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Introduction
In this lesson we introduce some of the uses of radioactivity and also some of the ways that it can be harmful. We'll see how nuclear radiation is similar to other forms of radiation and also important ways that it differs.
If the radiation consists of particles then these particles don't disappear but they do stop moving. Detecting nuclear radiation
You need special apparatus like a Geiger counter to detect nuclear radiation. You can't see it, hear it or feel it.
You can use a Geiger counter to show that nuclear radiation is given off in all directions by something that's radioactive. Irradiation doesn't make something radioactive
When nuclear radiation hits something, like an apple, we say the apple has been irradiated. Irradiating things doesn't make them radioactive. The apple may absorb the energy of the radiation, making it a little warmer, but the apple doesn't start giving off nuclear radiation. Irradiation can be used to kill bacteria in food so it will last longer.
This is what alpha radiation does to air. Each alpha particle loses its energy by ripping the air atoms to pieces as it flies past. Eventually it loses all its energy and just stops harmlessly.
Irradiation is about the radiation itself like alpha, beta or gamma. Radiation cant travel far so is not a risk over long distances.
keeping your distance. You could also use a thin lead shield but sometimes this can produce X-rays, which carry their own risk. It's is much harder to keep your distance if the beta emitter is a dust or carried in water so it can spread throughout the environment. Again, beta radiation is most dangerous if you breath in or swallow a substance that emits beta radiation. Remember its the radioactive substance that gets breathed in. You cant breath in radiation.
Gamma rays can pass through lead but aren't very damaging
Gamma rays can pass through a thin sheet of lead with very little effect. You need about 10 cm of lead to stop most gamma rays completely. Gamma rays are like a wind blowing over our lawn. It occasionally blows down a blade of grass but mostly it just passes through undisturbed. Gamma rays are weakly ionizing. They can rip an atom to pieces but they dont do it very often.
Say the doctor wants to get an image of a tumour in the patients brain. X-rays are no good because X-rays only show bones and denser tissues. She selects a harmless chemical that will tend to accumulate in the brain tumour. Then she reacts the chemical with another chemical that emits gamma radiation. This is called radioactive tagging. A common tag is called technetium-99m. The tagged chemical is injected into the patients vein. It spreads around the body but tends to build up in the brain tumour. So the brain tumour gives off gamma radiation. The doctor then uses a special camera called a gamma camera', which is sensitive to the gamma radiation given off. The image is built up quite slowly because the gamma source used is not very bright for improved safety. So it takes a while for the camera to capture enough packets of gamma radiation. The doctor may takes lots of images of the tumour from different angles. Sophisticated computer software can then build a 3-D image of the tumour. The computer can then display slices through the tumour. Displaying slices is called tomography.
Half-life gives you an idea of how long a substance will be radioactive for
Some substances lose their radioactivity quickly. Some take a long time. Radioactivity always decreases with time but sometimes it appears to increase because other radioactive substances are produced.
In theory the radioactivity of a source never reaches zero but in practise it does. The longer the half-life the longer the material will be radioactive for. Well define half-life more precisely in lesson 15.
The activity above uses a logarthmic scale for time so we can fit very short and very long times on the same scale. The most dangerous half-life is a few tens of years
After five half-lives only about 3% of the starting radioactivity will remain. This is 5 days if the half-life is 1 day, say, or 10 000 years if the half-life is 2000 years. You'd think that the longer the half-life the more risk there'd be because it stays radioactive for so long. But you have to remember that long half-life means not very radioactive in the first place. Radioactive materials with a short half-life are very radioactive but stop being radioactive quite quickly. Those with a long half-life stay radioactive for hundreds or thousands or millions of years but the radioactivity is low. The most dangerous radioactive substances have a half-life of a few tens of years. They can be dangerous in quite small quantities and stay radioactive for more than a human life-time.
If you don't want radioactivity to change much you need a long half-life
When the radioactive material stays in sealed container, we say the it's a 'closed' source. We have more control over what happens to a closed source so we dont mind if the half-life is longer. We do have to be extremely careful about disposing of closed sources after the machine they are used in reaches the end of its life. With our thickness gauge example we need the half-life to be quite long so that the beta emissions dont change much from day to day. Similarly with the smoke detector we choose an alpha emitter that has a long half-life so the detector will work for a long time.
As well as thinking about the type of radiation and half-life, cost and availability are also important when selecting a radioactive material.
Radon in your home depends on where you live and what your house is like
But radon gas can collect in your home and become much more concentrated. It's in your house that breathing in radon gas poses a health risk. How much radon there is in your house depends on how easily radon can come up through cracks in the floor and how easily it can escape. Some rocks produce more radon than others. Granite produces lots of radon. So some parts of the country have naturally higher radon levels than others. But neighbouring houses can have very different radon levels depending on how easily radon collects in them. Radon emits alpha particles. Alpha radiation cant penetrate very deep into the body. But radon is a gas so we can breathe it in. The alpha radiation from radon greatly increases the risk of lung cancer.
The government sets maximum radon levels before you ought to do something
If the radon level in your house is too high then the government advises you to reduce it. You can do this by sealing the floor to stop radon entering or by installing a fan system to help it to leave.
Its important to realise that background radiation in some parts of the country might be ten times higher than in other parts. So workers exposed to ionizing radiation dont really receive an unnaturally large amount.
The amounts of energy involved are very small. A teaspoon of boiling water will give you a nasty scald. But the same amount of energy delivered by gamma radiation is enough to kill you. Nuclear radiation is so dangerous because it can damage the most sensitive parts of cells deep in your body.
Radiation is most harmful if it damages the DNA in our cells. The radiation can damage the DNA directly or it can produce very reactive molecules called free radicals which can cause even more damage. DNA damage causes longterm and short-term problems
DNA molecules hold the pattern to make proteins. Proteins are the actors that DO everything we need to keep us alive. Enzymes, hormones and antibodies are all examples of proteins. If the DNA is damaged then we cant make the proteins we need and in we can quickly get ill. Different parts of your DNA tell cells when to divide, when not to divide or to commit suicide if the DNA is damaged too much. If these parts of the DNA are themselves damaged then cell division can get out of control and a cancerous tumour is formed, normally many years later. DNA is damaged all the time quite naturally but we have evolved ways of repairing the damage. If lots of damage happens to the same cell then the DNA may not be repaired correctly. This is why alpha radiation is much more dangerous than the same amount of beta or gamma radiation.
How close together ionizations happen is the key to the harm done to DNA
Alpha and beta both tear the same number of atoms to bits if they both have the same amount of energy to lose. But the ionizations from the beta (and gamma) will be quite spread out whereas the ionizations from the alpha will be close together. This means the alpha can damage the DNA of one cell a lot whereas gamma and beta will damage the DNA of lots of cells a bit. When we say that alpha radiation is highly ionizing we mean the ionizations are close together not that there are more of them. Gamma radiation tends to cause ionization indirectly.
Let's think about how much a group of 400 people's cancer risk will increase as they are exposed to different doses of gamma radiation. Over a lifetime about 170 of them would be expected to get some sort of cancer. These cancers could be caused by lots of different things: a poor diet, smoking, a virus, genetic make-up or just pure chance. Cancer only kills some people who get it. So we won't be thinking about actual deaths from cancer. A dose of 20 millisieverts is the maximum dose that people who work with radiation are allowed to be exposed to each year. About one extra person would get cancer when all 400 people were exposed to this dose. Cancer from radiation looks just like cancer from other causes so you can't tell who that extra person was. 100 mSv is the dose of gamma rays received by anyone living about 2 km from the atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki. About an extra 4 people out of 400 would get cancer at this dose. As you increase the dose above 100 millisieverts the proportion who contract cancer later in life increases.
Radiation sickness
Cancer is a long-term effect. Above about 200 millisieverts there start being short-term effects. First your red blood cell count begins to drop because your bone marrow is damaged. You wont notice a small drop but a bigger one will make you feel tired, dizzy and short of breath. If you go to hospital you may have a CAT (Computed Axial Tomography) scan. It uses a high dose of X-rays about 10 times the gamma dose you would get from background in a year. Its about 0.01 sieverts (10 millisieverts). Above about 0.5 sieverts (500 millisieverts) some people will start to feel sick. The immune system is also affected so there is an increased risk of infection. Above about 1 sievert a small proportion of people may die if not given medical attention. Everyone exposed to 2.5 sieverts will feel sick and almost a third will die without treatment. Above about 3 sieverts radiation causes internal bleeding which will help kill those already weakened by sickness and infection. By 6 sieverts almost everyone is either dead or seriously ill from internal bleeding. Above 7 sieverts everyone will die within two weeks and this time gets shorter as the dose increases further.
These precautions are for severe accidents only. Most radiation protection is designed for people who work with it every day. or example, doctors and patients need to be protected from radiation used in medicine. The principles are similar: keep your distance, use shielding and limit your time of exposure. Everyone who might be exposed to radiation as part of their job is monitored carefully to check they dont get too much.
The Chernobyl accident helped scientists understand more about radiation and health
Were going to use an imaginary accident which is partly based on the worlds only major nuclear accident, at Chernobyl in 1986. In this accident operators at a nuclear power station shut down some of the safety systems to conduct tests. They lost control of the reactor and there was a series of conventional (nonnuclear) explosions. These spread radioactive fall-out over a large part of Europe and eventually over much of the Northern Hemisphere.
Science cant answer questions about human values in the same way that you cant use ideas about football to explain opera. Science CAN tell us whether something is possible, like building a nuclear reactor but it CANT tell us whether we should do it or not.
A good scientific theory will suggest what to investigate next, though it takes the imagination of a scientist to work out the details. A core theory in biology is that DNA controls what our body does. This leads scientists to look for genes that might cause certain diseases. Another sign of a good theory is that it predicts the existence of something that has never been seen. Scientists can then hunt for it. For example the existence of the neutrino was predicted 20 years before it was finally detected. Scientists increase scientific knowledge by using existing theories to gradually push out the boundaries of the known into the unknown. It takes time for the community of scientists to accept new research as knowledge.
Research grants
Theyll need money to buy equipment and to pay themselves while theyre doing the research so they apply for a research grant. Their application explains why the work is new and important and how it relates to what is already known. It explains what they want to find out, how theyre going to do it, how long they think it will take and what they will spend the money on. This is essentially what youre doing when you write a plan for your investigation. You just dont get paid for it. The university may have a fund of money to award as research grants or the scientists may apply to a government department, private company or maybe even a charity. Lets say our scientists get their money. How do they go about planning their research?
It will be even more convincing if they can show that this agrees with other research showing HOW radiation causes brain cancer. So where are they going to get their data from? Hospital records, death certificates, newspapers? Probably the best approach is to look at hospital records but how many do they need to see, all of them or just a sample? If it s just a sample, how big does the sample have to be? You could do lots of random surveys and take an average but it probably makes m sense just to look at all the ore records.
Finding trends
So our scientists are going to look at all the tens of thousands of hospital records. But how many years do they need to look at? The problem is that the incidence of brain cancer changes every year. This is called scatter. They have to use a branch of mathematics called statistics to see if they can spot any trends. One technique is to use a moving average to flatten out the scatter. Say our data showed that the rate suddenly increased in 1990, four years after the accident.
Confounding factors
As well as removing scatter, scientists need to check that the incidence of cancer wasnt changing anyway. The number of brain cancer cases might be changing for lots of different reasons. These are called confounding factors. It might be that the number of cases is rising or it might just be that the hospital is getting better at detecting them. Perhaps a new technique for detecting brain cancer has been discovered, which would tend to show an increase in cases. Or maybe there was less money so fewer cases were being diagnosed, which would show up as a decrease. Lets assume that our scientists manage to adjust the data for all these effects and are sure that there HAS been an increase in brain cancer.
Drawing conclusions
How do they know that this increase was caused by radiation from the nuclear accident? Remember that the problem with cancer caused by radiation is that it looks just like any other cancer. The cancer isnt radioactive and there arent any tests you can do to find out what caused it. It would help if the scientists could show that an increase in radiation exposure increased the risk of getting brain cancer. This is much more difficult. The accident happened twenty years ago and all they have is some hospital records.
If someone shows up with brain cancer fifteen years after the accident youll know from the hospital records where they live now. But how do you know where they lived at the time of the accident? The only way to be sure is to follow up every brain cancer case. If they do this then the scientists can plot a graph of relative risk of brain cancer against contamination. Here relative means relative to your risk with no exposure to contamination. So with zero exposure your relative risk is 1. So the graph seems to confirm that increased radiation gave increased risk of brain cancer.
But it doesnt mean that their conclusions are true. What it means is that the data and conclusions are now available for anyone to look at. Other scientists can draw different conclusions from the same data or they may use the conclusions to support their own. Our research showed that brain cancer went up when radiation went up. This is called a correlation. But a correlation does not mean that one thing CAUSED another. Our scientists concluded that radiation did cause the increase because other research showed a mechanism. Radiation damages DNA and damaged DNA can cause cancer. But another scientist might have a theory that what causes brain cancer is fear. The people who were contaminated were afraid and this made them more likely to get brain cancer. Notice that this theory leads to predictions that can be tested. For example: people who worry less should be less at risk of brain cancer. However our fear causes cancer theory would not replace the radiation causes cancer theory unless it could explain more things. If a leading scientist was asked Did the radiation from the accident cause brain cancer? then they might reply something like Most research shows that it does and we know radiation damages DNA but some scientists have linked the increase to fear. Scientists try not to see peer-reviewed research that contradicts their own ideas as a threat but as an opportunity to learn more.
The people who pay the research grants may influence scientists' conclusions
It might be that the scientists feel under pressure to come to a conclusion that agrees with the group that funded them. Thats why some journals insist on knowing where the money came from. Was it the nuclear industry or perhaps an environmental group? Even though science is about ideas, scientists themselves are still just people with beliefs and prejudices just like everyone else.
One article might emphasize the fact that 200 000 people may die. It doesnt tell us that these are people who may die far in the future, not people who have died already in one great big group. It might show a graph that shows a big proportional increase in certain type of cancer but it doesnt say that the risk is still very small. It wants to convince us that nuclear accidents are very bad because they affect a large number of people. Another article might emphasize the fact that the overall cancer rate has increased by less than 1%. It doesnt tell us that this still amounts to a lot of people in a big population. It might show a graph that shows that the risk of all cancers has stayed pretty much the same but it doesnt tell us about the human effects of each extra case. It wants to convince us that nuclear accidents are not so bad because your risk of getting cancer hasnt increased very much. So if you were asked How bad was the nuclear accident? your answer may depend on which article you happened to read.
Of course one way to reduce a risk to zero is to avoid it altogether. For example you dont need to go parachuting. Perhaps we should avoid doing things where the result might be serious and irreversible harm. This is called the precautionary principle and was first widely adopted by governments in the 1980s. It makes sense to avoid doing something if you don't know whether serious and irreversible harm might result from it. An example might be We dont know the long-term risks of burying nuclear waste so we should avoid doing it. One problem with the precautionary principle is that its never possible to prove that something wont cause harm. Another is that it ignores both the potential benefits and the cost of doing nothing. The precautionary principle seems simple but people disagree on the meanings of know, serious, might and harm.
Assessing risk
But how do we know how big a risk is? The worst type of risk is likely to happen and the consequences are very bad. Getting lung cancer from smoking would be a good example. There has only ever been one nuclear accident, Chernobyl, where people outside a plant died. How would you rate the risk of a nuclear power station accident?
Science can t answer questions about whether there should be nuclear power. It can only provide the numbers. It is up to each person to decide the risks they are prepared to take themselves or pass on to other people.