concrete

STRUCTURAL MATERIALS RESEARCH CATALOGUE STUDIO 703

CONTRIBUTORS ARCH 3501 - ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN STUDIO 4

James Donovan, Marshall Drennan, Gregory Hemmelgarn, Phil Hoffmann, Cody Johnson, David Ladewig, Laura Lopez, COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE
Katherine Marshall, John Redington, Greg Roffino, Jose Sanchez, Chelsea Serrano-Piche, Leo Spurgin, Jasmine Strickland TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY - FALL 2008
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 background

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 history
The ancient Romans first used lime and pozzolana, a volcanic
ash, to create a hard setting mortar. By adding rubble and
other aggregate, the Romans created opus caementitium.
The most famous example of this early form of concrete is the
Pantheon in Rome, Italy.

Modern concrete was invented by the British engineer John

Smeaton in 18th century, alongside the rapidly growing use
of iron and steel for building construction. Portland Cement,
the main ingredient in modern concrete, was patented in 1824
by Joseph Aspdin. In the 1867 Frenchman Joseph Monier
combined the tensile strength of steel and the compressional
strength of concrete to create the composite building material
known as reinforced concrete. Today, nearly all concrete
construction is reinforced concrete.

1
http://www.znanje.org/i/i27/07iv03/07iv0321/pantheon.jpg

3 2
http://www.momahoney.com/M.O%27MahoneyCo%20File/Images/MOMSupplies/Ce- http://www.dkimages.com/discover/previews/884/5019427.JPG

1. Roman Pantheon, early example of concrete

2. Concrete slab showing basic steel reinforcement
3. Portland Cement, key ingredient in concrete
 methods
Concrete is available in 3 main types. The most common
is ready-mix concrete, which accounts for more than three-
fourths of all concrete construction. Ready mix concrete
is mixed off site at a central plant and shipped to the
construction site in large trucks. Another type is Pre-cast
concrete, which has become widely popular especially
in hotels and apartments where repetitive elements are
common. Pre-cast concrete is mixed and cured at the factory
under ideal conditions, producing a higher quality concrete.
The last form of concrete is the concrete masonry unit, which
in best known for its standard 8x8x16 inch block. Because
they are cured in the factory, they can be mass produced and
designed to suit any architectural need.

1
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2 3
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1. Construction crew pouring cast in place foundation

2. Concrete masonry units, curing in the factory yard
3. Prefabricated concrete beams
 types
There are many types of concrete that is used to strengthen
and help reinforce the concrete itself. First, Standard
concrete which is a mixture of sand, portland cement and
water, is common in most places. Another type of concrete is
shotcrete which uses compressed air to shoot concrete onto
vertical frames and structures. Pervious concrete contains a
network of holes to allow air and water to move through the
concrete. The last type of concrete is Glass. The use of the
glass as a aggregate is a good material for thermal insulation.

1
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2
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3
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1. Standard
2. Shotcrete
3. Pervious
4. Glass 4
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 future of concrete
Since the development of concrete by the Romans there has
been a tremendous change in the technology of concrete. In
the past couple of years scientists have been experimenting
the limits of concrete and finding new uses of the material.
There is a new form of concrete called translucent concrete.
To achieve the translucence in concrete scientists use large
quantities of fiber optics to transfer light from one side of the
wall to the other. Fiber optics can transfer light through a
load-bearing concrete wall up to six feet thick.

The Romans experimented with different aggregates to

lighten the weight of concrete, but changes in aggregates
would only decrease the load by fractions. This concept
brought the invention of Autoclave Aerated concrete. AAC
is mixed with lime, water, cement, and finely ground sand.
The mixture is placed in a autoclave at high pressure and
heat. This produces concrete five times lighter than regular
1 concrete, which is capable of floating in water.

2
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1. Translucent concrete
2. LitriCon block wall.
3. Autoclaved Aerated Conrete floating next to standard
concrete.
4. Design application for fiber optic concrete wall. 4
Liquid stone : new architecture in concrete / Jean-Louis Cohen and G. Martin Moeller, Jr., editors. New York : Princeton Architectural Press, c2006
 future of concrete
Fabric Formed Concrete is another study showing texture
and producing mass molds when using plaster. The stretched
fabric reflects the tensile forces within the material. Once the
concrete is poured into the fabric mold, hardened, then turned
upside down to let the force of gravity pull; it becomes in
compression to keep its original shape. When the concrete is
dried the fabric engraves patterns onto the surface.

Bendable Concrete is a fiber reinforced, cement based

composite material that is engineered to allow ductility. The
use of elastic polymers and other chemical compounds is
continually advancing the possibilities of concrete design.

2
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1. Bendable concrete
2. Fabric formed concrete
3. Detail of fabric formed concrete 3
Liquid stone : new architecture in concrete / Jean-Louis Cohen and G. Martin Moeller, Jr., editors. New York : Princeton Architectural Press, c2006
thin shell concrete

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 cantenary curves
Catenary curves are often confused with parabolas, but
geometrically they are very different. A catenary curve is a
theoretical shape a chain suspended from each end takes
under the forces of gravity. Catenary curves are extremely
efficient because they naturally form a equilibrium of forces
between gravity and tension. Eero Sarrinen uses catenary
curves frequently in his projects such as the St. Louis Arch
in Missouri and Dulles International Airport near Washington
D.C.

1. Diagram of a cantenary curve showing the forces of

gravity and tension
2. Cantenary arch viewed as a plane 1
Haas, A. M. (Arend Maarten) Design of thin concrete shells. New York, Wiley, 1962-67.
 additional geometry
There are many different types of curves that are used in
thin-shell designs, many of which require difficult
mathematical language and high level calculus.

1
american air museum

http://www.flickr.com/photos/hubmedia/275645566/
 design
The American Air Museum in Duxford, England was
constructed in 1995 by Ove Arup with Foster and Partners.
The program called for a structure to house 32 aircraft in
a large, single space. The largest of these aircraft, a B52
Stratofortress, is 50 feet tall with a 200 foot wingspan,
determining the minimum dimensions of the structure. The
solution was a curved concrete shell whose geometry is
derived from a torus and the plan of the structure is half of
an ellipse. The double shell concrete construction of the roof
was designed to control condensation. Even though concrete
is more expensive than steel, Foster decided to use concrete
because of its lower life cycle costing.

1 2

1. Geometry derived from 3D torus

2. Exterior perspective
3. Longitudinal section
 construction
The inner slab of the roof was formed with ‘T’ beams placed
upside down to hold the roof together. These individual
beams are ten meters long by three meters wide and all four
sides of the beam are reinforced to structurally tie all the
beams together. The outer slab is made of curved precast
panels resting on top of the ‘T’ beams. These The glass wall
at the rear of the building is demountable to allow the planes
to move in and out of the building if needed.

1 2

1. Construction crews installing precast beams

2. Detail section through foundation and abutments
3. Detail of precast ‘T’ beams
4. Scaffolding and false work during construction 4
 thin shell cave
Our first large scale plaster model was inspired by the
American Air Museum in Duxford, England (page X). This
model is approximately. 30” x 24” x 12”. We encountered
several problems with this project. Despite being only 1/8”
thick at the top, this model required nearly half a gallon of
plaster. Managing large quantities of wet plaster proved to
be challenging, and we were forced to pour several batches.
Creating accurate form work for complex geometric shapes
also proved to be quite a challenge. The American Air
Museum is based off a torus, or 3D doughnut, producing a
non-deformable section that is curved in two directions, which
we were unable to replicate. Despite this setback, our “cave”
is remarkably strong, so long as the outward thrusts of the
abutments are resisted.

3 4

1. Thin shell cave with plexiglass form work partially removed

2. Perspective image of the cave
3. Detail of cave abutment and wire screen reinforcement
4. Side elevation, showing straight edge instead of doubly
curved shell
 precast ‘T’ beams
An important structural feature of the American Air Museum
is the precast concrete ‘T’ beams that form the curved roof.
Despite the complex geometry of the building, the concrete
manufacturers were able to cast the 200+ beams required
with only six different sets of steel form work. We were able to
approximate one of these sets of form work and use it to cast
two identical tee beams at 1:50 scale (8" x 2" x 1"). Instead of
steel, we used wood faced with plexiglass to make our molds.
Once assembled with masking tape, plaster was poured into
one end of the mold and allowed to cure fully before striking
the mold and repeating the process.

1 2

1. Form work pieces laid out

2. Form work partially assembled
3. Detail of lateral reinforcing wires
4. Finished ‘T’ beams
dulles international airport

http://www.metwashairports.com/_/Gallery%20Image/_/dx-17_daytime_terminal.jpg
 concept
Dulles International Airport was designed by Eero Sarrinen
in 1962. Located just outside Washington D.C., Dulles is one
of Eero Sarrinen’s most famous designs. Sarrinen himself
described Dulles as “the best thing I have ever done.” The
Terminal is about 600 feet long by 200 feet wide. One of the
most noticeable features of the design is its roof structure.
Sarrinen compared the roof structure and it’s colonnades as
a hammock hung between two trees. Geometrically speaking,
the roof is a catenary curve. Catenary curves are extremely
stable because they are simply the shape something takes
due to gravity when suspended from its ends.

“ I think this airport is the best thing I have done. I think it is going to be
really good. Maybe it will even explain what I believe about Architecture.
”
Eero Sarrinen
June 21, 1961

http://www.braingainmarketing.com/media/saarinen/saarinen_knight_02.jpg
 construction
There are sixteen columns on each side of the terminal to
hold up the massive roof. The columns on the front side of
the terminal are 65ft. high and are 45ft. high on the rear side.
The columns are designed at an outward angle to resist the
tension from the cables holding the thin concrete roof in the
air. The roof is set up of many rows of cables spaced ten
feet apart, with each row having approximately fifty precast
concrete panels hung between the wires. Once the panels
are in place, concrete is poured on top to fill between the
gaps and create a monolithic roof.

1 2 4

1. Lifting precast panels into place

2. Underside of precast panels hanging from wires
3. Columns under construction
4. Scaffolding and false work used to finish roof
 interior
The effect of this massive hanging roof is truly spectacular.
There are no columns or walls anywhere in the main terminal,
and the space is entirely surrounded by glass, allowing for a
clear view through the entire building. Light floods the space
as the roof seems to float effortlessly overhead.

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plaster
 directions

1. Wearing gloves helps clean-up and 2. Warm water makes the plaster set faster, 3. Ideal mix calls for 2:1 plaster to water ratio. 4. Add the dry plaster to the water.
protects your hands. cold water lengthens the time the plaster is Higher plaster ratios makes thicker, stronger
workable. Choose according to your needs. product, but makes achieving accurate,
bubble-free molds more difficult.

5. Mix the plaster using a piece of scrap 6. Add aggregate while continually stirring. 7. Pour plaster into mold. 8. Shake mold and use a piece of scrap to
wood. agitate the wet plaster. This helps remove air
bubbles. You may need to add more plaster
to top off your mold after this step.

9. Wait. Plaster takes about an hour to set in 10. Leave excess plaster in your mixing 11. Do not dump wet plaster down the sink. 12. After excess plaster has dried, throw it
the mold, about 24 hours to dry completely. container. It will help you know how fast your It can harden in the pipes and cause major away in the trash or pile it on your neighbor's
Fragile or intricate castings should set for 6-8 plaster is curing. problems. studio desk.
hours before disturbing the plaster.
 aggregate ratios
Varying the plaster to aggregate ratio noticeably changes
the characteristics of the plaster. Generally speaking, adding
aggregate to the plaster mix helps thicken and strengthen
the plaster. In small doses, the aggregate has little effect on
the finished plaster, whereas large quantities actually have
a negative effect, making the plaster to thick to work with.
Generally speaking, adding 2-3 parts aggregate in the plaster
yields the best results. By the end of our process, we simply
added the aggregate as we stirred until it reached the desired
thickness

1 part aggregate 2 parts aggregate 3 parts aggregate 4 parts aggregate

 reinforced plaster
We tried several methods of reinforcing our plaster. In our
first attempt, we used medical gauze. The plaster seemed to
have a negative reaction to it, perhaps due to some coating
on the gauze. It was difficult to make the plaster adhere well
to the fibers, although once it cured, the gauze was able to
hold the plaster together even after complete failure. The
randomly oriented fiber strands produced a very strong slab,
due mostly to the thickness and density of the fibers. This
thickness however prevented us from producing a slab less
than a quarter inch thick. In our third experiment, we used a
wire screen to reinforce the plaster on our thin shell cave. The
metal screen prevents tensile forces from cracking the thin
plaster.

1. Medical gauze
2. Randomly oriented fiber strands
3. Wire screen 2 3
 where to find plaster
Relatively speaking plaster, like concrete, is a cheap and
abundant material. Plaster is very susceptible to economics
of scale, or the idea that purchasing in bulk saves money. You
can purchase 8 pound containers of plaster at Hobby Lobby
for about $5, or buy a 25 pound bag at Home Depot for $13.
Fred Porteous in the wood shop told us that a 100 pound bag
would only cost about $25. If you have a lot of work to do
with plaster, such as an entire project devoted to concrete,
buying in bulk is the way to go.

8 pounds - $0.62 per pound

25 pounds - $0.52 per pound
100 pounds - $0.25 per pound
model
overview
Our model of the Dulles Main terminal building came with
many challenges. The plaster was a very difficult material
to work with, primarily due to its long curing time and its
propensity to crack and break. Generally speaking, plaster
is a good analogue to concrete, however working at a small
scale proved difficult as many characteristics of concrete and
plaster change at smaller scales.
 roof system first attempt
In our first attempt, we used two sheets of plexiglass to create
each side of the form work. We braced the plexiglass with
wood, and used 1/4 inch square dowels to space the form
work. We drilled holes through these 1/4 inch pieces, stringing
our reinforcement wires through them, hoping this would hold
them in the center of the slab while the plaster was poured.
Once we began pouring the plaster, we quickly noticed some
serious deficiencies in our form work. The plexiglass was
nowhere near strong enough to resist the pressure of the
wet plaster, bowing and buckling severely. The plaster also
caused all the reinforcing wire to shift positions and rust,
leaving orange lines across our finished slab.

1. Plexiglass form work, with reinforcement wires strung

2. Detail of reinforcement wires and surface imperfections
3. Underside of slab showing rusted wires. Top wire has been
pulled out of the slab 3
 roof system second attempt
For our second attempt, we strengthened out form work
by adding 3 additional ribs to brace the plexiglass. We
maintained the same pattern of wire reinforcement in an
attempt to stay true to the actual structural system, hoping
the stronger mold would allow us to focus on adjusting the
wires properly while the plaster set. Our plaster mixture on
this attempt proved to be poor quality, as our water was too
warm and there was too much aggregate in the mix. Both
these factors caused our plaster to set much faster than
anticipated, leaving many bubbles and cracks. The thicker
mix also distorted and shifted the wires, which once again
rusted through the white plaster.

1. Form work with additional bracing to support the plexiglass

2. Detail of surface imperfections and rusted wires
3. Second roof slab, showing displaced and rusted wires 3
 roof system third attempt
After two unsuccessful attempts using wires to reinforce our
plaster, we decided to try a pure plaster slab without any
reinforcement. We also super-glued our plexglass sheets to
the form work in an attempt to add some rigidity to the form
work and prevent rippling, which was unsuccessful. The
finished slab was severely rippled, but was free of any surface
imperfections caused from bubbles in the mold. This slab was
extremely fragile. After drying for two days, our slab broke
while we were working with it. It quickly became apparent that
our plaster must be reinforced.

1. Broken Slab. All breaks occured simultaneously

2. Form work and clamps immediately after striking
3. Detail of slab, showing perfect glossy finish to plaster,
despite the ripples on the right side 2 3
 roof system fourth attempt
Our fourth attempt finally produced a slab with a uniform
thickness free of the ripples caused from weak form work.
We added a layer of 1/4 inch MDF to provide added strength
to our form work, while maintaining the layer of plexiglass for
a smooth surface finish. We use fabric instead of wires to
reinforce our plaster, which produced a higher quality slab
free of rust lines, however this came at the expense of model
accuracy.

1. Form work clamped together while plaster cures

2. Detail of form work edges, using masking tape as release
agent
3. Bottom of form work, showing plexiglass/MDF combination 3
columns
The columns for our model presented an entirely different set
of challenges. The columns supporting the roof at the Dulles
Main Terminal are slender, graceful columns with chamfered
corners that lean outward as they ascend. This required an
accurate mold of a very elegant, sculptural form. In addition,
the mold must be easily reused so we could cast multiple
copies of the same form.
 liquid latex molds
Liquid latex is a common material for creating molds for
intricate detail or complex shapes. It comes in a bottle as a
thick paste with can be brushed or poured over an object to
create a rubber mold. We began by shaping a column out
of wood and cutting it in half. We then brushed 4 coats of
liquid latex on each side, with a layer of gauze reinforcement
between the 2nd and 3rd layers as recommended by the
instructions. After about 24 hours, the liquid latex had dried
and we were able to pull it off the wood, leaving 2 sides of a
mold for the column. These latex molds were very flimsy and
rather poor quality. After our experience with the plexiglass
molds we used for the roof, it was clear these latex molds
wouldn't support the plaster. We decided to abandon the latex
and search for a better alternative.

1. Wooden column and latex mold

2. Latex drying on top of wooden forms 2
 styrofoam column mold
In our solution for casting the columns, we used a large block
of styrofoam, cut in half. We used our wooden column form
to imprint a negative mold of each side into the styrofoam.
In our early tests we discovered that wet plaster would stick
to the bare styrofoam, destroying the mold. To remedy this
problem, we covered the area with duct tape to act as a
release agent. This styrofoam method worked well because
it was easy to reuse, allowing us to cast a new column every
60 minutes, but it lacked the precision we would have liked.
The mold produced a very rough column form that required a
lot of carving and sanding after the plaster had set. Because
each individual column had to be hand worked after it was
cast, our precision and accuracy from column to column was
greatly diminished. In addition, once the plaster had cured
completely, it became very difficult to work with, evident on
several columns in our model.

1 2

1. Pouring plaster mixture into mold

2. Plaster curing with carriage bolt embedded to anchor
column to base
3. Styrofoam mold, immediately after striking
4. Hand carving column after casting 4
roof hangers
The roof of the Dulles Main Terminal is suspended from either
end by a large curved member that acts as a beam running
along the tops of the columns. This section of the roof was
constructed first in the actual building, but becase of our
form work used for the model, we chose to add these pieces
after the main roof had been cast. The sculptural shape and
varying thickness of these pieces called for another intricate
piece of form work that must be reusable.
 plexiglass formwork
We created the form work for these end pieces with a sheet
of 1/8 inch plexiglass. Using an industrial heat gun, we were
able to heat and bend the plexiglass into the hairpin section
our model required. We had to use various pieces of scrap
wood as form work in order to shape the soft plexiglass to
our desired shape. After creating this piece, we clamped the
form work around the roof slab and poured plaster into the
mold.

1 2

1. Heating the plexiglass

2. Formwork clamped to existing roof slab, ready for plaster
3. Using dowels and boards to shape the formwork 3
speed curing
Due to time constraints and the 8 hour set time for these
fragile roof pieces, we were forced to speed up the curing
process of our plaster. Plaster cures through a process
known as hydration, in which the water reacts chemically with
the dry plaster to activate it. As the water evaporates from
the plaster, it hardens. Using a heat gun, we were able to
raise the temperature of the plaster high enough to cause the
water in the plaster to evaporate at a much quicker rate. We
are unsure if affected the strength or quality of our plaster; It
is possible this rapid curing weakened the plaster and led to
more frequent breaks and cracks. It is interesting to note that
the plaster, like concrete, has excellent thermal properties
and did not show any obvious signs of stress or burning,
despite the 1350 degree temperature reading on our heat gun
(In comparison, the plexiglass we used for our molds only
required 550 degrees to melt and deform).
 drilling holes
The columns at the Dulles Main Terminal building pass
through large openings in the roof, adding to the effect that
the roof is floating overhead. To recreate this we had to drill
a series of holes into our completed roof slab to allow our
columns to pass through. Plaster can be drilled or cut with a
saw with relative ease, though the delicacy of our thin curved
roof slab made this extremely challenging. During to process
of making these holes, the slab cracked along the joint
between the main slab and the two end pieces. At this point,
there simply was not enough time to repeat the casting of
the end pieces and we were forced to proceed without them,
salvaging what we could.

1. Using a power drill with a small hole saw bit to drill the
holes in the slab
2. Typical column at Dulles.
 conclusion
The most difficult part of this model was assembling the
components. Due to a lack of technical accuracy and
precision in our form work, the pieces did not fit together
properly. Once the plaster had fully cured, it became very
difficult to work with, and even the most minor adjustments
presented quite a challenge. Working with plaster, just like
concrete, is a messy procedure. At full scale, the smallest
imperfections can have huge impacts on a building. Working
at 1:92 scale meant that these imperfections became
magnified 92 times.