust gases Pe = Pressure at nozzle exit Pa = Ambient pressure Ae = Area of nozzle exit

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The product qVe is called the momentum, or velocity, thrust and the product (PePa)Ae is called the pressure thrust. As we have seen, Ve and Pe are inversely proportional, that is, as one increases the other decreases. If a nozzle is underextended we have Pe>Pa and Ve is small. For an over-extended nozzle we have Pe<Pa and Ve is large. Thus, momentum thrust and pressure thrust are inversely proportional and, as we shall see, maximum thrust occurs when Pe=Pa. Let us now consider an example. Assume we have a rocket engine equipped with an extendible nozzle. The engine is test fired in an environment with a constant ambient pressure. During the burn, the nozzle is extended from its fully retracted position to its fully extended position. At some point between fully retracted and fully extended Pe=Pa (see figure below).

As we extend the nozzle, the momentum thrust increases as Ve increases. At the same time the pressure thrust decreases as Pe decreases. The increase in momentum thrust is greater than the decrease in pressure thrust, thus the total thrust of the engine increases as we approach the condition Pe=Pa. As we continue to extend to nozzle the situation changes slightly. Now the pressure thrust changes in magnitude more rapidly than the momentum thrust, thus the total thrust begins to decrease. Let's now apply some numbers to our example and run through the calculations to prove that this is true. Assume our rocket engine operates under the following conditions:
q = Propellant mass flow rate = 100 kg/s k = Specific heat ratio = 1.20 M = Exhaust gas molecular weight = 24 Tc = Combustion chamber temperature = 3600o K Pc = Combustion chamber pressure = 5 MPa Pa = Ambient pressure = 0.05 MPa

If the nozzle is properly adapted to the operating conditions we have Pe=Pa, or Pe=0.05 MPa.

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The gas pressure and temperature at the nozzle throat is less than in the combustion chamber due to the loss of thermal energy in accelerating the gas to the local speed of sound at the throat. Therefore, we calculate the pressure and temperature at the nozzle throat,
Pt = Pc x [1 + (k - 1) / 2]-k/(k-1) Pt = 5 x [1 + (1.20 - 1) / 2]-1.20/(1.20-1) Pt = 2.82 MPa = 2.82x106 N/m2

Tt = Tc x [1 / (1 + (k - 1) / 2)] Tt = 3,600 x [1 / (1 + (1.20 - 1) / 2)] Tt = 3,273o K

The area at the nozzle throat is given by

At = (q / Pt) x SQRT[ (R' x Tt) / (M x k) ] At = (100 / 2.82x106) x SQRT[ (8,314 x 3,273) / (24 x 1.20) ] At = 0.0345 m2

The hot gases must now be expanded in the diverging section of the nozzle to obtain maximum thrust. The Mach number at the nozzle exit is given by
Nm2 = (2 / (k - 1)) x [(Pc / Pa)(k-1)/k - 1] Nm2 = (2 / (1.20 - 1)) x [(5 / 0.05)(1.20-1)/1.20 - 1] Nm2 = 11.54 Nm = (11.54)1/2 = 3.40

The nozzle exit area corresponding to the exit Mach number is given by
Ae = (At / Nm) x [(1 + (k - 1) / 2 x Nm2)/((k + 1) / 2)](k+1)/(2(k-1)) Ae = (0.0345 / 3.40) x [(1 + (1.20 - 1) / 2 x 11.54)/((1.20 + 1) / 2)](1.20+1)/(2(1.20-1)) Ae = 0.409 m2

The velocity of the exhaust gases at the nozzle exit is given by

Ve = SQRT[ (2 x k / (k - 1)) x (R' x Tc / M) x (1 - (Pe / Pc)(k-1)/k) ] Ve = SQRT[ (2 x 1.20 / (1.20 - 1)) x (8,314 x 3,600 / 24) x (1 - (0.05 / 5)(1.20-1)/1.20) ] Ve = 2,832 m/s

Finally, we calculate the thrust,

F = q x Ve + (Pe - Pa) x Ae F = 100 x 2,832 + (0.05x106 - 0.05x106) x 0.409 F = 283,200 N

Let's now consider what happens when the nozzle is under-extended, that is Pe>Pa. If we assume Pe=Pa x 2, we have
Pe = 0.05 x 2 = 0.10 MPa

At = 0.0345 m2

Based on work compiled and edited by Robert A. Braeunig

Nm2 = (2 / (1.20 - 1)) x [(5 / 0.10)(1.20-1)/1.20 - 1] Nm2 = 9.19 Nm = (9.19)1/2 = 3.03

Ae = (0.0345 / 3.03) x [(1 + (1.20 - 1) / 2 x 9.19)/((1.20 + 1) / 2)](1.20+1)/(2(1.20-1)) Ae = 0.243 m2

Ve = SQRT[ (2 x 1.20 / (1.20 - 1)) x (8,314 x 3,600 / 24) x (1 - (0.10 / 5)(1.20-1)/1.20) ] Ve = 2,677 m/s

F = 100 x 2,677 + (0.10x106 - 0.05x106) x 0.243 F = 279,850 N

Now we consider the over-extended condition, that is Pe<Pa. If we assume Pe=Pa / 2, we have
Pe = 0.05 / 2 = 0.025 MPa

At = 0.0345 m2

Nm2 = (2 / (1.20 - 1)) x [(5 / 0.025)(1.20-1)/1.20 - 1] Nm2 = 14.18 Nm = (14.18)1/2 = 3.77

Ae = (0.0345 / 3.77) x [(1 + (1.20 - 1) / 2 x 14.18)/((1.20 + 1) / 2)](1.20+1)/(2(1.20-1)) Ae = 0.696 m2

Ve = SQRT[ (2 x 1.20 / (1.20 - 1)) x (8,314 x 3,600 / 24) x (1 - (0.025 / 5)(1.20-1)/1.20) ] Ve = 2,963 m/s

F = 100 x 2,963 + (0.025x106 - 0.05x106) x 0.696 F = 278,900 N

We see that both the under-extended and over-extended nozzles produce thrusts less than that produced when the condition Pe=Pa is satisfied. When we plot a graph of total thrust versus the ratio Pa/Pe we obtain the following:

Based on work compiled and edited by Robert A. Braeunig

As can be easily seen, thrust is maximum when Pa/Pe=1, or when Pe=Pa.

Drag Coefficients as a function of Mach number

Based on work compiled and edited by Robert A. Braeunig

PROBLEMS PROBLEM 2.1

A spacecraft weighing 50,000 lb (including fuel) is drifting in gravity-free space. Its engine is fired for 3 minutes. During the burn, mass is ejected at a rate of 70 lb/s with an exhaust velocity of 10,000 ft/s. Calculate the spacecraft's thrust and acceleration as a function of time during the burn.

SOLUTION,
Given: M_initial = 50,000 / 32.2 = 1,553 slugs dM/dt = -70 / 32.2 = -2.17 slugs/s Vrel = -10,000 ft/s

Equation (2.5), M x (dv/dt) = Vrel x (dM/dt) where F = Vrel x dM/dt M = M_initial + (dM/dt x t) a = dv/dt = (Vrel x dM/dt) / M Thrust, F = -10,000 x -2.17 F = 21,700 lb Acceleration @ t = 0, a = 21,700 / (1,553 + (-2.17 x 0)) a = 14.0 ft/s2 Acceleration @ t = 180, a = 21,700 / (1,553 + (-2.17 x 180)) a = 18.7 ft/s2

PROBLEM 2.2
A rocket with an initial mass of 30,000 kg is launched vertically upward. Propellant is consumed at a constant rate of 170 kg/s and is ejected at a velocity of 2,300 m/s relative to the rocket. The rocket's supply of propellant will be exhausted after a burn of 150 seconds. Calculate the velocity of the rocket at burnout.

Based on work compiled and edited by Robert A. Braeunig

SOLUTION,
Given: M = 30,000 kg q = 170 kg/s Ve = 2,300 m/s t = 150 s Equation (2.13), v = Ve x LOG[ M / (M - qt) ] - g x t v = 2,300 x LOG[ 30,000 / (30,000 - (170 x 150)) ] - (9.81 x 150) v = 2,890 m/s

PROBLEM 2.3
Calculate the altitude of the rocket in problem 2.2 at the time of engine burnout.

SOLUTION,
Given: M = 30,000 kg q = 170 kg/s Ve = 2,300 m/s t = 150 s Equation (2.14), d = Ve x { t + t x LOG[ M / (M - qt) ] + M x LOG[ (M - qt) / M ] / q } - g x t2 / 2 d = 2,300 x { 150 + 150 x LOG[ 30,000 / (30,000 - (170 x 150)) ] + 30,000 x LOG[ (30,000 - (170 x 150)) / 30,000 ] / 170 } - (9.81 x 1502 / 2) d = 119,100 m

PROBLEM 2.4
A 15,000 kg spacecraft is in earth orbit traveling at a velocity of 7,790 m/s. Its engine is fired to accelerate it to escape velocity of 11,020 m/s. The engine expels mass at a rate of 25 kg/s and at a velocity of 3,000 m/s. Calculate the duration of the burn.

SOLUTION,
Given: M = 15,000 kg q = 25 kg/s Ve = 3,000 m/s

Based on work compiled and edited by Robert A. Braeunig

V = 11,020 - 7,790 = 3,230 m/s

Equation (2.16), t = M x [ 1 - ( 1 / EXP[ V / Ve ] ) ] / q

t = 15,000 x [ 1 - ( 1 / EXP[ 3,230 / 3,000 ] ) ] / 25 t = 395 s

PROBLEM 2.5
The F-1 engines of the Saturn V first stage operate at a combustion chamber pressure of 965 psi and a temperature of 5,970 degrees F. The propellant is kerosene and liquid oxygen at a 2.26 mixture ratio and the nozzle is adapted to operate at sea level. Calculate the ideal exhaust velocity relative to the rocket. Assume k = 1.20.

SOLUTION,
Given: O/F = 2.26 Tc = 5,970 + 460 = 6,430o R Pc = 965 psi Pe = Pa = 14.7 psi k = 1.20 Combustion equation, C12H26 + n x O2 O/F = (n x 32) / (1 x 170) = 2.26 n = (2.26 x 170) / 32 n = 12 C12H26 + 12 O2 --> 12 CO + 12 H2O + H2 Average molecular weight of exhaust gases, M = (12 x 28 + 12 x 18 + 1 x 2) / (12 + 12 + 1) = 22.2 Equation (2.17), Ve = SQRT[ (2 x k / (k - 1)) x (R' x Tc / M) x (1 - (Pe / Pc)(k-1)/k) ] Ve = SQRT[ (2 x 1.20 / (1.20 - 1)) x (49,720 x 6,430 / 22.2) x (1 - (14.7 / 965)(1.20-1)/1.20) ] Ve = 9,315 ft/s

PROBLEM 2.6
The first stage of the Saturn V produces a thrust of 7,650,000 lb at sea level with

Based on work compiled and edited by Robert A. Braeunig

a propellant flow rate of 29,400 lb/s. Calculate the specific impulse and, using the results from problem 2.5, the engine's efficiency.

SOLUTION,
Part 1, Given: F = 7,650,000 lb q x g = 29,400 lb/s

Equation (2.18), Isp_Actual = F / (q x g) Isp_Actual = 7,650,000 / 29,400 Isp_Actual = 260 s (sea level)

Part 2, Given: Ve = 9,315 ft/s For adapted nozzle @ sea level, Isp_Ideal = Ve / g Isp_Ideal = 9,315 / 32.2 Isp_Ideal = 289 s (sl) Efficiency, Isp_Actual / Isp_Ideal = 260 / 289 = 0.90

PROBLEM 2.7
A rocket engine uses kerosene and liquid oxygen propellant. It operates at a mixture ratio of 2.54, a combustion chamber pressure of 5 MPa, and temperature of 3,300 degrees C. The propellant flow rate is 350 kg/s. Calculate the area of the exhaust nozzle throat. Assume k = 1.20.

SOLUTION,
Given: O/F = 2.54 Tc = 3,300 + 273 = 3,573o K Pc = 5 MPa = 5x106 N/m2 k = 1.20 q = 350 kg/s Combustion equation, C12H26 + n x O2 O/F = (n x 32) / (1 x 170) = 2.54

Based on work compiled and edited by Robert A. Braeunig

n = (2.54 x 170) / 32 n = 13.5 C12H26 + 13.5 O2 --> 2 CO2 + 10 CO + 13H2O Average molecular weight of exhaust gases, M = (2 x 44 + 10 x 28 + 13 x 18) / (2 + 10 + 13) = 24.1 Equation (2.20), Pt = Pc x [1 + (k - 1) / 2]-k/(k-1) Pt = 5x106 x [1 + (1.20 - 1) / 2]-1.20/(1.20-1) Pt = 2.82x106 N/m2 Equation (2.21), Tt = Tc x [1 / (1 + (k - 1) / 2)] Tt = 3,573 x [1 / (1 + (1.20 - 1) / 2)] Tt = 3,248o K Equation (2.19), At = (q / Pt) x SQRT[ (R' x Tt) / (M x k) ] At = (350 / 2.82x106) x SQRT[ (8,314 x 3,248) / (24.1 x 1.20) ] At = 0.120 m2

PROBLEM 2.8
The rocket engine in problem 2.7 is adapted to operate at sea level. Calculate the area of the nozzle exit and the section ratio.

SOLUTION,
Given: Pc = 5 MPa Pa = 0.1 MPa At = 0.120 m2 k = 1.20 Equation (2.22), Nm2 = (2 / (k - 1)) x [(Pc / Pa)(k-1)/k - 1] Nm2 = (2 / (1.20 - 1)) x [(5 / 0.1)(1.20-1)/1.20 - 1] Nm2 = 9.19 Nm = (9.19)1/2 = 3.03 Equation (2.23), Ae = (At / Nm) x [(1 + (k - 1) / 2 x Nm2)/((k + 1) / 2)](k+1)/(2(k-1)) Ae = (0.120 / 3.03) x [(1 + (1.20 - 1) / 2 x 9.19)/((1.20 + 1) / 2)](1.20+1)/(2(1.20-1)) Ae = 0.845 m2 Section Ratio,

Based on work compiled and edited by Robert A. Braeunig

Ae / At = 0.845 / 0.120 = 7.0

Based on work compiled and edited by Robert A. Braeunig

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