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Introduction to Analog and Digital Communication Theory

Mike Rice and David G. Long Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Brigham Young University

Sat Jan 4 14:45:22 MST 1997 Draft Version 0.0 1994 by Mike Rice and David G. Long

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Contents Forward Notation and Glossary Introduction Signals, Signal Characterization, and Sampling r Signal Characterization s Signal Classifications s Deterministic Signals s Random Signals s Energy Signals s Power Signals s Signal Properties s Time Averages s Autocorrelation s Bandwidth r Sampling s Ideal Sampling s Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Hilbert Transform Amplitude Modulation r Linear Amplitude Modulation s Double Side Band Modulation (DSB) s Description s Test Tone s Carrier Power s DSB Bandwidth s Generation of DSB s Amplitude Modulation---Total Carrier (AM-TC) s AM-TC Description s Test Tone s Carrier Power s AM-TC Bandwidth s AM-TC Generation s Single Side Band (SSB) s SSB Description s Test Tone s Carrier Power s SSB Bandwidth s SSB Generation s Coherent Demodulation s Ideal Coherent Demodulation s Effect of LO Offset s Non-coherent Demodulation s Envelope Detection s Interference s Coherent Demodulation s Envelope Detection s Comparison of Linear Modulation Systems Angle Modulation r Generalized Angle Modulation s Frequency Modulation (FM) s Description of FM s Test Tone s Carrier Power s FM Bandwidth s FM Generation s Demodulation (FM Discriminator) s Interference in Angle Modulation s Phase Modulation (PM)
r

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PM Description s Test Tone s Carrier Power s PM Bandwidth s PM Generation s Demodulation s Interference s FM - PM Comparisons Frequency Division Multiplexing and Commerical Broadcasting r Frequency Division Multiplexing s Commercial AM Broadcasting s Commercial FM Broadcasting s Commercial Broadcast TV s Cellular Telephone s AT&T FDM Hierarchy s Heterodyne Receivers Random Noise and Stochastic Processes Noise in Modulation Systems r Noise in DSB systems s Carrier to Noise Ratio (CNR) s SNR: Coherent Demodulation s SNR: Envelope Detection r Noise in SSB Systems s CNR s SNR r Noise in FM Systems s CNR s SNR s Noise in PM Systems s CNR s SNR Digital Data Transmission r Binary Data Transmission s Optimum Receiver
s s s

Determine k s Determine s Correlation Receiver Fourier Analysis r Definition of the Fourier Transform
s

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Existence of the Fourier Transform s The Fourier Transform as a Limit s Integral Limits and Generalized Functions s Fourier Transform of Periodic Signals as a Limit r Key Properties of the Fourier Transform r Computing of the Fourier Transform s The Direct Method s Sifting Property of the Function s The Table-Based Method r Alternate Forms of the Fourier Transform r Fourier Transform Tables s Key Properties of the Fourier Transform s Fourier Transform Table r Fourier Series s The Fourier Series From the Fourier Transform s Properties of the Fourier Series s Gibbs Phenomenon s Fourier Series Transform Tables s Definition and Key Properties s Fourier Series Transform Table References Index About this document ...
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David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Forward Up: Introduction to Analog and Previous: Introduction to Analog and

Contents
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Forward Notation and Glossary Introduction Signals, Signal Characterization, and Sampling r Signal Characterization s Signal Classifications s Deterministic Signals s Random Signals s Energy Signals s Power Signals s Signal Properties s Time Averages s Autocorrelation s Bandwidth r Sampling s Ideal Sampling s Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) r Hilbert Transform Amplitude Modulation r Linear Amplitude Modulation s Double Side Band Modulation (DSB) s Description s Test Tone s Carrier Power s DSB Bandwidth s Generation of DSB s Amplitude Modulation---Total Carrier (AM-TC) s AM-TC Description s Test Tone s Carrier Power s AM-TC Bandwidth s AM-TC Generation

Single Side Band (SSB) s SSB Description s Test Tone s Carrier Power s SSB Bandwidth s SSB Generation s Coherent Demodulation s Ideal Coherent Demodulation s Effect of LO Offset s Non-coherent Demodulation s Envelope Detection s Interference s Coherent Demodulation s Envelope Detection s Comparison of Linear Modulation Systems Angle Modulation r Generalized Angle Modulation s Frequency Modulation (FM) s Description of FM s Test Tone s Carrier Power s FM Bandwidth s FM Generation s Demodulation (FM Discriminator) s Interference in Angle Modulation s FM Interference s PM Interference s Phase Modulation (PM) s PM Description s Test Tone s Carrier Power s PM Bandwidth s PM Generation s Demodulation s Interference s FM - PM Comparisons Frequency Division Multiplexing and Commerical Broadcasting r Frequency Division Multiplexing s Commercial AM Broadcasting s Commercial FM Broadcasting s Commercial Broadcast TV
s

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Cellular Telephone s AT&T FDM Hierarchy s Heterodyne Receivers Random Noise and Stochastic Processes Noise in Modulation Systems r Noise in DSB systems s Carrier to Noise Ratio (CNR) s SNR: Coherent Demodulation s SNR: Envelope Detection r Noise in SSB Systems s CNR s SNR r Noise in FM Systems s CNR s SNR s Noise in PM Systems s CNR s SNR Digital Data Transmission r Binary Data Transmission s Optimum Receiver
s s s

Determine k s Determine s Correlation Receiver Fourier Analysis r Definition of the Fourier Transform r Existence of the Fourier Transform s The Fourier Transform as a Limit s Integral Limits and Generalized Functions s Fourier Transform of Periodic Signals as a Limit r Key Properties of the Fourier Transform r Computing of the Fourier Transform s The Direct Method s Sifting Property of the Function s The Table-Based Method r Alternate Forms of the Fourier Transform r Fourier Transform Tables s Key Properties of the Fourier Transform s Fourier Transform Table
s

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Fourier Series s The Fourier Series From the Fourier Transform s Properties of the Fourier Series s Gibbs Phenomenon s Fourier Series Transform Tables s Definition and Key Properties s Fourier Series Transform Table References Index About this document ...
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David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Notation and Glossary Up: Introduction to Analog and Previous: Contents

Forward
This book is about Analog and Digital Communication Theory. While many excellent texts have been written on the subject they often try to cover too much material. This book is specially designed an introductory text for a one semseter or one quater class. The outline of this book is as follows: First, signal fundamentals, notational conventions, the definition of the Fourier Transform, are given in Chapter 1. This book is not yet complete. However, it is released at this very early stage as an aid to the student.

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Introduction Up: Introduction to Analog and Previous: Forward

Notation and Glossary

1

: delta function. : Derivative of the Dirac delta function (Doublet). : Statistical expectation. : Forward Fourier tranform. : Inverse Fourier tranform. : Hilbert tranform.

: Imaginary part. j: The imaginary number .

: Gate function. : Angular frequency (radians/s).

: Real part. : Signum (or, sign) function. : Step function. : Triangle function. : Statistical average. :

Complex conjugate of A. 1

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: SignalsSignal Characterization, Up: Introduction to Analog and Previous: Notation and Glossary

Introduction

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Next: Signal Characterization Up: Introduction to Analog and Previous: Introduction

Signals, Signal Characterization, and Sampling

Signal Characterization r Signal Classifications s Deterministic Signals s Random Signals s Energy Signals s Power Signals r Signal Properties s Time Averages s Autocorrelation s Bandwidth Sampling r Ideal Sampling r Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Hilbert Transform

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Signal Classifications Up: SignalsSignal Characterization, Previous: SignalsSignal Characterization,

Signal Characterization
Communications is the process of transmitting meaningful signals from one location to another. Signals have several classifications and properties.

Signal Classifications r Deterministic Signals r Random Signals r Energy Signals r Power Signals Signal Properties r Time Averages r Autocorrelation r Bandwidth

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Next: Deterministic Signals Up: Signal Characterization Previous: Signal Characterization

Signal Classifications

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Deterministic Signals Random Signals Energy Signals Power Signals

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Next: Random Signals Up: Signal Classifications Previous: Signal Classifications

Deterministic Signals
Deterministic Signals are signals which are completely specified as a function of time. Examples of deterministic signals: 1. 2. 3. 4. (unit step function) (impulse function)

5. sinc(t)=

6. 7. (``Triangle function'').

(``Rectangle function'').

8. Sgn(x) (``Signum function'') 9. (``Impulse train'')

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Next: Energy Signals Up: Signal Classifications Previous: Deterministic Signals

Random Signals
Random Signals are signals that take on a random value at any given instant of time. These signals must be modeled probabilistically.

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Next: Power Signals Up: Signal Classifications Previous: Random Signals

Energy Signals
The normalized energy E of the signal is

When

is classified as an energy signal.

Examples:

and

are energy signals. Periodic functions are not energy signals.

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Next: Signal Properties Up: Signal Classifications Previous: Energy Signals

Power Signals
The normalized power P of the signal is

When

is classified as a power signal. Periodic signals are an important is periodic with period , then

subgroup of power signals. If

Examples: Periodic functions such as are neither power nor energy signals include

are power signals. and

Examples of signals which for t > 0.

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Next: Time Averages Up: Signal Characterization Previous: Power Signals

Signal Properties

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Time Averages Autocorrelation Bandwidth

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Next: Autocorrelation Up: Signal Properties Previous: Signal Properties

Time Averages
The time average of the signal is denoted by angle brackets , i.e.,

If

is periodic with period

, then

is the DC value of

. . This is the normalized power of . .

is the mean-square value of

is the root-mean-square (rms) value of

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Bandwidth Up: Signal Properties Previous: Time Averages

Autocorrelation
Energy Signals: The autocorrelation of the energy signal is

The Fourier Transform of the autocorrelation is

Rayleigh's Energy Theorem: Let

be the energy spectral density of the energy signal

. Then

Power Signals: The autocorrelation of the power signal

is

Wiener-Kinchine Theorem: Let

be the power spectral density of the power signal

. Then

so that

with equality holding only in the limit. Periodic Signals: Periodic signals are a special case of power signals where the autocorrelation takes on a special form. If is periodic with period , then it may be expressed as

Then the autocorrelation is

The power spectral density

of

is

and the power P is

The last step is the result of Parseval's Theorem which states that

Linear Systems: Let output. Then

be the input to an LTI system with impulse response

and let

be the resulting

and

Example: Homework problem 0.2

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Next: Sampling Up: Signal Properties Previous: Autocorrelation

Bandwidth
The concept of power spectral density permits a useful definition of bandwidth. For engineering terms, the bandwidth is measured on the positive frequency axis only. The bandwidth is given by for bandpass signals. For baseband signals, several common definitions: 1. Absolute Bandwidth and are defined following the condition . The frequencies and are determined using

2. 3-dB Bandwidth and are determined by the range of frequencies for which

where

is the frequency for which

is the maximum.

3. Equivalent Noise Bandwidth is the width of a fictitious rectangular filter such that the power in that rectangular band is equal to the actual power of the signal. The actual power of the signal is

The equivalent in the rectangular band is

where

is the frequency for which

is a maximum. Equating the actual and equivalent

powers yields the relationship

4. Null-to-Null Bandwidth Let be the frequency for which 1. Baseband Signals is a maximum.

2. Bandpass Signals

Note that this definition does not apply to all spectra since not all spectra have nulls. 5. Bounded Spectrum Bandwidth and are defined by the range of f for which

Note that is usually expressed in dB. 6. Power Bandwidth and are defined by the frequency interval which contains some percentage R of the total signal power:

Common values of R include 1.

2. 7. Spectral Mask (FCC Regulations) Section 12.106 of the FCC Rules and Regulations states ``For operating frequencies below 15 GHz, in any 4 kHz band, the center frequency of which is removed from the assigned frequency by more than 50 percent up to and including 250 percent of the authorized bandwidth, as specified by the following equation, but in no event less than 50 dB:

(attenuation greater than 80 dB is not required) where

Next: Sampling Up: Signal Properties Previous: Autocorrelation

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Ideal Sampling Up: SignalsSignal Characterization, Previous: Bandwidth

Sampling

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Ideal Sampling Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

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Next: Pulse Code Modulation Up: Sampling Previous: Sampling

Ideal Sampling
Sampling Theorem: Let for |f| > W). samples with period frequency. In other words, a bandlimited signal can be completely represented by its sample values. Let be the sampled version of . Ideal instantaneous sampling may be represented by be a baseband signal which is strictly bandlimited to W Hz. (i.e. is completely described by uniformly spaced (in time) instantaneous . The lowest possible sample rate is called the Nyquist

Signal Reconstruction If the conditions of the sampling theorem are satisfied, the recovery of

from

is possible by using a low pass filter.

(illustration) If the conditions of the sampling theorem are not satisfied (either because not bandlimited), then distortion is present at the output of the reconstruction filter: 1. so that the replicated spectra overlap. This is called aliasing. by increasing the filter order or increasing . or is

2. The reconstruction filter does not have sufficiently high rolloff. This distortion can be reduced

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Hilbert Transform Up: Sampling Previous: Ideal Sampling

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

In PCM, the signal samples are quantized to discrete levels. The quantization level of each sample is transmitted instead of the sample value.

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Amplitude Modulation Up: SignalsSignal Characterization, Previous: Pulse Code Modulation

Hilbert Transform
The Hilbert Transform of the signal all phase shifted by is defined to be the signal whose frequency components are radians. The resulting signal is denoted

is produced by passing

through a filter with transfer function

The magnitude and phase of

are

The impulse response is the inverse Fourier transform of ( gif ):

It is instructive to contrast and compare the transfer function of the Hilbert transmform to that of a pure time delay ( ). The transfer function of the time delay is

Both have the same magnitude but the time delay has a phase which is linear in frequency instead of constant. Example 1: Find when .

Example 2: Homework problem. The properties of the Hilbert transform are outlined in Section 2.9 of the Text. (Note: the Hilbert transform is used in complex analysis to generate complex-valued analytic functions from real functions. A function is analytic if and only if its components are harmonic conjugates. The Hilbert transform is used to generate a functions whose components are harmonic conjugates.)

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Linear Amplitude Modulation Up: Introduction to Analog and Previous: Hilbert Transform

Amplitude Modulation

Linear Amplitude Modulation r Double Side Band Modulation (DSB) s Description s Test Tone s Carrier Power s DSB Bandwidth s Generation of DSB r Amplitude Modulation---Total Carrier (AM-TC) s AM-TC Description s Test Tone s Carrier Power s AM-TC Bandwidth s AM-TC Generation r Single Side Band (SSB) s SSB Description s Test Tone s Carrier Power s SSB Bandwidth s SSB Generation r Coherent Demodulation s Ideal Coherent Demodulation s Effect of LO Offset r Non-coherent Demodulation s Envelope Detection r Interference s Coherent Demodulation s Envelope Detection r Comparison of Linear Modulation Systems

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Double Side Band Up: Amplitude Modulation Previous: Amplitude Modulation

Linear Amplitude Modulation

The amplitude of the carrier is proportional to the message signal .

Double Side Band Modulation (DSB) r Description r Test Tone r Carrier Power r DSB Bandwidth r Generation of DSB Amplitude Modulation---Total Carrier (AM-TC) r AM-TC Description r Test Tone r Carrier Power r AM-TC Bandwidth r AM-TC Generation Single Side Band (SSB) r SSB Description r Test Tone r Carrier Power r SSB Bandwidth r SSB Generation Coherent Demodulation r Ideal Coherent Demodulation r Effect of LO Offset Non-coherent Demodulation r Envelope Detection Interference r Coherent Demodulation r Envelope Detection Comparison of Linear Modulation Systems

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Description Up: Linear Amplitude Modulation Previous: Linear Amplitude Modulation

Double Side Band Modulation (DSB)

DSB is also called amplitude modulation---suppressed carrier (AM-SC).

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Description Test Tone Carrier Power DSB Bandwidth Generation of DSB

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Next: Test Tone Up: Double Side Band Previous: Double Side Band

Description

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Next: Carrier Power Up: Double Side Band Previous: Description

Test Tone
.

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Next: DSB Bandwidth Up: Double Side Band Previous: Test Tone

Carrier Power

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Next: Generation of DSB Up: Double Side Band Previous: Carrier Power

DSB Bandwidth
Using the modulation theorem, it is seen that the bandwidth occupied by : is twice that of

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Next: Amplitude Modulation---Total Carrier Up: Double Side Band Previous: DSB Bandwidth

Generation of DSB
DSB signal is generated by the multiplication of the carrier by the message signal. The circuit which performs this operation is often referred to as a mixer.

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Next: AM-TC Description Up: Linear Amplitude Modulation Previous: Generation of DSB

Amplitude Modulation---Total Carrier (AM-TC)

AM-TC is also refered to DSB-TC.

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AM-TC Description Test Tone Carrier Power AM-TC Bandwidth AM-TC Generation

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Next: Test Tone Up: Amplitude Modulation---Total Carrier Previous: Amplitude Modulation---Total Carrier

AM-TC Description

where

so that min

and

is the modulation index. The modulation index must satisfy

for no distortion.

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Next: Carrier Power Up: Amplitude Modulation---Total Carrier Previous: AM-TC Description

Test Tone
Let .

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Next: AM-TC Bandwidth Up: Amplitude Modulation---Total Carrier Previous: Test Tone

Carrier Power

The efficiency is defined as the percentage of the total carrier power that conveys information. Only the sidebands convey information. Thus,

so that the carrier power is

Clearly

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: AM-TC Generation Up: Amplitude Modulation---Total Carrier Previous: Carrier Power

AM-TC Bandwidth
The carrier spectrum of AM-TC is identical to that of DSB except for the impulse at represents the carrier. Thus which

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Single Side Band Up: Amplitude Modulation---Total Carrier Previous: AM-TC Bandwidth

AM-TC Generation

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Next: SSB Description Up: Linear Amplitude Modulation Previous: AM-TC Generation

Single Side Band (SSB)

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SSB Description Test Tone Carrier Power SSB Bandwidth SSB Generation

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Next: Test Tone Up: Single Side Band Previous: Single Side Band

SSB Description

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Next: Carrier Power Up: Single Side Band Previous: SSB Description

Test Tone
Let .

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Next: SSB Bandwidth Up: Single Side Band Previous: Test Tone

Carrier Power

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Next: SSB Generation Up: Single Side Band Previous: Carrier Power

SSB Bandwidth
The bandwidth of SSB is

which is half that required for DSB or AM-TC.

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Next: Coherent Demodulation Up: Single Side Band Previous: SSB Bandwidth

SSB Generation
SSB is somewhat more difficult than DSB to generate but requires less bandwidth. 1. Filter Method (Figure 3.5, page 152) Filter constraints are severe, must not have a DC

component. 2. Phasing Method (Figure 3.7, page 155) Difficult to construct a phasing network which properly phases all the frequency components of the baseband signal.

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Ideal Coherent Demodulation Up: Linear Amplitude Modulation Previous: SSB Generation

Coherent Demodulation
Coherent Demodulation is accomplished by remodulating is at the same frequency and in phase with the original carrier. using a local oscillator (LO) which

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Ideal Coherent Demodulation Effect of LO Offset

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Next: Effect of LO Up: Coherent Demodulation Previous: Coherent Demodulation

Ideal Coherent Demodulation

Let

where

and

Let the LO output be

. Then

For AM-TC, the DC component of

is removed to yield

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Next: Non-coherent Demodulation Up: Coherent Demodulation Previous: Ideal Coherent Demodulation

Effect of LO Offset
Now let the LO output be . Then

If

which is a phase offset, then the effect is simple attenuation for DSB modulation and phase where is a slight frequency offset, then distortion is

distortion for SSB. If translated in frequency from baseband by

introduced which is called ``warble'' for DSB. For SSB, the spectrum of the information signal is Hz which sounds like the ``Donald Duck'' effect.

Pilot Tone is the most common method to generate coherent carrier phase reference at the receiver.

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Envelope Detection Up: Linear Amplitude Modulation Previous: Effect of LO

Non-coherent Demodulation
The simplest form of non-coherent demodulation is envelope detection.

Envelope Detection

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Next: Interference Up: Non-coherent Demodulation Previous: Non-coherent Demodulation

Envelope Detection
For AM-TC, a technique that does not require a coherent carrier reference can be used if sufficient carrier power is transmitted. This method is called envelope detection. The envelope of the general signal . In this case is defined mathematically as the magnitude of

which is unambiguous as long as

An envelope detector produces an output simple diode with an RC network. Refer to Figure 3.3 page 148.

when the input is

and can be realized using a

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Coherent Demodulation Up: Linear Amplitude Modulation Previous: Envelope Detection

Interference
The interference modeled as a sinusoid at a frequency slightly different than that of the carrier. The received signal is

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Coherent Demodulation Envelope Detection

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Next: Envelope Detection Up: Interference Previous: Interference

Coherent Demodulation

DSB (AM-SC)

The signal and interference powers are

so that the signal-to-interference ratio is

where DSB-TC

is the carrier-to-interference ratio.

The signal and interference powers are

so that the signal-to-interference ratio is

where

is the carrier-to-interference ratio.

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Comparison of Linear Up: Interference Previous: Coherent Demodulation

Envelope Detection
The received signal is expressed as

where

Clearly, the envelope is

which may be expressed as

This is exactly the result for coherent demodulation. Note that the approximation used are valid only when

which is the case when the signal power is much stronger than the interference power.

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Angle Modulation Up: Linear Amplitude Modulation Previous: Envelope Detection

Comparison of Linear Modulation Systems

1

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Next: Generalized Angle Modulation Up: Introduction to Analog and Previous: Comparison of Linear

Angle Modulation

Generalized Angle Modulation r Frequency Modulation (FM) s Description of FM s Test Tone s Carrier Power s FM Bandwidth s FM Generation s Demodulation (FM Discriminator) s Interference in Angle Modulation s FM Interference s PM Interference r Phase Modulation (PM) s PM Description s Test Tone s Carrier Power s PM Bandwidth s PM Generation s Demodulation s Interference r FM - PM Comparisons

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Frequency Modulation (FM) Up: Angle Modulation Previous: Angle Modulation

Generalized Angle Modulation

The angle of the carrier

is

There are two main characteristics of the angle: the instantaneous phase of the carrier is

and the instantaneous frequency of the carrier which is

the first term from

is the carrier frequency and the second term represents a change in the frequency

. It is called the instantaneous frequency deviation.

Frequency Modulation (FM) r Description of FM r Test Tone r Carrier Power r FM Bandwidth r FM Generation r Demodulation (FM Discriminator) r Interference in Angle Modulation

FM Interference s PM Interference Phase Modulation (PM) r PM Description r Test Tone r Carrier Power r PM Bandwidth r PM Generation r Demodulation r Interference FM - PM Comparisons
s

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Next: Description of FM Up: Generalized Angle Modulation Previous: Generalized Angle Modulation

Frequency Modulation (FM)

The instantaneous frequency deviation is proportional to the message signal :

is called the frequency deviation constant. Integrating both sides the instantaneous phase:

The lower limit on the integral is not usually specified since an initial condition is not included.

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Description of FM Test Tone Carrier Power FM Bandwidth FM Generation Demodulation (FM Discriminator) Interference in Angle Modulation r FM Interference r PM Interference

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Next: Test Tone Up: Frequency Modulation (FM) Previous: Frequency Modulation (FM)

Description of FM

Since terms of

is not a linear function of .

, it is, in general, not possible to express

in

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Next: Carrier Power Up: Frequency Modulation (FM) Previous: Description of FM

Test Tone
.

The factor

is called the modulation index. The function it may be expanded into a Fourier Series:

is periodic with period

. Thus,

where

which is the

order Bessel function gif of the first kind. (

is called the ``argument''.) Thus

and

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Next: FM Bandwidth Up: Frequency Modulation (FM) Previous: Test Tone

Carrier Power

This can also be determined for the case of sinusoidal modulation by using Parseval's Theorem. The power spectral density of is

By Parseval's Theorem,

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: FM Generation Up: Frequency Modulation (FM) Previous: Carrier Power

FM Bandwidth
For arbitrary , the bandwidth is virtually impossible to determine exactly. For sinusoidal is used. is

modulation, the bandwidth is theoretically infinite, but for practical purposes, determined by the value of k for which

so that

Table 3.2 reveals

. Thus,

This rule of thumb is called Carsons's Rule in honor of John Carson, a radio engineer who first observed this in the 1940's. For arbitrary of thumb works well: , experimental results have shown that the same rule

where

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Next: Demodulation (FM Discriminator) Up: Frequency Modulation (FM) Previous: FM Bandwidth

FM Generation
1. VCO A Voltage Controled Oscillator (VCO) is an oscillator whose output frequency is proportional to the input voltage. It really is a frequency modulator. Typically, these devices are not able to produce large frequency deviations. 2. Indirect Modulation Narrow Band Frequency Modulation (NBFM) is FM where . In this case

Since

so that

and

This is almost like AM-TC where

Note the differences between NBFM and AM-TC. The bandwidth occupied by NBFM modulated carrier is seen to be 2W. Carson's rule also gives this result for small D (or )!

Block diagram in Figure 3.26 (page 177). em Wide Band Frequency Modulation (WBFM) is FM where . WBFM is usually

generated by using a frequency multiplier to perform narrow band to wideband conversion. A

frequency multiplier multiplies the angle of a sinusoid by N. (Compare this operation to that of a mixer which performs a linear translation of the carrier frequency but does not effect the instantaneous phase or frequency deviation).

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Next: Interference in Angle Up: Frequency Modulation (FM) Previous: FM Generation

Demodulation (FM Discriminator)

There are four basic types of FM discriminators: 1. Ideal FM Discriminator The ideal FM discriminator consists of a differentiator followed by an envelope detector as shown in Figure 3.34 (page 190). In this case let so that

Thus,

if

which is almost always the case. Removing the DC component yields

If the amplitude of the carrier is perturbed by noise or other interference so that

then the discriminator output is

The carrier amplitude variations cause distortion at the output. This distortion can be removed by passing through a limiter prior to the differentiator as shown in Figure 3.35 (page 191). The output of the limiter is square wave given by

The limiter output must then be converted to a sinusoid by passing it through a band-pass filter with center frequency and sufficient bandwidth to pass the varying fundamental. The result is a constant amplitude sinusoid which is differentiated and passed through the envelope detector to produce the desired signal. 2. Time-Delay/Phase-Shift Demodulator The time derivative of is defined by the following limit:

For small

so that the differentiation process may be approximated by time delay and subtraction operation. This is illustrated in Figure 3.36 (page 192). A Phase shift demodulator uses a linear phase shift network (or delay line) to produce the delayed verion of the modulated carrier as shown in Figure gif . The phase-shift network has a group delay and a carrier delay designed so that

Let the output of the bandpass filter be

The output of the phase shift network is thus

The low pass filter output of the product of ( gif ) and ( gif ) is

Now if

is small and that the change is

is very small during

seconds,

Since the phase-shift network produces a quadrature version of the modulated carrier, this demodulator is often called a quadrature detector. 3. Zero Crossing Detector All the message information is contained in the frequency of the carrier not in the amplitude (that is why the limiter is able to remove all amplitude information from the carrier without destroying any of the information content of the carrier). The frequency of the carrier can be measured by observing the zero crossings of the carrier. The demodulator is outlined in Figure gif . The square-wave FM signal from the hard limiter triggers a monostable pulse generator which produces a short pulse of duration at each positive (or negative) zero crossing of the FM square wave. The monostable output is a pulse train with period

During any interval of T seconds where

there are

pulses. Continually integrating v(t) over this T second interval yields

4. PLL Discriminator (See Section 3.3 (pages 199 -- 213) of the text.)

Figure: Phase-Shift (Delay-Line) FM Demodulator.

Figure: Zero-Crossing FM Demodulator.

Next: Interference in Angle Up: Frequency Modulation (FM) Previous: FM Generation

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: FM Interference Up: Frequency Modulation (FM) Previous: Demodulation (FM Discriminator)

Interference in Angle Modulation

Let the modulated carrier be given by

where

The interference signal is a sinusoid given by

so that the received signal is

Clearly, for both FM and PM, the carrier and interference powers are

so that the carrier-to-interference ratio is

q q

FM Interference PM Interference

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: PM Interference Up: Interference in Angle Previous: Interference in Angle

FM Interference The signal-to-interference ratio is derived for the ideal FM discriminator. The received signal is expressed as

where

After passing through the hard-limiter, the received signal is expressed as

Using

for small x, it is seen that for

The outputs of the differentiator and envelope detector are

The first term represents the signal the power of which is

The second term represents a combination of the signal and the interference at the discriminator output. The interference power is determined by observing the power of the interference signal in the presence of an unmodulated carrer. Setting , it is seen that and interference component of

is

which is a sinusoid with a frequency dependent amplitude. The interfernece power is

and the signal-to-interference ratio is

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Phase Modulation (PM) Up: Interference in Angle Previous: FM Interference

PM Interference The PM demodulator is effectively an ideal FM demodulator followed by an integrator. Thus

The signal power is

The interference power is determined by calculating the power of the demodulator output when the input is an unmodulated carrer. With

The signal-to-interference ratio is

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: PM Description Up: Generalized Angle Modulation Previous: PM Interference

Phase Modulation (PM)

The instantaneous phase deviation is proportional to the message signal

The parameter is called the phase deviation constant.

q q q q q q q

PM Description Test Tone Carrier Power PM Bandwidth PM Generation Demodulation Interference

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Test Tone Up: Phase Modulation (PM) Previous: Phase Modulation (PM)

PM Description

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Carrier Power Up: Phase Modulation (PM) Previous: PM Description

Test Tone

where

is the maximum phase deviation. The term

is periodic in t with period

This periodic term may be expressed as

where

Thus

and

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: PM Bandwidth Up: Phase Modulation (PM) Previous: Test Tone

Carrier Power

This can also be determined for the case of sinusoidal modulation by using Parseval's Theorem. The power spectral density of

is

Thus by Parseval's Theorem,

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: PM Generation Up: Phase Modulation (PM) Previous: Carrier Power

PM Bandwidth
Just as in the case for FM, the power spectral density and bandwidth are impossible to determine for arbitrary . For sinusoidal modulation Carson's rule is used to determine . Thus

where

is the maximum phase deviation. Note that this definition of is not a function of

is different than that for the FM case.

. Extending these results to the case of arbitrary , it is seen that

where

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Demodulation Up: Phase Modulation (PM) Previous: PM Bandwidth

PM Generation
FM without integrator. Figure 3.26 page 177.

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Interference Up: Phase Modulation (PM) Previous: PM Generation

Demodulation
FM discriminator followed by integrator.

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: FM - PM Up: Phase Modulation (PM) Previous: Demodulation

Interference
Let the received signal be

where

Clearly, the carrier-to-interference ratio is

The PM demodulator is an FM demodulator followed by an integrator. Thus

The signal power is

The interference power is determined by calculating the power of the demodulator output when the input is an unmodulated carrer. With

The signal-to-interference ratio is

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Frequency Division Multiplexing Up: Generalized Angle Modulation Previous: Interference

FM - PM Comparisons
1. in Figure 3.24 page 174

2.

in Figure 3.26 page 175

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Frequency Division Multiplexing Up: Introduction to Analog and Previous: FM - PM

Frequency Division Multiplexing and Commerical Broadcasting

Frequency Division Multiplexing r Commercial AM Broadcasting r Commercial FM Broadcasting r Commercial Broadcast TV r Cellular Telephone r AT&T FDM Hierarchy r Heterodyne Receivers

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Commercial AM Broadcasting Up: Frequency Division Multiplexing Previous: Frequency Division Multiplexing

Frequency Division Multiplexing

q q q q q q

Commercial AM Broadcasting Commercial FM Broadcasting Commercial Broadcast TV Cellular Telephone AT&T FDM Hierarchy Heterodyne Receivers

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Commercial FM Broadcasting Up: Frequency Division Multiplexing Previous: Frequency Division Multiplexing

Commercial AM Broadcasting
1

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Commercial Broadcast TV Up: Frequency Division Multiplexing Previous: Commercial AM Broadcasting

Commercial FM Broadcasting
1

1 120ptfmspectrum.eps 300ptpde.eps

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Cellular Telephone Up: Frequency Division Multiplexing Previous: Commercial FM Broadcasting

Commercial Broadcast TV
1

1 120pttvspectrum.eps 200ptmtsspectrum.eps

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: AT&T FDM Hierarchy Up: Frequency Division Multiplexing Previous: Commercial Broadcast TV

Cellular Telephone
Cellular Telephone AMPS ( Advanced Mobile Phone System) Standard
1

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Heterodyne Receivers Up: Frequency Division Multiplexing Previous: Cellular Telephone

AT&T FDM Hierarchy

1

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Random Noise and Up: Frequency Division Multiplexing Previous: AT&T FDM Hierarchy

Heterodyne Receivers
There are two basic methods for demodulating FDM signals. The first is the Variable Tuned Filter (VTF) method illustrated in Figure gif . In this method, the center frequency of the variable band-pass filter is changed to pass only the desired signal and reject all others. The requirements of such a filter are severe. Approximations to the ideal requirements result in rather poor performance. The second method is the super-heterodyne receiver and is by far the more common method used. The basics of this method are illustrated in Figure gif . The super-heterodyne receiver employs a band-pass filter at a fixed center frequency (called the intermediate frequency or IF) and a variable local oscillator to frequency translate the desired signal into the pass band of the band-pass filter. The wide-band variable band-pass filter is necessary only to reject the signals centered at the image frequencies. To understand image frequencies consider the following FDM system consisting of N signals:

where

Suppose the desired signal the message portion of step process: Step 1: Frequency translate Step 2 : BPF the translated signal and demodulate. Step 1 is achieved by mixing from to .

. The superheterodyne receiver must perform a two

with a local oscillator

. There are two possibilities for

For high side tuning, let

The mixer output

and the band-pass filter output

are given by

The input to the demodulator consists of two signals superimposed on each other so that the demodulator will not be able distinguish between the two. The unwanted signal is centered at . Since this undesired signal signal is also mixed to the passband of the band-pass filter, it is termed the image frequency. For low side tuning, let

The mixer output

and the band-pass filter output

are given by

In this case, the unwanted signal is centered at the image frequencey

A wide-band variable band pass filter is used to reject the image frequencies prior to mixing to the intermediate frequency. The requirements on this filter are not severe so that physical realization is practical.

Figure: Ideal VTF Receiver

Figure: Ideal Super-heterodyne Receiver

Next: Random Noise and Up: Frequency Division Multiplexing Previous: AT&T FDM Hierarchy

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Noise in Modulation Up: Introduction to Analog and Previous: Heterodyne Receivers

Random Noise and Stochastic Processes

Nothing as of yet. See chapter 5 of text.

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Noise in DSB Up: Introduction to Analog and Previous: Random Noise and

Noise in Modulation Systems

For the purposes of noise calculations, both the VTF and the Heterodyne receiver systems are equivalent to the common feature which they share: A bandpass filter followed by a demodulator. This is represented by the ideal system shown in Figure gif . The band-pass filter is used to isolate the desired signal and is typically called the ``predetection filter.'' The predetection filter precedes the demodulator and needs to have a bandwidth wide enough to pass the desired signal without causing distortion but as narrow as possible to reduce the noise passed to the demodulator. The output of the predetection filter, , is a combination of the modulated carrier and narrow band noise:

where

is the channel attenuation and is narrow band

white Gaussian random process with power spectral density

where B is the bandwidth of the predetection filter.

Figure: Receiver System Model for Noise Calculations

Noise in DSB systems r Carrier to Noise Ratio (CNR) r SNR: Coherent Demodulation r SNR: Envelope Detection Noise in SSB Systems r CNR r SNR Noise in FM Systems r CNR s SNR r Noise in PM Systems r CNR r SNR

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Carrier to Noise Up: Noise in Modulation Previous: Noise in Modulation

Noise in DSB systems

The required bandwidth of the predetection filter is 2W. The output of the predetection filter is

where an arbitrary phase angle induced by the channel and

is

q q q

Carrier to Noise Ratio (CNR) SNR: Coherent Demodulation SNR: Envelope Detection

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: SNR: Coherent Demodulation Up: Noise in DSB Previous: Noise in DSB

Carrier to Noise Ratio (CNR)

The carrier power C is

The noise power is

The CNR = C/N and is given by

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: SNR: Envelope Detection Up: Noise in DSB Previous: Carrier to Noise

SNR: Coherent Demodulation

The band limited noise at the output of the predetection filter may be expanded into quadrature components about

so that

Thus

In both cases, the signal power is

The noise power at the detector output is

The signal to noise ratio SNR =

and is given by

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Noise in SSB Up: Noise in DSB Previous: SNR: Coherent Demodulation

SNR: Envelope Detection

In this case, the output of the predetection filter is expressed as

where

The output of the envelope detector is

when

(i.e. the CNR is high). Thus

the signal and noise powers are

and

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: CNR Up: Noise in Modulation Previous: SNR: Envelope Detection

Noise in SSB Systems

The predetection filter has a required bandwidth of W.

q q

CNR SNR

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: SNR Up: Noise in SSB Previous: Noise in SSB

CNR
Let the output of the predetection filter be

The carrier power and noise powers are

Thus, the CNR = given by

is

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Noise in FM Up: Noise in SSB Previous: CNR

SNR
The noise at the predetection filter output may expanded into quadrature components about

so that

The signal power and noise powers are

and the signal to noise ratio SNR =

is

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: CNR Up: Noise in Modulation Previous: SNR

Noise in FM Systems
Figure: Ideal FM Differentiator Discriminator The receiver using the ideal discriminator with a band-pass limiter is illustrated in Figure gif . The predetection band-pass filter and the band-pass limiter may be combined. They shall remain separate to provide a uniform treatment. The bandwidth of the predetection band-pass filter is

CNR SNR Noise in PM Systems CNR SNR

r

q q q

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: SNR Up: Noise in FM Previous: Noise in FM

CNR
The output of the predetection filter is

where

and

is band limited

white Gaussian random process. The carrier power and noise powers are

The CNR is

SNR

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Noise in PM Up: CNR Previous: CNR

SNR
The noise at the output of the predetection filter may be expanded about

so that

where

and

for low noise levels where

and

most of the time (e.g. high CNR). Thus

The output of the bandpass limiter is

The output of the differentiator is

The output of envelope detector (with the DC term removed) is

The first term represents the signal and the second term represents a combination of the signal and the noise. The signal power is

The noise component of

, is determined by observing the discriminator output when the input is an . This forces

unmodulated carrier accompanied by noise. This is accomplished by the setting

as well. The resulting noise output is

is determined by viewing the

differentiation operation as a filter and using the relation

The power spectral density of the noise is not flat, but rather quadratic in f. The higher frequencies of the message signal are affected by noise more than the lower frequencies. The noise power is

so that the SNR is

The approximations used to derive the SNR are good only when the noise levels are low compared to . When this is not the case, the performance of the FM discriminator is poor (and the above equations do not hold). The point at which this occurs is called the threshold and is usually given by CNR . Typical values are 10 to 12 dB for the differentiator

discriminator and about 8 dB for the best PLL discriminator. Above threshold, the SNR increases as (or what is equivalent with ). This implies that the SNR performance

actually increases as the RF bandwidth occupied by the modulated carrier increases. Thus, with FM, there is a tradeoff between RF bandwidth and SNR. This does not imply, however, that the SNR can be increased to any arbitrary value by simply increasing the frequency deviation constant and thus the RF bandwidth. The CNR is a decreasing function of the frequency deviation ratio (and thus the frequency deviation constant). Increasing the frequency deviation constant too much will cause the CNR to fall below threshold (CNR ).

Next: Noise in PM Up: CNR Previous: CNR

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: CNR Up: Noise in FM Previous: SNR

Noise in PM Systems
Figure: Ideal PM Demodulator A diagram of the ideal PM demodulator is shown in Figure gif . This shows that the PM demodulator is an FM discriminator followed by an integrator. The analysis of the preceding section may be used to compute the CNR and SNR performance of the ideal PM demodulator. The received signal is

where

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: SNR Up: Noise in FM Previous: Noise in PM

CNR
The CNR is identical to the CNR in the FM case:

except where D now represents the peak phase deviation given by

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Digital Data Transmission Up: Noise in FM Previous: CNR

SNR
From the analysis of noise in the FM system, the output of the envelope detector (with the DC term removed) is

The demodulator output is then

The signal power is seen to be

The noise power is again determined by setting and calculating the power at the demodulator output. In this case the noise output is

and the noise power is determined from the power spectral density of

Thus the SNR is

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Binary Data Transmission Up: Introduction to Analog and Previous: SNR

Digital Data Transmission

Binary Data Transmission r Optimum Receiver

s s

Determine k s Determine Correlation Receiver

s

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Optimum Receiver Up: Digital Data Transmission Previous: Digital Data Transmission

Binary Data Transmission

Figure: Basic Binary Digital Communication System The basic system is shown in Figure gif . The source produces a sequence of binary digi ts or bits every T seconds which are represented as a logical 0 or a logical 1. The modulator produces an analog waveform

which is defined as

The modulator ``maps'' logical levels 0 and 1 to analog waveforms which have a duration T seconds. The transmission channel has two effects on the transmitted signal: is attenuated and white Gaussian noise is added. These channel effects are modeled by an attenuation by the addition of mean Gaussian random process with power spectral density followed by which is a zero

Thus the received signal is

Unlike demodulators for carriers modulated by continuous analog signals such as AM of FM, the demodulator for digitally modulated carriers do not have to reconstruct the modulating message signal. The goal of the demodulator is to determine whether a logical 0 or a logical 1 was originally transmitted. Clearly, any demodulator should do this making as few mistakes as possible. When the

demodulator makes a mistake, the event is termed a bit error. The probability that the demodulator makes a mistake is termed the probability of bit error which is denoted

The optimal demodulator is the demodulator which minimizes the probability of bit error. The structure of such a demodulator is shown in Figure gif . The optimal demodulator consists of a demodulator filter, a sampler, and a threshold comparitor. The output of the demodulator filter is given by

The demodulator filter output is sampled every T seconds by the sampler. The sample times are synchronized with the bit intervals. (Note that this requires that the beginning and ending time of each pulse be known at the receiver. This is accomplished using a symbol synchronizer.) The sample outputs (for ) are compared to a threshold k. The demodulator makes its decision based on this comparison. The demodulator output

is

Since

is a Gaussian random process,

is a Gaussian random variable with mean

and

variance

Thus the sampler output

(for i=0,1) is also a Gaussian random variable with mean and variance

The transfer function of the demodulator filter and the value of the threshold k are selected to minimize the probability of bit error. These choices constitute the optimum receiver.

Optimum Receiver
r r

Determine k r Determine Correlation Receiver

r

Next: Optimum Receiver Up: Digital Data Transmission Previous: Digital Data Transmission

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Up: Binary Data Transmission Previous: Binary Data Transmission

Optimum Receiver
The probability of bit error is determined using Baye's Theorem:

Without loss of generality, assume

q q q q

Determine k Determine

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Up: Optimum Receiver Previous: Optimum Receiver

Assume a logical 0 was sent. Then

An error occurs if happens if

which

Thus

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Determine k Up: Optimum Receiver Previous:

Assume a logical 1 was sent. Then

An error occurs if

which happens if

Thus

Thus the probability of error is

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Determine Up: Optimum Receiver Previous:

Determine k
The threshold value k is determined by taking the derivative of the above equation, setting it equal to zero, and solving for k. (Consult your favorite calculus text).

For the extremely important special case where

the threshold value k which minimizes the probability of error is

For this special case

so that

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Correlation Receiver Up: Optimum Receiver Previous: Determine k

Determine
Since the function erfc(x) decreases as x increases, the probability of error is minimized by maximizing the argument of the erfc( ) function. Thus the filter should be chosen to maximize

or what is equivalent, to maximize

The numerator may be expressed in terms of

using the inverse Fouier Transform:

while the denominator is given by

Thus, maximizing ( gif ) is equivalent to maximizing

Equation ( gif ) may be bounded using the Schwarz inequality (see page 464 of the text):

where equality is achieved only when

Thus ( gif ) defines the optimum filter . The impulse response of this filter is

The filter is ``matched'' to the input signals

and

and is

called a matched filter. The receiver structure is shown in Figure 7.9 on page 466 of the text. Using the matched filter, the probability of error for equally likely symbols is

where coefficient defined as (see equation 7.55 on page 467 of the text):

is the correlation

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Fourier Analysis Up: Binary Data Transmission Previous: Determine

Correlation Receiver
The optimum receiver consists of a matched filter whose output sampled at the end of each symbol interval. Consider the output of one branch of the match filter due to an arbitrary signal

The last line represents an alternate realization of the matched filter reciever called a correlation receiver since ( gif ) is the correlation between signals and . The correlation receiver is shown in Figure gif .

Figure: Correlation Receiver

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Definition of the Up: Introduction to Analog and Previous: Correlation Receiver

Fourier Analysis

q q

q q

q q

Definition of the Fourier Transform Existence of the Fourier Transform r The Fourier Transform as a Limit r Integral Limits and Generalized Functions r Fourier Transform of Periodic Signals as a Limit Key Properties of the Fourier Transform Computing of the Fourier Transform r The Direct Method r Sifting Property of the Function r The Table-Based Method Alternate Forms of the Fourier Transform Fourier Transform Tables r Key Properties of the Fourier Transform r Fourier Transform Table Fourier Series r The Fourier Series From the Fourier Transform r Properties of the Fourier Series r Gibbs Phenomenon r Fourier Series Transform Tables s Definition and Key Properties s Fourier Series Transform Table

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Existence of the Up: Fourier Analysis Previous: Fourier Analysis

Definition of the Fourier Transform

There are two variations of the Fourier Transform commonly used. The first form which will be used in this book, known as the frequency or f form, is written in terms of the frequency variable while the second form, known as the radian or radian frequency or [ form, is written in terms of the [f form]

. The forward definition of the Fourier Transform

form] of a signal

is defined as

The corresponding inverse Fourier transform

[f form] or

form] is defined as

David Long

Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: The Fourier Transform Up: Fourier Analysis Previous: Definition of the

Existence of the Fourier Transform

Mathematical conditions for the existence of the Fourier transform can be very involved. The following is a working definition: A sufficient, but not necessary, condition for the existence of the Fourier Transform is that of

is absolutely integrable function, i.e.,

and that it has only a finite number of finite discontinuities. This requirement is generally met for realworld signals. However, this requirement is not met for Euler functions or for periodic functions which, strictly speaking, do not have Fourier Transforms. Instead, we must use the concept of the transform in the limit. If such a limit exists, we can use the limit as the ``function'' tranform. This convenience is very useful in engineering applications.

q q q

The Fourier Transform as a Limit Integral Limits and Generalized Functions Fourier Transform of Periodic Signals as a Limit

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Integral Limits and Up: Existence of the Previous: Existence of the

The Fourier Transform as a Limit

In general, the sufficient condition described above may be violated because (1) the function has infinite energy (e.g., a periodic function), or (2) because it contains or impulse functions or other generalized limit functions. Both exceptions, however, are usefull in engineering applications. Viewing the Fourier transform as a limit process allows us to apply Fourier analysis in these cases and treat these cases as we would more conventional cases. For these case we can view the Fourier transform as a limit, i.e.,

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Fourier Transform of Up: Existence of the Previous: The Fourier Transform

Integral Limits and Generalized Functions

The or impulse ``function'' is not, strictly speaking, a function at all, but is a generalized function. A generalized function is defined in terms of the class of all equivalent regular sequences of particularily well-behaved functions. A particularily well-behaved function is bounded by as for any large N as . A regular sequence of well-

behaved functions have the property that

exists for any well-behaved function . Strictly speaking, this definition precludes simple sequences such as as goes to 0 (which is often used to develop the function) since is not

well-behaved. However, so long as the derivative is not required, this approach is useful. For further information see Bracewell []. It is important to note that a generalized function is not defined in terms of the limit of a single sequence of functions but of a class of equivalent functions. For example, the function may be (loosely) defined in terms of the limit of limit of as goes to 0. as goes to 0 or equivalently in terms of the

Note that whenever a generalized function integral should be interpreted as the limit of the integral, i.e.,

appears in an integral, the

should be interpreted as

where

is the sequence defining

. Hence, the Fourier

transform is a limit for the case of a generalized function.

A particular property of the generalized function the so-called ``sifting'' or ``sampling'' property, i.e.,

is

Note that whenever a generalized function appears in an integral the integral should be intepreted as a limit; hence, this equation should be understood to be,

where

is the defining class of the regular sequence of well-behaved functions.

Using these relatively obscure concepts invented to permit mathematicans work with the generalized functions (the derivative of the in particular) so useful in engineering, we can easily compute the ) and its integral (the unit step function

function (the doublett, denoted

). We can also determine that

is even ( ) and that

Using the sifting property of the

function is can be easily seen that (

. Based on definition) or

the symmetry property of the Fourier Transform, it follows that (f definition).

Next: Fourier Transform of Up: Existence of the Previous: The Fourier Transform

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Key Properties of Up: Existence of the Previous: Integral Limits and

Fourier Transform of Periodic Signals as a Limit

The Fourier transform of a non-trival periodic function (as well as some others such as ) does not, strictly speaking, exist because the function is not absolutely integrable. However, viewing the Fourier transform as the limit of a sequence for which the transform exists allows us to use the Fourier transform for many of these cases. Consider the periodic function as , e.g., of as multiplied by a function . We choose which has

so that the Fourier transform

exists. We then consider the sequence of transform pairs . If this limit exists,

Note that concept of generalized functions applies here. This limit method can be tricky to apply but is essential for computing the Fourier transform of many functions. For example, although is not periodic, the limit technique can be used to is not absolutely integrable. Let . Then, compute the Fourier transform of this function. First note that

with corresponding (using transform tables for )

In the limit as

For the f definition form of the Fourier Transform,

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Computing of the Up: Fourier Analysis Previous: Fourier Transform of

Key Properties of the Fourier Transform

The following table lists the even/odd properties of the Fourier transform:

These properties can be shown from directly from the definition of the Fourier transform. It can easily be shown that the Fourier transform is linear, i.e., if and form] then , [f

or for the [

form] if and then

where a and b are any constants. Duality or Symmetry is also exhibited by the Fourier transform, i.e., if then

. To prove this, we note from the definition that,

Interchange the roles of t and f and we see that,

hence,

. Note that

. The Fourier transform Scaling property yields for the real constant a,

Time Shifting can be used to simplfy the computation of the Fourier transform: if then

Similarly, Frequency Shifting yields,

These can be easily shown by substitution. For time differentiation and integration: if then

and

Similarly, for frequency differentiation:

The convolution theorem states that if and then

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: The Direct Method Up: Fourier Analysis Previous: Key Properties of

Computing of the Fourier Transform

Computing the Fourier transform of a given or determining the inverse transform of can require skill. There are a wide variety of techniques and ``tricks'' which can be used to simplify the problem. The primary techniques are 1) the direct method, 2) using the ``sifting'' property of the function, or 3) using look up tables. Of these three, the latter is usually chosen. Examples of the application of each of these techniques is given in the following sections.

q q q

The Direct Method Sifting Property of the Function The Table-Based Method

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Sifting Property of Up: Computing of the Previous: Computing of the

The Direct Method

The direct method, also known as the integral method, consists of directly applying the equations defining the Fourier transform or it's inverse. As an example, using the form, let where

is then,

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: The Table-Based Method Up: Computing of the Previous: The Direct Method

Sifting Property of the Function

The sifting property of the function is that

Using this property we can compute the Fourier transform of

and related signals such as

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Alternate Forms of Up: Computing of the Previous: Sifting Property of

The Table-Based Method

This method, also known as the transform method, might be called the ``divide and conquer'' method. Computing the Fourier transform of general signals can be simplified by using a table of previously computed transformations. This method is based on the linearity of the Fourier transform and it's inverse. Using a table of known transforms, we construct a composite function \ of the desired form using linear operations. The coresponding tranform may be computed by applying the same operations to the coresponding transforms of the composite function. As a simple example, we note that the inverse Fourier transform \ of is

; hence,

As a note in passing, finite length signals ALWAYS have infinite length Fourier transforms. Finite length Fourier transforms ALWAYS have infinite length inverse transforms.

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Fourier Transform Tables Up: Fourier Analysis Previous: The Table-Based Method

Alternate Forms of the Fourier Transform

The Fourier Transform may be applied to a general class of functions. For special classes of functions, other Fourier analysis techniques have been developed to simplify analysis and provide additional insight. These include the Fourier Series (FS) and the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) and the the Discrete Time Discrete Fourier Transform (DTFT). The Fourier Series is applicable to continuous periodic signals, the DTFT is appliciable to discrete signals, and the while the DFT is applicable to discrete periodic signals. The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is an efficient numerical implementation of the DFT. The following table summarizes the applicability of each form of the Fourier Transform.

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Key Properties of Up: Fourier Analysis Previous: Alternate Forms of

Fourier Transform Tables

q q

Key Properties of the Fourier Transform Fourier Transform Table

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

Next: Fourier Transform Table Up: Fourier Transform Tables Previous: Fourier Transform Tables

Key Properties of the Fourier Transform

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Fourier Transform Table

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Fourier Series
The Fourier Series is a special case of the Fourier transform which can be used when the signal is periodic. The basic idea of the Fourier series is that a periodic function with period cosine and sine functions, i.e., could be described by a weighted sum of

where

. As shown below the Fourier series can be derived from the Fourier Transform.

The Fourier series is a special case of a more general class of transforms known as orthogonal transforms. The orthogonal functions used in the Fourier Series are and or

where be shown that

. It can

and that

Hence, the iEuler functions form an orthonormal set. Probably the most common form of the iFourier series is,

where

and

are,

and

We can also write the Fourier Series as,

where

and

are,

where

and

are defined above.

An alternate form (known as the exponential Fourier Series) is defined as

where

and

is the fundamental period. The fundamental period is the minimum value of

for

which

for all t.

(which we could write as

) is

where

is arbitrary.

and

and

are related by the following:

Note that

q q q q

The Fourier Series From the Fourier Transform Properties of the Fourier Series Gibbs Phenomenon Fourier Series Transform Tables r Definition and Key Properties r Fourier Series Transform Table

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The Fourier Series From the Fourier Transform

We can also show the the Fourier Series is a special case of the Fourier transform. We first note that (with the limits applied)

From these relationships it follows that where

and

In the limit at

, we obtain the transform pair,

where

and

That period

is obvious. To see that . As

note that , in the interval

is a periodic function (in , tends toward .

) with

Now consider a periodic function

with period T. Define

as,

Then,

Taking the transform both sides of this expression using the convolution theorem and the transform pair ,

Since

we can write,

Thus, the Fourier transform consists of a weighted sum of equally-spaced intervals. Taking the inverse transform of this expression (noting that

functions at

) we obtain the familiar Fourier series,

where

An interesting result of this derivation is that when computing and sample it at rather than directly computing

it may be simplier to compute from it's defintion.

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Properties of the Fourier Series

The properties derived for the Fourier transform apply to the Fourier series. In particular, for two signals and with Fourier series and has a Fourier series . and with the same

ifundamental period, the convolution of

Parseval's formula becomes

Note that when the signal is even, the sine terms of the Fourier series are zero while if the signal is odd, the cosine terms are zero.

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Gibbs Phenomenon
The Fourier series also exhits the iGibb's phenomenon. If there is a discontinuity in the signal at a point t=a, the Fourier series will converge to a point midway between the left and right limits at

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Fourier Series Transform Tables

q q

Definition and Key Properties Fourier Series Transform Table

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Definition and Key Properties

Coefficient relationships

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Fourier Series Transform Table

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References
1 B. P. Lathi, Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Holt, Rinehard and Winston, Inc., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1989. 2 R.E. Ziemer and W.H. Tranter, Principles of Communications, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, Mass., 1990.

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Index

function backward transform complex exponential composite function computing the Fourier transform convolution , cos delta function gif

gif determanistic signals , direct method discrete Fourier transform discrete time Fourier transform divide and conquer duality energy signals even existence exponential Fourier series fast fourier transform forward transform gif Fourier series , Fourier series definition gif Fourier series properties , Fourier Transform Fourier transform definition

Fourier transform properties Fourier transform table gif generalized functions , Glossary impulse inverse Fourier transform limit linear necessary conditions odd Parseval's formula periodic periodic functions gif periodic signals , phasor power signals random signals sampling property scaling gif sifting property , sinc function step function sufficient conditions symmetry time average time shifting transform method

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About this document ...

Introduction to Analog and Digital Communication Theory This document was generated using the LaTeX2HTML translator Version 95 (Thu Jan 19 1995) Copyright 1993, 1994, Nikos Drakos, Computer Based Learning Unit, University of Leeds. The command line arguments were: latex2html ComBook.tex. The translation was initiated by David Long on Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997

...function The Bessel function 236#236 is generated as a solution to Bessel's equation 237#237 Some important properties of these Bessel functions include 238#238 Other features of Bessel functions are illustrated in Figure 3.29 and in Tables 3.2 and 3.3

David Long Sat Jan 4 14:45:02 MST 1997