QUESTION 1

1.0

SWITCH

A switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of electrical contacts. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either 'closed' meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between them, or 'open', meaning the contacts are separated and the switch is non conducting. The mechanism actuating the transition between these two states (open or closed) can be either a "toggle" (flip switch for continuous "on" or "off") or "momentary" (pushfor "on" or push-for "off") type.

1.1

Function of switch Many people use metonymy to call a variety of devices "switches" that conceptually connect

or disconnect signals and communication paths between electrical devices, analogous to the way mechanical switches connect and disconnect paths for electrons to flow between two conductors. Since the advent of digital logic in the 1950s, the term switch has spread to a variety of digital active devices such as transistors and logic gates whose function is to change their output state between two logic levels or connect different signal lines, and even computers, network switches, whose function is to provide connections between different ports in a computer network. The term 'switched' is also applied to telecommunications networks, and signifies a network that is circuit switched, providing dedicated circuits for communication between end nodes, such as the public switched telephone network. The common feature of all these usages is they refer to devices that control a binary state: they are either on or off, closed or open, connected or not connected.

1.2

Uses of switch A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such as

a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a light switch. Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions of machines, for example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position or that a machine tool is in a position to accept another work piece. Switches may be operated by process variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and force, acting as sensors in a process and used to automatically control a system.

For example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used to control a heating process. A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit is called a relay. Large switches may be remotely operated by a motor drive mechanism. Some switches are used to isolate electric power from a system, providing a visible point of isolation that can be pad-locked if necessary to prevent accidental operation of a machine during maintenance, or to prevent electric shock. 1.3 Operation OF Power switching When a switch is designed to switch significant power, the transitional state of the switch as well as the ability to stand continuous operating currents must be considered. When a switch is in the on state its resistance is near zero and very little power is dropped in the contacts; when a switch is in the off state its resistance is extremely high and even less power is dropped in the contacts. A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switchingoften a silicon-controlled rectifier or triac. The analogue switch uses two MOSFET transistors in a transmission gate arrangement as a switch that works much like a relay, with some advantages and several limitations compared to an electromechanical relay.

Figure1.1-the circuit of switch

Figure 1.2-one way gang swich

Figure 1.3- switch minuature

2.0

FUSE In electronics and electrical engineering, a fuse is a type of sacrificial over current

protection device. Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too much current flows, which interrupts the circuit in which it is connected. Short circuit, overload or device failure is often the reason for excessive current. 2.1 Function of fuse

A fuse interrupts excessive current (blows) so that further damage by overheating or fire is prevented. Wiring regulations often define a maximum fuse current rating for particular circuits. Over current protection devices are essential in electrical systems to limit threats to

human life and property damage. Fuses are selected to allow passage of normal current and of excessive current only for short periods. A fuse consists of a metal strip or wire fuse element, of small cross-section compared to the circuit conductors, mounted between a pair of electrical terminals, and (usually) enclosed by a non-conducting and non-combustible housing. The fuse is arranged in series to carry all the current passing through the protected circuit. The resistance of the element generates heat due to the current flow. The size and construction of the element is (empirically) determined so that the heat produced for a normal current does not cause the element to attain a high temperature. If too high a current flows, the element rises to a higher temperature and either directly melts, or else melts a soldered joint within the fuse, opening the circuit. 2.1.1 Operation of fuses The fuse element is made of zinc, copper, silver, aluminum, or alloys to provide stable and predictable characteristics. The fuse ideally would carry its rated current indefinitely, and melt quickly on a small excess. The element must not be damaged by minor harmless surges of current, and must not oxidize or change its behavior after possibly years of service. The fuse elements may be shaped to increase heating effect. In large fuses, current may be divided between multiple strips of metal. A dual-element fuse may contain a metal strip that melts instantly on a short-circuit, and also contain a low-melting solder joint that responds to long-term overload of low values compared to a short-circuit. Fuse elements may be supported by steel or nichrome wires, so that no strain is placed on the element, but a spring may be included to increase the speed of parting of the element fragments. An over current protective device consisting of a metal strip, ribbon, or wire which is designed to open an electric circuit by melting if a predetermined current is exceeded.

Figure 2.1 the type of catridge of fuse

2.2

TYPES OF FUSES

A f u s e u n it e s s e nt i a l l y c o n s i s t s o f a m e t a l f u s e e le m e nt o r l i n k , a s e t of co nt act s bet we e n w h ic h it is f i xed a nd a bo d y t o suppo r t a nd i s o l a t e them. Many t ypes of fuses also have some means for ext inguishing the arc which appears when the fuse element melts. In general, there are two categories of fusus that was low voltage and high voltage.

2.2.1

REWIREABLE FUSES

The most commonly used fuse in 'house wiring' and small current circuit is t h e s e m i - e n c lo s e d o r r e w ir e a b l e f u s e . ( a l s o s o me t i me k no w n a s KI T K AT t ype fuse). It consist of a porcelains base carrying the fixed contacts to w h i c h t h e i n c o m i n g a n d o u t g o i n g l i v e o r p ha s e w i r e s a r e c o n n e c t e d a nd a porcelain fuse carrier holding the fuse element, consist ing of one or more strands of fuse wire, stretched between its terminals. The fuse carrier is a separate part and can be taken out or inserted in the base without risk, even wit hout opening the main switch. If fuse holder or carrier gets damaged during use, it may be replaced without replacing the complete unit. The fuse wire may be of lead, t inned copper, aluminum or an alloy of t in-lead. The actual fusing current will be about twice the rated current.

When t w o o r m o r e f u s e w i r e a r e u s e d , t h e w i r e s s h o u l d b e k e p t a p a r t a n d a dreading factor of 0.7 to 0.8 should be employed to arrive at the total fuse rating. T h e s p e c i f i c a t io n fo r r e w ir e a b l e f u s e s a r e c o ve r e d b y I S : 2 0 8 6 1 9 6 3 . Standard ratings are 6, 16, 32, 63, and 100A. A fuse wire of any rating not exceeding the rat ing of the fuse may be used in it that is a 80 A fuse wire can be used in a 100 A fuse, but not in the 63 A fuse. O n o c c u r r e n c e o f a f a u l t , t h e f u s e e l e m e nt b l o w s o f f a n d t he c i r c u i t i s interrupted. The fuse carrier is pulled out, the blown out fuse element is replaced by new one and the supply can is resorted by re-inserting the fuse carrier in the base.

2.2.1.1.1 ADVANTAGES

E a s y r e mo v a l o r r e p l a c e m e nt without any danger of coming into the contact with a lie part and negligible replacement cost

2.2.1.2

DISADAVANTAGES

1. U nr e lia b le O pe at io n. 2 . L a c k o f D i s c r i m i n a t io n. 3.Sma ll t ime lag. 4 . L o w r u p t u r i ng c a p a c it y. 5 . N o c u r r e nt l i m it i n g f e a t u r e . 6 . S lo w s p e e d c o f o p e r a t io ns .

2.3 TOTALLY ENCLOSED OR CARTIDGES TYPE FUSE.

The fuse element is enclosed in a totally enclosed container and is provided with metal contacts on both sides. A) D- Type Cartridges Fuses It is a no n int erchangeable fuse co mpris ing s fuse base,

a d a p t e r r i n g , cartridge and a fuse cap. The cartridge is pushed in t he fuse cap and the c a p i s s c r e w e d o n t h e fu s e ba s e . O n c o m p l e t e s c r e w i n g t h e c a r t r id g e t ip touches the conductor and circuit between the two terminals is completed thought the fuse link.

The standard ratings are 6, 16, 32, and 63 amperes. T h e b r e a k i n g o r r u p t u r i n g c a p a c i t y i s o f t h e o r d e r o f 4 k A f o r 2 a n d 4 ampere fuses the 16k A for 63 A fuses. D-type cartridge fuse have none of the drawbacks of the rewire able fuses. Their operation is reliable. Coordinat ion and discrimination to a reasonable extent and achieved with them.

B) Link type Cartridge or High Rupturing Capacity (HRC)

Where large number of concentrations of powers are concerned, as in the modern distribution system, it is essential that fuses should have a definite known breaking capacit y and also this breaking capacit y should have a high v a l u e . rupturing cartridge capacity fuses , cartridge been fuse, commonly and called High HRC aft er

have

designed

developed

i n t e n s i v e research by manufactures and supply engineers in his direction. T h e u s u a l f u s i n g f a c t o r fo r t he l i n k f u s e s i s 1 . 4 5 . t he f u s e s fo r s p e c i a l appplications may have as low as a fusing factor as 1.2. T h e s p e c i f i c a t io n s fo r m e d i u m vo lt a g e H R C l i n k f u s e s a r e c o v e r e d u n d e r IS : 2202-1962. I. KNIFE BLAD TYPE HRC FUSE

it ca n be r ep la c ed o n a live c ir c u it at no lo ad w it h t he he lp o f a s p e c i a l insulated fuse puller. II. BOLTED TYPE HRC LINK FUSE

it has two conducting plates on either ends. These are bolted on the platesof the fuse base. Such a fuse needs an addit ional switch so that the fusecan be taken out without getting a shock.

Figure 2.2- MEM rewire able fuse box

Figure 2.3 - Wylex fuse box

2.3

High Voltage Fuses German DIN standard for air and gas insulated switchgear and outdoor switchgear. High voltage Fuse-links have parallel

connected pure silver fuse-elements. The design and methods of production of the elements ensures narrow tolerances of the time-current characteristics. The fuse elements are wound on a ceramic support and are attached to the silver plated connection caps by means of spot-welding. Figure 2.4- Vertical cut The connection caps are fitted inside the silver plated copper end caps by spot welding. The copper end caps themselves are press-fitted onto the porcelain tube, which is glazed inside and outside. The end caps are furthermore mechanically fixed to the porcelain tube and additionally sealed by a durable timer sealing medium. This sealing method has been proven over many decades of positive field experience and ensures tightness against ingress of humidity. Inquires for fuse high voltage custom applications are welcome. 2.4 Medium Voltage Fuses

Side view Figure 2.5 - Installation Inside Transformers Under Oil.

These are general-purpose fuses for installation in transformers; they offer space and cost saving in distribution transformer substation design. They are designed to protection against short-circuit and internal transformer faults and also offer bursting protection of the Figure 2.6 - Low Voltage Fuses - NH Knife-Blade Fuse System

3.0

CIRCUIT BREAKER

A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation.

Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.

3.1

Operation All circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although details vary

substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in low-voltage circuit breakers this is usually done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate the trip opening mechanism. The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually energized by a separate battery, although some high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current transformers, protection relays, and an internal control power source. Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the circuit; some mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or compressed air) contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy required may be obtained from the fault current itself. Small circuit breakers may be manually operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs. The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must also withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting (opening) the circuit. Contacts are made of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys, and other highly conductive materials. Service life of the contacts is limited by the erosion of contact material due to arcing while interrupting the current. Miniature and molded case circuit breakers are usually discarded when the contacts have worn, but power circuit breakers and high-voltage circuit breakers have replaceable contacts.

3.1.1 uses of circuit breaker Without circuit breakers (or the alternative, fuses), household electricity would be impractical because of the potential for fires and other mayhem resulting from simple wiring problems and equipment failure. The circuit breaker can be in form of oil circuit breaker, gas circuit breaker, air circuit breaker and vacuum circuit breaker.

Figure 3.1 - Four 1 pole circuit breakers fitted in a meter box

TABLE 3.1 THE INSTANTANEOUS Type Instantaneous tripping current B C D above 3 In up to and including 5 In above 5 In up to and including 10 In above 10 In up to and including 20 In above 8 In up to and including 12 In For the protection of loads that cause frequent short duration (approximately 400 ms to 2 s) current peaks in normal operation. K above 2 In up to and including 3 In for periods in the order of tens of seconds. For the protection of loads such as semiconductor devices or measuring circuits using current transformers.

3.2

Types of circuit breaker

Figure 3.2 circuit breaker Front panel of a 1250 A air circuit breaker manufactured by ABB. This low voltage power circuit breaker can be withdrawn from its housing for servicing. Trip characteristics are configurable via DIP switches on the front panel. Many different classifications of circuit breakers can be made, based on their features such as voltage class, construction type, interrupting type, and structural features. 3.2.1 Low voltage circuit breakers Low voltage (less than 1000 VAC) types are common in domestic, commercial and industrial application, and include:
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MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)rated current not more than 100 A. Trip characteristics normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Breakers illustrated above are in this category.

MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)rated current up to 2500 A. Thermal or thermalmagnetic operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings.

Low voltage power circuit breakers can be mounted in multi-tiers in low-voltage switchboards or switchgear cabinets.

The characteristics of Low Voltage circuit breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 947. These circuit breakers are often installed in draw-out enclosures that allow removal and interchange without dismantling the switchgear. Large low-voltage molded case and power circuit breakers may have electrical motor operators, allowing them to be tripped (opened) and closed under remote control. These may form part of an automatic transfer switch system for standby power. Low-voltage circuit breakers are also made for direct-current (DC) applications, for example DC supplied for subway lines. Special breakers are required for direct current because the arc does not have a natural tendency to go out on each half cycle as for alternating current. A direct current circuit breaker will have blow-out coils which generate a magnetic field that rapidly stretches the arc when interrupting direct current.

Figure 3.3 - Photo of inside of a circuit breaker 3.2.3 Magnetic circuit breaker Magnetic circuit breakers use a solenoid (electromagnet) whose pulling force increases with the current. Certain designs utilize electromagnetic forces in addition to those of the solenoid. The circuit breaker contacts are held closed by a latch. As the current in the solenoid increases beyond the rating of the circuit breaker, the solenoid's pull releases the latch which then

allows the contacts to open by spring action. Some types of magnetic breakers incorporate a hydraulic time delay feature using a viscous fluid. The core is restrained by a spring until the current exceeds the breaker rating. During an overload, the speed of the solenoid motion is restricted by the fluid. The delay permits brief current surges beyond normal running current for motor starting, energizing equipment, etc. Short circuit currents provide sufficient solenoid force to release the latch regardless of core position thus bypassing the delay feature. Ambient temperature affects the time delay but does not affect the current rating of a magnetic breaker 3.2.4 Thermal magnetic circuit breaker Thermal magnetic circuit breakers, which are the type found in most distribution boards, incorporate both techniques with the electromagnet responding instantaneously to large surges in current (short circuits) and the bimetallic strip responding to less extreme but longer-term overcurrent conditions. The thermal portion of the circuit breaker provides an "inverse time" response feature which provides faster or slower response for larger or smaller over currents respectively. 3.2.5 Common trip breakers

Figure 3.4 common trip breaker

Three pole common trip breaker for supplying a three-phase device. This breaker has a 2 A rating. When supplying a branch circuit with more than one live conductor, each live conductor must be protected by a breaker pole. To ensure that all live conductors are interrupted when any pole trips, a "common trip" breaker must be used. These may either contain two or three tripping mechanisms within one case, or for small breakers, may externally tie the poles together via their operating handles. Two pole common trip breakers are common on 120/240 volt systems where 240 volt loads (including major appliances or further distribution boards) span the two live wires. Threepole common trip breakers are typically used to supply three-phase electric power to large motors or further distribution boards. Two and four pole breakers are used when there is a need to disconnect the neutral wire, to be sure that no current can flow back through the neutral wire from other loads connected to the same network when people need to touch the wires for maintenance. Separate circuit breakers must never be used for disconnecting live and neutral, because if the neutral gets disconnected while the live conductor stays connected, a dangerous condition arises: the circuit will appear de-energized (appliances will not work), but wires will stay live and RCDs will not trip if someone touches the live wire (because RCDs need power to trip). This is why only common trip breakers must be used when switching of the neutral wire is needed 3.2.6 Medium-voltage circuit breakers Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72 kV may be assembled into metal-enclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may be individual components installed outdoors in a substation. Air-break circuit breakers replaced oil-filled units for indoor applications, but are now themselves being replaced by vacuum circuit breakers (up to about 35 kV). Like the high voltage circuit breakers described below, these are also operated by current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. The characteristics of MV breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 62271. Medium-voltage circuit breakers nearly always use separate current sensors and protective relays, instead of relying on built-in thermal or magnetic over current sensors.

Medium-voltage circuit breakers can be classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc:
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Vacuum circuit breakerWith rated current up to 3000 A, these breakers interrupt the current by creating and extinguishing the arc in a vacuum container. These are generally applied for voltages up to about 35,000 V,[7] which corresponds roughly to the mediumvoltage range of power systems. Vacuum circuit breakers tend to have longer life expectancies between overhaul than do air circuit breakers.

Air circuit breakerRated current up to 10,000 A. Trip characteristics are often fully adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and delays. Usually electronically controlled, though some models are microprocessor controlled via an integral electronic trip unit. Often used for main power distribution in large industrial plant, where the breakers are arranged in draw-out enclosures for ease of maintenance.

SF6 circuit breakers extinguish the arc in a chamber filled with sulfur hexafluoride gas. Medium-voltage circuit breakers may be connected into the circuit by bolted connections to

bus bars or wires, especially in outdoor switchyards. Medium-voltage circuit breakers in switchgear line-ups are often built with draw-out construction, allowing the breaker to be removed without disturbing the power circuit connections, using a motor-operated or handcranked mechanism to separate the breaker from its enclosure.

3.2.7 High-voltage circuit breaker

Figure 3.5 - 110 kV oil circuit breaker breaker

figure 3.6 - 115 kV bulk oil circuit

Figure 3.7 400 kV SF6 live tank circuit breakers

Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high-voltage breakers. The definition of high voltage varies but in power transmission work is usually thought to be 72.5 kV or higher, according to a recent definition by the International Electro technical Commission (IEC). High-voltage breakers are nearly always solenoid-operated, with current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. In substations the protective relay scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and buses from various types of overload or ground/earth fault. High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc.
y y y y y

Bulk oil Minimum oil Air blast Vacuum SF6 High-voltage circuit breakers used on transmission systems may be arranged to allow a

single pole of a three-phase line to trip, instead of tripping all three poles; for some classes of faults this improves the system stability and availability. 3.2.8 Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) high-voltage circuit-breakers A sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses contacts surrounded by sulfur hexafluoride gas to quench the arc. They are most often used for transmission-level voltages and may be incorporated into compact gas-insulated switchgear. In cold climates, supplemental heating or de-rating of the circuit breakers may be required due to liquefaction of the SF6 gas. The circuit breaker is an absolutely essential device in the modern world, and one of the most important safety mechanisms in your home. Whenever electrical wiring in a building has too much current flowing through it, these simple machines cut the power until somebody can fix the problem. Without circuit breakers (or the alternative, fuses), household electricity would be

impractical because of the potential for fires and other mayhem resulting from simple wiring problems and equipment failures.

Figure 3.6 - miniature circuit breaker

Figure 3.7 - mini circuit breaker

3.3

Advantage of Circuit Breaker

The advantages of circuit breaker was a circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit.

Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow.

After that, Protection relay will be used if the circuit breaker has rated current more than 200A.

Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation.

Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.

The use of circuit breaker is more reliable compared to fuse.

3.4

Disadvantage of Circuit Breaker.

Disadvantage of fuse compared to circuit breaker are fuse has delay operation and fuse has to be replace every time its operate. To overcome this problems, circuit breaker is used. Moreover the circuit breaker did not to be replaced every time its operate. Thus,circuit breaker usually rated between 15A to 200A protection current.

Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the circuit; some mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or compressed air) contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy required may be obtained from the fault current itself.

Small circuit breakers may be manually operated with larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs. The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must also withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting the circuit.

4.0

TRANSFORMER Transformers simplify installation since they are dry, without cooling oil, and so require

no fire-proof value for indoor installations. The epoxy protects the windings from dust and corrosive atmospheres. However, because the molds for casting the coils are only available in fixed sizes, the design of the transformers is less flexible, which may make them more costly if customized features (voltage, turns ratio, taps) are required. 4.1 Isolation Transformer

Figure 4.1 the sine waveform of isolation transformer The isolating transformers are provided with reinforced isolation between the input and output windings. They are suitable for the "safe" isolation of electrical circuits in danger or hazardous areas with an electrically conductive environment. Safety isolating transformers offer a high degree of protection for use in harsh operating conditions such as with wet-grinding machines, cement vibrators, etc. These transformers are a special type of isolating transformer with a maximum secondary voltage of 50V. An isolation transformer is a transformer, often with symmetrical windings, which is used to decouple two circuits. An isolation transformer allows an AC signal or power to be taken from one device and fed into another without electrically connecting the two circuits. Isolation transformers block

transmission of DC signals from one circuit to the other, but allow AC signals to pass. They also block interference caused by ground loops. Isolation transformers with electrostatic shields are used for power supplies for sensitive equipment such as computers or laboratory instruments. 4.1.1 Operation of isolation transformer In a pinch, a line-voltage isolation transformer may be made by determining the total load of the device under test and finding two identical line transformers each capable of handling the load. Isolation transformers are commonly designed with careful attention to capacitive coupling between the two windings. This is necessary because excessive capacitance could also couple AC current from the primary to the secondary. Most transformers isolate, meaning the secondary winding is not connected to the primary. But this isn't true of all transformers. However the term 'isolating transformer' is normally applied to mains transformers providing isolation rather than voltage transformation. They are simply 1:1 laminated core transformers. Extra voltage tappings are sometimes included, but to earn the name 'isolating transformer' it is expected that they will usually be used at 1:1 ratio. 4.1.2 uses of isolation transformer suitable for the "safe" isolation of electrical circuits in danger or hazardous areas with an electrically conductive environment.

4.2

Stray field transformer A stray field transformer has a significant stray field or a (sometimes adjustable)

magnetic bypass in its core. It can act as a transformer with inherent current limitation due to its lower coupling between the primary and the secondary winding, which is unwanted in most other cases. The output and input currents are low enough to prevent thermal overload under each load condition - even if the secondary is shorted.

Stray field transformers are used for arc welding and high voltage discharge lamps (cold cathode fluorescent lamps, series connected up to 7.5 kV AC working voltage). It acts both as voltage transformer and magnetic ballast.

4.3

Polyphase transformers

Figure 4.2 - Y Y Connection For three-phase power, three separate single-phase transformers can be used, or all three phases can be connected to a single poly phase transformer. The three primary windings are connected together and the three secondary windings are connected together. The most common connections are Y-Delta, Delta-Y, Delta-Delta and Y-Y. A vector group indicates the configuration of the windings and the phase angle difference between them. If a winding is connected to earth (grounded), the earth connection point is usually the center point of a Y winding. If the secondary is a Delta winding, the ground may be connected to a center tap on one winding (high leg delta) or one phase may be grounded (corner grounded delta). A special purpose poly phase transformer is the zigzag transformer. There are many possible configurations that may involve more or fewer than six windings and various tap connections.

4.4

Resonant transformers

Figure 4.3 - A 25 kV fly back transformer being used to generate an arc. A resonant transformer operates at the resonant frequency of one or more of its coils and (usually) an external capacitor. The resonant coil, usually the secondary, acts as an inductor, and is connected in series with a capacitor. When the primary coil is driven by a periodic source of alternating current, such as a square or saw tooth wave at the resonant frequency, each pulse of current helps to build up an oscillation in the secondary coil. Due to resonance, a very high voltage can develop across the secondary, until it is limited by some process such as electrical breakdown. These devices are used to generate high alternating voltages, and the current available can be much larger than that from electrostatic machines such as the Van de Graaff generator or Wimshurst machine. 4.5 Constant voltage transformer By arranging particular magnetic properties of a transformer core, and installing a ferroresonant tank circuit (a capacitor and an additional winding), a transformer can be arranged to automatically keep the secondary winding voltage relatively constant for varying primary supply without additional circuitry or manual adjustment. Ferro-resonant transformers run hotter than standard power transformers, because regulating action depends on core saturation, which reduces efficiency. The output waveform is heavily distorted unless careful measures are taken to prevent this. Saturating transformers provide a simple rugged method to stabilize an AC power supply.

4.6

Ferrite core Ferrite core power transformers are widely used in switched-mode power supplies

(SMPSs). The powder core enables high-frequency operation, and hence much smaller size-topower ratio than laminated-iron transformers. Ferrite transformers are not used as power transformers at mains frequency since laminated iron cores cost less than an equivalent ferrite core. 4.7 Planar transformer

Figure 4.4 - A planar transformer

Figure 4.5 A planar 3D transformer Exploded view: the spiral primary "winding" on one side of the PCB (the spiral secondary "winding" is on the other side of the PCB)

Some planar transformers are commercially sold as discrete componentsthe transformer is the only thing on that printed circuit board. Other planar transformers are one of many components on one large printed circuit board.
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much thinner than other transformers, for low-profile applications (even when several PCBs are stacked)

almost all use a ferrite planar core

4.8

Oil cooled transformer For large transformers used in power distribution or electrical substations, the core and

coils of the transformer are immersed in oil which cools and insulates. Oil circulates through ducts in the coil and around the coil and core assembly, moved by convection. The oil is cooled by the outside of the tank in small ratings, and in larger ratings an air-cooled radiator is used. Where a higher rating is required, or where the transformer is used in a building or underground, oil pumps are used to circulate the oil and an oil-to-water heat exchanger may also be used.[3] Formerly, indoor transformers required to be fire-resistant used PCB liquids; since these are now banned, substitute fire-resistant liquids such as silicone oils are instead used. 4.9 Cast resin transformers Cast-resin power transformers encase the windings in epoxy resin. These transformers simplify installation since they are dry, without cooling oil, and so require no fire-proof valut for indoor installations. The epoxy protects the windings from dust and corrosive atmospheres. However, because the molds for casting the coils are only available in fixed sizes, the design of the transformers is less flexible, which may make them more costly if customized features (voltage, turns ratio, taps) are required.

4.10

Current transformers

Figure 4.6 - Current transformers used in metering equipment for three-phase 400 ampere electricity supply A current transformer (CT) is a measurement device designed to provide a current in its secondary coil proportional to the current flowing in its primary. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in the electrical power industry where they allow safe measurement of large currents, often in the presence of high voltages. The current transformer safely isolates measurement and control circuitry from the high voltages typically present on the circuit being measured. Current transformers are often constructed by passing a single primary turn (either an insulated cable or an uninsulated bus bar) through a well-insulated steroidal core wrapped with many turns of wire. The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to secondary. For example, a 4000:5 CT would provide an output current of 5 amperes when the primary was passing 4000 amperes. The secondary winding can be single ratio or have several tap points to provide a range of ratios. Care must be taken that the secondary winding is not disconnected from its load while current flows in the primary, as this will produce a dangerously high voltage across the open secondary and may permanently affect the accuracy of the transformer. Specially constructed wideband CTs are also used, usually with an oscilloscope, to measure high frequency waveforms or pulsed currents within pulsed power systems. One type provides a voltage output that is proportional to the measured current; another, called a Rogowski coil, requires an external integrator in order to provide a proportional output.

4.11

Voltage transformers Voltage transformers (VT) or potential transformers (PT) are another type of instrument

transformer, used for metering and protection in high-voltage circuits. They are designed to present negligible load to the supply being measured and to have a precise voltage ratio to accurately step down high voltages so that metering and protective relay equipment can be operated at a lower potential. Typically the secondary of a voltage transformer is rated for 69 V or 120 V at rated primary voltage, to match the input ratings of protective relays. The transformer winding high-voltage connection points are typically labeled as H1, H2 (sometimes H0 if it is internally grounded) and X1, X2 and sometimes an X3 tap may be present. Sometimes a second isolated winding (Y1, Y2, Y3) may also be available on the same voltage transformer. The high side (primary) may be connected phase to ground or phase to phase. The low side (secondary) is usually phase to ground. The terminal identifications (H1, X1, Y1, etc.) are often referred to as polarity. This applies to current transformers as well. At any instant terminals with the same suffix numeral have the same polarity and phase. Correct identification of terminals and wiring is essential for proper operation of metering and protective relays. Some meters operate directly on the secondary service voltages at or below 600 V. VTs are typically used for higher voltages (for example, 765 kV for power transmission) , or where isolation is desired between the meter and the measured circuit. 4.12 Pulse transformers A pulse transformer is a transformer that is optimized for transmitting rectangular electrical pulses (that is, pulses with fast rise and fall times and a relatively constant amplitude). Small versions called signal types are used in digital logic and telecommunications circuits, often for matching logic drivers to transmission lines. Medium-sized power versions are used in power-control circuits such as camera flash controllers. Larger power versions are used in the electrical power distribution industry to interface low-voltage control circuitry to the highvoltage gates of power semiconductors. Special high voltage pulse transformers are also used to

generate high power pulses for radar, particle accelerators, or other high energy pulsed power applications. To minimise distortion of the pulse shape, a pulse transformer needs to have low values of leakage inductance and distributed capacitance, and a high open-circuit inductance. In powertype pulse transformers, a low coupling capacitance (between the primary and secondary) is important to protect the circuitry on the primary side from high-powered transients created by the load. For the same reason, high insulation resistance and high breakdown voltage are required. A good transient response is necessary to maintain the rectangular pulse shape at the secondary, because a pulse with slow edges would create switching losses in the power semiconductors. 4.13 RF transformers There are several types of transformer used in radio frequency (RF) work. Steel laminations are not suitable for RF. 4.14 Air-core transformers These are used for high frequency work. The lack of a core means very low inductance. Such transformers may be nothing more than a few turns of wire soldered onto a printed circuit board. 4.15 Ferrite-core transformers Widely used in intermediate frequency (IF) stages in super heterodyne radio receivers. are mostly tuned transformers, containing a threaded ferrite slug that is screwed in or out to adjust IF tuning. The transformers are usually canned for stability and to reduce interference. 4.16 Transmission-line transformers For radio frequency use, transformers are sometimes made from configurations of transmission line, sometimes bifilar or coaxial cable, wound around ferrite or other types of core. This style of transformer gives an extremely wide bandwidth but only a limited number of ratios (such as 1:9, 1:4 or 1:2) can be achieved with this technique.

The core material increases the inductance dramatically, thereby raising its Q factor. The cores of such transformers help improve performance at the lower frequency end of the band. RF transformers sometimes used a third coil (called a tickler winding) to inject feedback into an earlier (detector) stage in antique regenerative radio receivers. 4.17 Baluns

Baluns are transformers designed specifically to connect between balanced and unbalanced circuits. These are sometimes made from configurations of transmission line and sometimes bifilar or coaxial cable and are similar to transmission line transformers in construction and operation. 4.18 Audio transformers

Figure 4.7 component of audio transformer Transformers in a tube amplifier. Output transformers are on the left. The power supply toroidal transformer is on right. Audio transformers are usually the factor which limit sound quality when used; electronic circuits with wide frequency response and low distortion are relatively simple to design. Transformers are also used in DI boxes to convert high-impedance instrument signals (e.g. bass guitar) to low impedance signals to enable them to be connected to a microphone input on the mixing console. A particularly critical component is the output transformer of an audio power amplifier. Valve circuits for quality reproduction have long been produced with no other (inter-stage) audio transformers, but an output transformer is needed to couple the relatively high impedance (up to a few hundred ohms depending upon configuration) of the output valve(s) to

the low impedance of a loudspeaker. (The valves can deliver a low current at a high voltage; the speakers require high current at low voltage.) Most solid-state power amplifiers need no output transformer at all. For good low-frequency response a relatively large iron core is required; high power handling increases the required core size. Good high-frequency response requires carefully designed and implemented windings without excessive leakage inductance or stray capacitance. All this makes for an expensive component.

4.19

Loudspeaker transformers In the same way that transformers are used to create high voltage power transmission

circuits that minimize transmission losses, loudspeaker transformers can be used to allow many individual loudspeakers to be powered from a single audio circuit operated at higher-than normal loudspeaker voltages. This application is common in industrial public address applications. Such circuits are commonly referred to as constant voltage speaker systems, although the audio waveform is a changing voltage. Such systems are also known by other terms such as 25-, 70and 100-volt speaker systems, referring to the nominal voltage of the loudspeaker line. At the audio amplifier, a large audio transformer may be used to step-up the low impedance, low-voltage output of the amplifier to the designed line voltage of the loudspeaker circuit. At the distant loudspeaker location, a smaller step-down transformer returns the voltage and impedance to ordinary loudspeaker levels. The loudspeaker transformers commonly have multiple primary taps, allowing the volume at each speaker to be adjusted in discrete steps.

4.20

Output transformer Valve (tube) amplifiers almost always use an output transformer to match the high load

impedance requirement of the valves (several kilohms) to a low impedance speaker.

4.21

Small signal transformers Moving coil phonograph cartridges produce a very small voltage. In order for this to be

amplified with a reasonable signal-noise ratio, a transformer is usually used to convert the voltage to the range of the more common moving-magnet cartridges. Microphones may also be matched to their load with a small transformer, which is mumetal shielded to minimize noise pickup.

4.22 3 Phase Electrical Power Isolation Transformer A 3 phase transformer, there is a three-legged iron core as shown below. Each leg has a respective primary and secondary winding. Thus a 3 phase isolation transformers is a 3 phase transformer which has isolated primary and secondary windings to allow the power input to be isolated from the power output. There a number of power transformer manufacturers of quality 3 phase isolation transformers today. The primary 3 phase isolation transformers manufacturers are: GE Industrial, TEMCo Isolation Transformer, Marcus Transformer, Hammond

Transformers, and Acme Transformers with capacity ranges 0.05 KVA through 5000 KVA. The isolation transformer manufacturer TEMCo also acts as a one stop wholesale outlet for the other transformer brands. 4.23 Standard 3 Phase Isolation Transformers 3 phase isolation transformers have 3 primary and 3 secondary windings that are physically separated from each other. Sometimes these isolation transformers are referred to as "insulated". This is because the windings are insulated from each other. In a 3 phase isolation transformer the output windings will be isolated, or floating from earth ground unless bonded at the time of installation. 4.24 3 Phase Shielded Isolation Transformers

Shielded 3 phase isolation transformers have all the feature of the standard 3 phase isolation transformers plus they also incorporate a full metallic shield (usually copper or aluminum) between the 3 phase primary and 3 phase secondary windings. This electrostatic shield ("Faraday Shield") is connected to earth ground and performs two functions:

One, it attenuates (filters) voltage transients (voltage spikes). These shielded 3 phase isolation transformers have an attenuation ratio of 100 to 1. Two, It also filters common mode noise. Attenuation of approximately 30 decibels. 4.25 Shielded 3 Phase Isolation Transformers Are Preferred The shielded 3 phase isolation transformer is preferred over a standard 3 phase isolation transformer because it provides protection for sensitive and other sensitive and critical equipment. Most power is distributed in the form of three-phase AC. Therefore, before proceeding any further you should understand what is meant by 3 phase power. Basically, the power company generators produce electricity by rotating (3) coils or windings through a magnetic field within the generator . These coils or windings are spaced 120 degrees apart. As they rotate through the magnetic field they generate power which is then sent out on three (3) lines as in threephase power. 3 phase transformers must have (3) coils or windings connected in the proper sequence in order to match the incoming power and therefore transform the power company voltage to the level of voltage we need and maintain the proper phasing or polarity.

4.26

3 Phase Power Is More Efficient Than Single Phase

Three phase electricity powers large industrial loads more efficiently than single-phase electricity. When single-phase electricity is needed, It is available between any two phases of a three-phase system, or in some systems , between one of the phases and ground. By the use of three conductors a 3 phase system can provide 173% more power than the two conductors of a single-phase system. Three-phase power allows heavy duty industrial equipment to operate more smoothly and efficiently.

Figure 4.8 transformer winding The three primary windings (P1, P2, P3) will be connected at the factory to provide the proper sequence (or correct polarity) required and will be in a configuration known as Delta. The three secondary windings (S1, S2, S3) will also be connected at the factory to provide the proper sequence (or correct polarity) required. 4.27 3 Phase Transformers Overview 3 phase transformers are used throughout industry to change values of 3 phase voltage and current. Since 3 phase power is the most common way in which power is produced, transmitted, an used, an understanding of how 3 phase transformer connections are made is essential. In this section it will discuss different types of 3 phase transformers connections, and present examples of how values of voltage and current for these connections are computed. 4.28 3 phase Transformer Construction: A 3 phase transformer is constructed by winding three single phase transformers on a single core. These transformers are put into an enclosure which is then filled with dielectric oil. The dielectric oil performs several functions. Since it is a dielectric, a nonconductor of electricity, it provides electrical insulation between the windings and the case. It is also used to help provide cooling and to prevent the formation of moisture, which can deteriorate the winding insulation.

Three-Phase Transformer Connections: There are only 4 possible transformer combinations: Delta to Delta - use: industrial applications Delta to Wye - use : most common; commercial and industrial Wye to Delta - use : high voltage transmissions Wye to Wye - use : rare, don't use causes harmonics and balancing problems. 3 phase transformers are connected in delta or wye configurations. A wye-delta transformer has its primary winding connected in a wye and its secondary winding connected in a delta (see figure 1-1). A delta-wye transformer has its primary winding connected in delta and its secondary winding connected in a wye (see figure 1-2). a) Delta Connections: A delta system is a good short-distance distribution system. It is used for neighborhood and small commercial loads close to the supplying substation. Only one voltage is available between any two wires in a delta system. The delta system can be illustrated by a simple triangle. A wire from each point of the triangle would represent a three-phase, three-wire delta system. The voltage would be the same between any two wires (see figure 1-3). b) Wye Connections: In a wye system the voltage between any two wires will always give the same amount of voltage on a 3 phase system. However, the voltage between any one of the phase conductors (X1, X2, X3) and the neutral (X0) will be less than the power conductors. For example, if the voltage between the power conductors of any two phases of a three wire system is 208v, then the voltage from any phase conductor to ground will be 120v. This is due to the square root of 3 phase power.

Figure 4.9 - Circuit symbols Transformer with two windings and iron core. Step-down or step-up transformer. The symbol shows which winding has more turns, but not usually the exact ratio. Transformer with three windings. The dots show the relative configuration of the windings. Transformer with electrostatic screen preventing capacitive coupling between the windings.

figure 4.10 - CONTROL TRANSFORMER

figure 4.11 - THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

QUESTION NO.2 5.0 MUTUAL PROTECTION LOCK

Installing the locks should be done in steps following the sequence print schematic. This assures you the key routing and functioning of the interlock system is safe and provides maximum protection for which the interlock system is intended. The mounting hardware we supply with all locks is of the tamperresistant type. All one-way screws, which Superior supplies, must be used to mount the locks. This is for mutual protection and will guarantee the safety and integrity of the interlock system Suggest that prior to permanent installation, all locks should be testmounted with standard hardware. After making proper adjustments, the standard hardware should be replaced with the one-way screws. This will give you maximum assurance that no one can dismantle the locks. After installing the locks, you should test the complete system sequentially, assuring yourself of proper sequential function of the interlocks. Any shortcomings within the system should be corrected prior to energizing the system. Not considering the above guidelines, you may jeopardize the safety of the operator or destroy expensive equipment. It is essential to have the proper locking disk, which will prevent the locking bolt being extended in any other than, the proper sequential position. Key release should be prevented by a fabricated member or interference finger, which will hold the key back, in the equipment, in an energized position. It may be necessary, at times, to manufacture shims or special parts in order to align the lock so it engages totally free

in the locking disk. Should the lock be used as a pushing device, where the locking bolt projects against a spring loaded member, locks with over-travel feature (OTF) should be used. The locking bolt on the OTF unit travels beyond the centerline and has the ability of releasing the pressure on pins and tumblers within the lock cylinder. This allows free insertion and removal of the key in the lock (when locking bolt is in extended position). Door locks used on fuse compartments or enclosures must have perfect alignment between the lock housing and bolt eye, (keeper). Misalignment between the two parts will result in excessive wear on the bottom release pins. When there is misalignment between door and frame, use a different type of lock, which is suitable for door locking without crucial alignment; B-857, or B-1496, etc. Type B-5003 should be used on doors with reasonable alignment between door and frame. Door locks are equipped with a key-retaining feature holding the key in the door-open position. This is accomplished internally with spring loaded tumblers and should allow the key release when the two members, lock and bolt eye, are joined in the process of positive door closure. Destroying this feature on the door locks will jeopardize the integrity of the system. Trying to retrieve a key from the locks will result in breaking the keys. Only when you join the two members can the key be safely removed.

Figure 5.1- the side view of mutual lock 6.0 CONTROLLED PROTECTION

Generation stations are considered extremely vital part of power system. Overcurrent voltage controlled relays are extensively used as backup protection of generators. Coordination between generator overcurrent voltage controlled relays and transmission line directional overcurrent relays represents a tedious task in power system protection as it depends heavily on network topology and system parameters. Mis-coordination is normally practiced in this situation. In this paper an intelligent modular protection system is proposed for relays parameter setting to assure proper coordination between such relays. The proposed system is based on artificial neural networks. The developed system interacts dynamically with protected network taking into consideration different loading and operating schemes. The system is applied and tested on large unified electrical power network. Good results are obtained to assure precise coordination in different fault type, location and network topologies. Load protection can be the main functions are: (1) When the voltage is too low or too high off the load automatically when the power supply; (2) When the supply voltage is restored, the automatic load power; (3) to provide power good, When the voltage is too low or too high light goes out; (4) using the remote control power through long-distance, off.

Figure 6.1 - Remote control block diagram of the load protection: Remote control transmitter:

Figure 6.2 Remote control receiver and load protection circuits:

7.0

PERMANENT CONTROLLED On-line protection scheme for three-phase interior permanent magnet (IPM) motors

using artificial neural network. The proposed protection scheme is developed and implemented in real-time using the DS1102 digital signal processor (DSP) board. In this work, a two-layer feed-forward neural network (FFNN) with sixteen inputs and single output is designed and trained off-line with experimental data using the back-propagation algorithm. An experimental setup is developed to accommodate the on-line testing and to carry out the protection of IPM motors. Three types of faults such as single line to ground (L-G) fault, line-to-line (L-L) fault, and single phasing fault are investigated. The technique is evaluated and tested on-line on the

laboratory 1-hp and 5-hp IPM motors using the DSP board. The laboratory results show that the proposed technique is able to detect the faulted conditions with high accuracy. 8.0 AUTOMATIC PROTECTION An automatic transfer system provides a means of switching both ends of a working digital carrier span line automatically to a protection line when a failure occurs on a working line, without service interruption. Priority schemes enable one or two protection lines to serve any number of working lines. New design concepts expand the flexibility of automatic line transfer. Each digital span line may be protected separately and transferred independently. Interrogation and resetting on a span-by-span basis are also provided. All line transfers are signaled and the location of a failure anywhere in the system may be determined from a central location. Any span feeding lines originating or terminating within the system, or diverging at a remote office, may be protected by one or two protection lines. 9.0 CONCLUSION The conclusion that we obtained we learnt the safety precaution towards electric and electronic equipment. Thus, these all kind of devices are often used by technician, contractor, and engineer. So we have to know and study every function of these equipment. Therefore, we'll find out how circuit breakers and fuses monitor electrical current and how they cut off the power when current levels get too high. As we'll see, the circuit breaker is an incredibly simple solution to a potentially deadly problem. The example of safety equipment or devices of transformers was isolating transformers offer a high degree of protection for use in harsh operating conditions such as with wet-grinding machines, cement vibrators. By learning the meaning, symbols, operations, types of each devices, we can more gain our knowledge of this safety precaution and can study hoe to operate each of the devices that stated.

10.0

REFFERENCE A. INTERNET

1. Walker, PMB, Chambers Science and Technology Dictionary, Edinburgh, 1988, ISBN 1852961503 2. fuse.sourceforge.net 2. Read more: http://www.answers.com/topic/fuse#ixzz1UGXddyXq 3. http://www.answers.com/topic/fuse#ixzz1UGY7L9hy 4. ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peranti_arus_baki 5. www.cbrx.il.gov 6. www.cncelegroup.com 7. forums.kixeye.com/.../75540-hacking-and-permanent-protection 8. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=5281865 9. http://bonle.en.alibaba.com/product/50348671/51680889/Switch/MCB___MCCB.html 10. http://www.claytonengineering.com/training/myweb6/Module11/Output 11. http://www.superiorinterlock.com/installinstr.html

B. BOOKS

1. Robert Friedel and Paul Israel, Edison's Electric Light: Biography of an Invention, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick New Jersey USA,1986 ISBN 0-8135-1118-6 pp.65-66 2. McGraw-Hill Science & Technology Encyclopedia. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. Copyright 2005 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 3. Fowler's Modern English Usage. Oxford University Press. 1999, 2004 All rights reserved. 4. B. M. Weedy, Electric Power Systems Second Edition, John Wiley and Sons, London, 1972, ISBN 0471924458 pp. 428-430

Topic/question Question 1 Switch Fuse Circuit breaker Isolation transformer Question 2 Mutual protection locks Controlled protection Permanent protection Automatic protection Conclusion Reference

Index

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0