BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this thesis titled Bandwidth Estimation and Analysis of Multi-hop Ad hoc Networks is a bonafide work of Ms. K.Vijayalakshmi who carried out the research under my supervision. Certified further, that to the best of my knowledge, the work reported herein does not form part of any other thesis or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion on this or any other candidate.

Dr.S.Srikanth, Member Research Staff, AU-KBC Research Centre, Date : 4/07/2005 Place : Chennai. MIT Campus, Anna University, Chromepet, Chennai, TN 600 044 India

ABSTRACT

Medium access control protocols and its effect on capacity are important aspects in communication system design for any shared medium like wireless. In multi-hop ad hoc networks that use a distributed and contention based channel access mechanism such as those specified in the IEEE 802.11 standard, the capacity of individual links are not known. Existing methods in literature attempt to solve this using measurement based approaches. This thesis proposes graph theoretical and real-time approaches to estimate the capacities of individual links in a multi-hop ad hoc network and uses analytical modeling to derive node throughputs and successful transmission probabilities of individual nodes in multi-hop ad hoc networks. In a contention based system based on the IEEE 802.11 standard, the capacity of links depends on the time available for the links to be active which in turn depends on the probability of nodes transmission. While the link capacity can be expressed by the number of times it gets activated, it can be more accurately expressed in probabilistic terms. This is due to the randomness introduced in the channel access procedure in the form of virtual carrier sensing and binary exponential backoff. This thesis proposes centralized and distributed methods to estimate the active time of links. The centralized approaches have the knowledge of the entire network topology and use graph theoretic approaches to derive individual link active times. The distributed approaches on the other hand only have the partial knowledge of network topology to derive the link active times. This thesis proposes another approach to the link capacity problem using the analytical modeling of multi-hop network for string and grid topologies. The analytical modeling uses Markov models to derive node throughputs and successful transmission probabilities of individual nodes in multi-hop ad hoc

networks. The advantages of the estimation methods are topology independent nature of the solution, a wide spectrum of applications using the estimates and real-time applications using the distributed approach. It also provides insight into the performance evaluation of multi-hop networks. The accuracy of the estimations is validated through simulations and it is observed that there is a difference between the estimated and simulated values only of the order of 10e-02. The values obtained through analytical model too matches the values obtained in simulations to a good degree.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My foremost thanks and deep sense of gratitude goes to my supervisor Dr.S.Srikanth for giving me a free hand in research along with continued guidance and support throughout the long course of the programme. My heart-felt thanks to my cosupervisor Dr.V.Vaidehi for the encouragement and valuable guidance that motivated me to achieve my goals in phased manner.

Im greatly indebted to Dr.C.N.Krishnan, the Director of AU- KBC Research centre for being responsible for the inspirational department . His dedication to work and idealogy are sure fires for young minds. My immense thanks to Dr.S.V.Ramanan for the short but most effective periods of interaction that gave the much needed impetus to my thesis. My sincere thanks to Dr. S.Anand for the numerous enlightening discussions and constant encouragement and to Ms. R.Jayaparvathy for continued support and useful suggestions throughout the program. Special thanks to KRK for the support and valuable suggestions during the last leg of the programme.

Immense gratitude to all my wonderful friends and specially to friend and guide Rajesh for the incredible support throughout. The thesis would not have seen the light of the day had it not been for the constant care and blessings of my parents and loving support of my sister. Finally my salutations to God for being with me all through.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 OVERVIEW..........................................................................................................10 1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY.....................................................................................10 1.3 PROBLEM DEFINITION..................................................................................12 1.4 ASSUMPTIONS....................................................................................................13 1.5 CONTRIBUTION in this THESIS.....................................................................14 1.6 THESIS ORGANIZATION.................................................................................14 2.1 OVERVIEW..........................................................................................................16 2.2 THE IEEE 802.11 STANDARD..........................................................................16 2.3 SYSTEM MODEL................................................................................................19 2.4 LINK ACTIVATION CONSTRAINTS..............................................................19 2.5 LINK CAPACITY ESTIMATIONS...................................................................21 2.6 CENTRALIZED SCHEMES...............................................................................23 2.7 DISTRIBUTED SCHEMES................................................................................26 2.8 ACHIEVABLE BANDWIDTH ESTIMATION...............................................31 3.1 MOTIVATION....................................................................................................33 3.2 PROTOCOL MODEL AND ASSUMPTIONS................................................34 3.3 CHANNEL MODEL...........................................................................................35 3.4 NODE MODEL...................................................................................................40

4.1 SIMULATION MODEL......................................................................................45 4.2 LINK ATP ESTIMATIONS................................................................................46 4.3 ANALYTICAL RESULTS FOR MARKOV MODEL.....................................53 4.4 SIMULATION RESULTS FOR MARKOV MODEL......................................55 4.5 CONCLUSION SUMMARY...............................................................................58 4.6 FUTURE RESEARCH.........................................................................................59

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1 : SIMULATION PRARAMETERS....................................................45

LIST OF FIGURES

FIG 1 DCF MODE OF OPERATION................................................................17 FIG 2 SAMPLE STRING NETWORK..............................................................20 FIG 3 INTERFERENCE GRAPH FOR STRING NETWORK..........................20 FIG 4 SAMPLE TOPOLOGY TO ILLIUSTRATE TWO- HOP INTERFERENCE ..........................................................................................................................27 FIG 5 : GRAPH TO ILLUSTRATE NEED FOR 3 HOP KNOWLEDGE IN SOME CASES..................................................................................................29 FIG 6 CHANNEL MOLED FOR IEEE 802.11 MAC.........................................36 FIG 7 NODE MOLED FOR IEEE 802.11 MAC................................................40 FIG 8 : 10 NODE STRING- CENTRALIZED...................................................47 FIG 9 : 18 NODES STRING CENTRALIZED...............................................47 FIG 10 : 9 NODES GRID - CENTRALIZED....................................................48 FIG 11 : 16 NODE GRID CENTRALIZED...................................................48 FIG 12 : RANDOM TOPOLOGY 10 NODES CENTRALIZED..................49

FIG 13 : STRING TOPOLOGY, 8 NODES - DISTRIBUTED...........................50 FIG 14 : STRING TOPOLOGY 12 NODES - DISTRIBUTED.........................51 FIG 15 : GRID TOPOLOGY 9 NODES - DISTRIBUTED...............................51 FIG 16 : RANDOM TOPOLOGY, 10 NODES DISTRIBUTED.....................52 FIG 17 : : RANDOM TOPOLOGY, 8NODES - DISTRIBUTED......................52 FIG 18 : STRING TOPOLOGY ANALYTICAL RESULTS...........................54 FIG 19 : GRID TOPOLOGY ANALYTICAL RESULTS...............................54 FIG 20 SIMULATION RESULTS OF STRING TOPOLOGY...........................56 FIG 21 SIMULATION RESULTS OF 9 NODES GRID TOPLOGY.................56 FIG 22 : SIMULATION RESULTS OF 16 NODES GRID TOPLOGY...........57

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 OVERVIEW
A multi-hop ad hoc network is a self-organized system that can comprise many mobile nodes connected without a pre-determined topology or central control. It provides quick and easy networking in circumstances that require un-tethered connectivity or temporary network services. It finds widespread applications in scenarios such as hospitals, search and rescue operation, battle fields and disaster sites. Hass et al (1992) outline some of the applications. With the growing popularity of applications, it has become necessary to provide solutions for efficient data or multimedia communication over the network. Link bandwidth estimation is an essential component of rate control and Quality of Service (QoS) support schemes like admission control, resource reservation and QoS routing. The IEEE 802.11 standard based Medium access control (MAC) detailed in the IEEE standard (1999) is the commonly used channel access scheme for ad hoc networks.

1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY

The capacity and performance studies of multi-hop networks in the literature is as follows. Yang et al (2003) obtained expressions for throughput of a semi-saturated and unsaturated network. But they did not consider in the model the hidden terminal

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problem, which is an important aspect of multi-hop networks. Chhaya and Gupta (1997) analyzed the effect of capture and hidden nodes. Li and Blake (2001) studied the capacities of multi-hop networks for standard topologies and random traffic pattern. The analysis however is for the entire network and not on a per link basis. Liaw et al (2004) proposed a method to estimate the throughput available to a node based on local measurements and neighbor information and channel occupancy of the node. However the approach is traffic dependent. Jain et al (2003) analyzed the impact of interference on multi-hop networks using a linear programming framework. They gave a framework for getting upper and lower bounds for flow throughput. Similarly Kodialam and Nandagopal (2003) characterized the achievable rates for single and multiple flows. In both the above approaches, the computation of feasible single or multiple flows assumes the knowledge of link capacity or a links bit rate. Samrath et al (2003), Li et al (2003) and Kazantzidis et al (2001) in their work used the channel access time of a stations current traffic to predict the achievable bandwidth of flows. With new flows getting added, the competition for the channel intensifies among the flows and the old channel access time measured doesnt reflect the bandwidth allocation for the new flows. The efficiency of the IEEE 802.11 protocol directly affects the utilization of the channel capacity and system performance. Performance evaluation of single-hop ad hoc networks using IEEE 802.11 MAC is done in Bianchi (2000), Carvalho and Aceves (2003), Li et al (2003), and Liwa et al (2004) In the case of multi-hop ad hoc networks using DCF protocol, performance analysis needs consideration of many factors. Much work has gone into studying the interaction between higher layers and IEEE 802.11 MAC in multi-hop networks. Xu and Saadawi (2003) brought out the problems in fairness and throughput variations when TCP is used with 802.11 MAC. Fairness issues and enhancement of MAC are studied by Tang and Gerla (1999) and Bensaou et al (2000). Eladly and Chen (2003) extended the saturation throughput model of Bianchi (2000) to the case of multiple overlapping BSSs. However a

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comprehensive analysis of performance of the IEEE 802.11 based multi-hop networks is still an ongoing research work. Wang and Aceves (2004) analyzed the performance of CSMA/CA based multi-hop networks using different Markov models for channel and node. Yawen and Biaz (2005) combined the Bianchi (2000) model to get a three dimensional model to analyze the performance of a multi-hop network under different traffic loads and network densities. In this work, we address the problem of estimating the active time of links in a multihop network and give a general framework for such estimations. A general solution that works for any topology is proposed. The analytical model for IEEE 802.11 provides a much needed insight into performance modeling of multi-hop networks.

1.3 PROBLEM DEFINITION

Multi-hop ad hoc networks are gaining attention due its vast application potential. For multimedia applications, it is necessary that Quality of Service (QoS) schemes are in place. An essential component of QoS and traffic management schemes is the knowledge of link capacity information. Most work in the literature use measurement based approaches to get the values of link capacities. This thesis addresses the problem of estimating link capacities using a number of approaches. Another way of addressing is the issue is by modeling the network. This helps in performance evaluation and getting probabilistic estimates of capacities. This thesis addresses it by the modeling the IEEE 802.11 based multi-hop networks for string and grid topologies.

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1.4 ASSUMPTIONS
The following assumptions have been made regarding the problem in hand while arriving at the solution. These assumptions define the scope or the boundaries of the solution formulated.

We consider a static multi-hop ad hoc network with N nodes using Distributed Co-ordination Function (DCF) of IEEE 802.11 to schedule their transmission. In a multi-hop network using DCF, channel is spatially reused and nodes transmit simultaneously when they are not within the interference range R of each other. We will use the protocol model used by Gupta and Kumar (2000) to describe the conditions under which a successful wireless transmission takes place.

Each node can transmits to other nodes in its transmission range d. We assume that all nodes employ a common range d for their transmission. Let Xi,
1 i n denote the location of node i. When node i transmits to node j directly, over

the channel, this transmission is received successfully by j if, The distance between node i and j is no more than d. i.e., Xi X j d For every other node m simultaneously transmitting over the channel, X m X j (1 + k )d where . is the Euclidean norm. The quantity k>d models the interference range of the nodes.

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Traffic at every node is assumed to be saturated and hence a node always has a packet to transmit. And the destination is assumed chosen randomly from one of its neighbors.

1.5 CONTRIBUTION in this THESIS

Contributions made in the thesis are three fold. A framework for estimating capacities of individual links in a multi-hop ad hoc network using estimations. Distributed approaches with very low complexity algorithms to estimate the link capacities are outlined. They have the advantage of being used in real-time applications. Analytical model for multi-hop networks are obtained that study individual node performance and provides insight into the modeling of multi-hop networks. graph theoretical approach is provided through the centralized

1.6 THESIS ORGANIZATION

Chapter 2 details centralized and distributed approaches used for estimating the link capacities. It discusses the approaches and algorithms involved and their complexity. Chapter 3 deals with analytical modeling of IEEE 802.11 based multi-hop networks in string and grid topologies.

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Chapter 4 discusses the results of the estimation schemes, compares the schemes with simulation. It also discusses the analytical results and validates them with simulation. Chapter 5 concludes the thesis discussing the benefits of the solution schemes, improvements possible in them and future scope of the work.

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CHAPTER 2 BANDWIDTH ESTIMATION METHODS

2.1 OVERVIEW
Ad hoc networks are topology-free, infrastructure-less, self-organizing wireless networks. The nodes might have asymmetric capabilities. They can be either singlehop or Multi-hop networks. A single-hop network is one in which all nodes are within the transmission range of each other and every node can reach every other node in one hop. In a Multi-hop ad hoc network each node acts as a router to other nodes in its neighborhood and a node might reach another node in the network only after multiple hops. In this chapter we describe various methods to estimate the capacities of links in such a network.

2.2 THE IEEE 802.11 STANDARD

The IEEE 802.11 standard (1999) specifies MAC protocols for operation in ad hoc mode and centrally coordinated mode. The distributed coordination function (DCF) is used for operation in the ad hoc mode and of interest to our work.

2.2.1 Distributed Coordination Function

The DCF is based on carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). The standard defines the common duration for carrier sensing by the Clear Channel Assessment (CCA) function or DCF Inter Frame Space (DIFS) at every

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node and also the contention window ranges (CWmin, CWmax). The time gap between two packets in the handshake sequence or an atomic operation, defined as Short Inter Frame Space (SIFS), is less than DIFS. This prevents other nodes from capturing the channel when one transmission (in the same area) is already going on. All nodes that can hear each other and agree to join and form an Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS). These nodes remain in synchrony with a special management frame called the Beacon frame. This frame is periodically generated by one of the nodes in the IBSS. Once a node captures the channel, it can send data packet of at most one MAC Service Data Unit (MSDU) which might be broken into fragments or MAC Protocol Data Units (MPDUs) as specified by the variable Fragmentation Threshold. A four-way handshake is optionally used. A typical sequence (depicted in Fig 1 ) would be :

Backoff

MPDU

MPDU

ACK 1

S 1

ti e m

S 2

ti e m

S 3 DIFS

ti e m --- --N V --- A --- SIFS SIFS --- A -N V-SIFS SIFS

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Fig 1 DCF mode of Operation

SIFS

ACK 2 FREE

BUSY

RTS

CTS

(2)

(1)

A node willing to transmit performs carrier sensing If it finds the channel free for a DIFS duration, it may transmit. To avoid collision situation, it backs off in random multiples of a constant time (Slot-time) chosen from the contention window (CWmin and CWmax). After the backoff countdown, a request to send (RTS) frame is sent by the source node. If the destination node ( S2 in Fig 1 ) is ready to receive then it initiates a clear to send (CTS) frame within a SIFS duration. The source node initiates the sending of the Data frame (MPDU or fragment) within a SIFS duration. If the destination node properly receives the MPDU it responds with an acknowledgement (ACK) packet.

In case of failure the source node backs-off again with a random number chosen from a doubled contention window. Absence of ACK is treated as collision in which case, the node has to carrier sense for an extended IFS (EIFS). The duration for which the transmission would go on is continuously updated through the network allocation vector (NAV) field in the handshake frames. The NAV information is used by other nodes (like S3 in Fig 1 ) in the network to stay away from transmitting. When one transmission is going on the same area, another transmission will lead to collision. This combined with the handshake helps overcome the hidden node problem to a good extent but creates more number of exposed nodes. MSDUs in MAC queue for duration longer than a (configurable) constant 'maxMSDULifetime' are dropped from the queue. In addition to this a retransmit limit can also be fixed. For handling data packets a simple First Come First Serve (FCFS) queue is used by all the nodes. This protocol allows fair-channel access on the long-run, given the traffic

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generation characteristics and channel condition due to environmental changes are even across all nodes in the network. This doesn't differentiate nodes or traffic in anyway and hence it is suitable for best-effort type of traffic only.

2.3 SYSTEM MODEL

The network is represented as a graph G =(N,L) with vertices and edges in our model. The nodes in the network correspond to the vertices and the links correspond to the edges. A wireless link can be defined as follows. A link L is assumed to exist between two nodes u and v if they are within the transmission range of each other. This is the same as the first condition for successful transmission given in chapter 1. This link assumption is also used by Kodialam and Nandagopal (2003). Some of the work in literature consider a link to exist between two nodes only when there is a flow through the link. In this work, a wirless link is assumed to exist between between two nodes if the nodes are within the transmission range of each other. This is appropriate for deriving bounds on link capacity as this doesnt make any assumption about existence or non-existence of flows which can change with time while our approach gives a general solution based on network connectivity.

2.4 LINK ACTIVATION CONSTRAINTS

The link activation constraints can be represented using graphs. There are two ways of representing the link activation constraints (contention between links) in multi-hop networks. One is based on the set of links that can be activated simultaneously, Link Independent sets and the other, based on the set of links that cannot be active simultaneously due to mutual interference, the Interference graph. In our centralized

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approach, both the models are used to obtain the active time of links. A sample network with string topology is used to illustrate these representations by a graph. Consider the graph of string network. Each node is separated from its neighbor by a distance of 250m. We consider a transmission range of 250m and an interference range of 500m.

Fig 2 Sample String Network

2.4.1 Interference Graph

Consider the given graph G = (N,L) of the network. To represent the set of links that cannot be active simultaneously, a link graph F = (Nf, Lf) is constructed from the given graph G. Here Nf denotes the set of all links in graph G and Lf respresents the edge set of F where an edge between any two links i, j Nf exists if i and j interfere with each others transmission. For the sake of simplicity and ease of analysis, the condition for interference can be denoted in terms of link distance. In an edge graph, link distance can be specified in terms of no of hops between links, which are edges in the graph.

Fig 3 Interference Graph for String Network

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The above figure represents the interference graph constructed from the string network. It is an edge graph of G where there is an edge between links if they were either adjacent or have a link distance of m. In this case, m is considered as 2.

2.4.2 Maximal Independent Sets

In this section, we introduce a construct that defines the set of links that cannot be active simultaneously. An independent set of a graph G is a subset of vertices such that no two vertices in the subset represent an edge in G. A Maximal Independent Set (MIS) is an independent set such that no new vertex can be added to the set without affecting the independence property An independent set obtained from the interference graph F, gives the set of possible links that can be simultaneously active in a network. An enumeration of all MIS for the interference graph gives all the possible configuration of active links in the network. For example, the set of all MIS in the above graph F is (1,4,7), (3,7), (2,7), (1,5), (2,5), (1,6), (3,6), and (2,7).

2.5 LINK CAPACITY ESTIMATIONS

Unlike in a wired network, the notion of link capacity is not well defined in a contention based wireless network. Capacity of a link may be described as the number of bits that can be carried per second through the link. While link capacity in wired networks is determined by fixed bandwidth cables laid between nodes, in some wireless systems deploying TDMA and FDMA, the capacity can be calculated due to existence of a central entity that allocates resources to each node.

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In a contention based wireless system, it is the need for every node all over the domain to share the portion of the channel it is utilizing with the nodes in its local neighborhood. The IEEE 802.11 standard based MAC is one example of a distributed contention based medium access system in which a common channel is shared among the participating nodes. It is of interest to us to find the time available for each link to access the common channel In a single hop network, the probability for each link to be active is same for all links given the assumption of equal traffic at all nodes whereas in a multi-hop network, a links activity depends on all other contending neighboring links activity. With the assumption of saturated traffic at nodes and its equal distribution to links, there is competition among links at all times. The capacity of a link is directly related to the time a link gets to be active. If this time is obtained, it can be converted to capacity by multiplying it with channel capacity. In a shared contention based system such as the IEEE 802.11 standard based system, the amount of time for which a link becomes active per unit time cannot be determined exactly as in a TDMA system. Neither can be rate available for a user or node be determined exactly using the existing methods. This is due to the contention based channel access where nodes get to transmit only when its neighbors relinquish the channel. Also the Binary Exponential Back-off (BEB) introduces further probabilistic component in channel access. In this context we would like to estimate the time for which a link can be active and give bounds on the link throughput. In this section, different approaches to estimate the capacity of wireless links between nodes are presented . Also various schemes to derive upper bounds for link active times and hence link capacities are outlined. The schemes can be classified into centralized and distributed. Two approaches are proposed in each of the category.

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2.5.1 ACTIVE TIME PROPORTION of LINKS

A notion of time available for each link relative to other links in its neighborhood is defined. Active Time Proportion or ATP of links is defined as a fraction of time for which a link gets to be active. This is obtained for each method of estimation and compared across different approaches and with simulation.

2.6 CENTRALIZED SCHEMES

In this approach, it is assumed that the topology of the entire network is known to a central entity which makes use of it to derive the active times of links.

2.6.1 MIS - Equal Probabilities (EW-MIS)

In this approach, a central entity with its knowledge of global topology constructs an interference graph F from the network graph as illustrated for the string network above. This corresponds to a graph where the neighboring vertices, which are links in the edge graph are the ones that cannot be active simultaneously. From the graph F, all the Maximal Independent Sets (MIS) are enumerated. This gives the set of all the possible configurations of active links in the network. Each MIS corresponds to a state of the network. In this approach, called EW-MIS or Equally weighted MIS approach, the probability of occurrence of MIS is uniformly distributed. Hence if the total number of MISs in the network is M, then each MIS is assigned a uniform probability of 1/M. Active Time Proportion or ATPs of links are obtained by summing the probabilities of occurrence of MISs in which a link occurs. It is given by

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ATPij = Where

i =1, ij Mi

Ri

---- (1)

ATPij is the Active Time Proportion of link ij. Ri = Probability of occurrence of ith MIS. M Total number of MIS in the network.

2.6.2 MIS Node Probability based Approach (NP-MIS)

The Node transmission probability weighted MIS approach or NP-MIS approach is similar to that of the first approach yet different from it in that it assigns different weights to different MISs. The weights are probabilities of occurrence of an MIS, assigned taking into account the probabilities with which end nodes of the constituent links transmit on the channel. First initial link probabilities are estimated. Using this weights are assigned to MISs. These weights are then used to update the active time proportion (ATP) of links. Let Ti Pij Lij Cij M Mi : Probability that node i starts transmitting in a given time slot. : Probability that node is transmission is intended to node j. : Initial link active probability. : No. of MIS in which link ij occurs. : set of all MISs. : refers to the ith MIS.

WMi : probabilistic weight given to the ith MIS.

We first assign initial active probabilities to links based on the transmission probabilities of nodes that are the endpoints of the link. Ti is calculated based on the assumption of Poisson arrivals. In a small fraction of time, only one node is assumed

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to begin or initiate transmission. Based on this each node has equal probability of initiating data packet transmission. Hence Ti is 1/N, where N refers to total number of nodes in the network. Probability of a nodes transmission to its neighbor can be calculated based on the traffic pattern. If traffic is going to be equally distributed to a nodes neighbor, it can be taken as 1/no. of immediate neighbors. It is a generic method which can take values depending on the assumed traffic model.

Lij = Ti.Pij + Tj.Pji

------ (2)

We compute the probability of occurrence of an MIS with the initial active probabilities of links. Since a link could occur in more than one MIS, we calculate the probabilistic weight of an MIS as the sum of initial link active probabilities Lijs of the links constituting an MIS normalized by the number of occurrences in all MISs. WMi =
ij M

C Lij / ij

------- (3)

Now we calculate the available Time proportion of a link by summing the probabilistic weights given to MIS in which the link occurs. ATPij = Wk .
k M

-------- (4)

While the initial link probabilities Lij are assigned by considering local node distribution, they dont take into account the parallel transmission in the network due to spatial reuse. By assigning weights to MIS based on the initial Lij and then recomputing the active time of links we are able to capture the parallel activity of links well.

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2.7 DISTRIBUTED SCHEMES

The centralized methods for computing link active time proportion require global knowledge of network topology. Hence only a central entity that is aware of the entire network topology can perform this. Also the method of enumerating all the Maximal Independent Sets for a given graph is known to be a NP-hard problem. Due to its complexity and the requirement for global knowledge, the solution suggested is limited in its application. In this section, we outline two distributed approaches to estimate the active proportion of links using local topology knowledge. The distributed nature of solution finds application in wide ranging applications from QoS routing and admission control to rate based flow control.

2.7.1 Two-hop Interference

In the distributed approach, the objective is to enable a node itself to calculate the ATPs of links incident on it. To achieve this, a node needs to have knowledge of all other nodes in its transmission and interfering range since these are the nodes it competes with. We extend the notion of interference from nodes to links, by introducing one-hop and two-hop interfering links. If we construct from a network graph G, an edge graph E , where links are the vertices, immediate neighbors of the link node are termed one-hop interfering links and the corresponding two-hop neighbors are called as two-hop interfering links. We consider that interferers for a link includes only its one-hop and least two-other links between them alone can be active simultaneously or that one in m=3 consecutive links can be active simultaneously. It is fair to assume that a link experiences interference only till two-hop interfering links as illustrated in Guerien and Chaulet (2003) since considering hops greater than or lesser than 2 results in over estimation or under estimating the effect of interference. Evaluations on random graphs of the

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number of missed or over-detected neighbors showed that 2-hops is the best number that gives the least missed or over-detected neighbors Guerin and Chaudet (2002) twohop interfering links. Looking from the protocol constraints too, the consideration of 2-hop neighbors would suffice. In multi-hop networks, to address the hidden terminal problem, RTS/CTS handshake is used before data transmission. When this mode is used, only links that are separated at least by two hops can be active simultaneously. This can be explained with the following figure. At any time in a saturated 802.11 network, nodes contend for channel. This can be viewed as a set of links contending for activity. Each link has its own set of interfering links that compete for channel. We call it the contention set of the link. We illustrate that for any link, the contention set includes the one-hop and two-hop interfering links.

g a b c h d

i e k f

Fig 4 Sample topology to illiustrate two- hop interference

Consider the link cd in the above figure. When the link cd is active, its one-hop neighboring links bc, gc, ch & de are made inactive due to the reception of either RTS/CTS packets containing Network Allocation Vector (NAV) information. Apart from no transmission, they dont either respond to any request for transmission from the other nodes in the form of RTS/DATA. This makes any activity impossible in either the one-hop or two-hop interfering links. Due to symmetry, any activity in these

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links makes the link cd too inactive. In the figure, links ab, ei and ef are the two-hop interfering links.

2.7.2 Topology Discovery

In an IEEE 802.11 network, nodes decode packets both intended and not intended for them. We describe a simple approach to update a nodes one-hop and two-hop neighbors. Using our approach a node has to maintain one-hop and two-hop neighbor list. The RTS and DATA packets carry two fields namely Transmitter Address (TA) and Receiver Address (RA) in their header. For each RTS/DATA packet that a node decodes, a node updates its neighbor list as follows. Inspect a MAC packet, Add the TA field to 1-hop neighbor list. Add the RA field to 2-hop neighbor list. Since TA field refers to the address of the sender, it is updated as the immediate neighbor or 1-hop neighbor of a node. RA field refers to the destination address of the packet which means that the sender of the packet which is on-hop to this node is sending a packet to the node referred to by RA. This implies that the node referred to by RA must be reachable from this node by two-hops. However its doesnt mean that only way of reaching RA is by two-hops. A node which is a two-hop neighbor could be a one-hop neighbor too. This only reflects the presence of cycles in the network. However its is possible that the topology of the network changes in due course of time. To accommodate that in our topology discovery method, we maintain a timer with each entry. The value of the timer will depend on the rate at which topology changes.

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This method of update is robust in that it discovers all cycles in the network. In a saturated network, nodes can quickly discover its local topology this way. The stale entries in the table are cleaned with associated timers. by new updates and update period. With the topology discovery method, a node is aware of two-hop node topology. But we need to know the two-hop link neighbors. While both the end nodes of the link together get a complete information about the one-hop and two-hop neighboring links, it is possible that in some configurations, one of the end-nodes misses some node at the other end. This is illustrated by the following figure. This method also accommodates for low mobility as any change in node positions can be taken care of

Fig 5 : Graph to illustrate need for 3 hop knowledge in some cases

In the figure, consider link 3--4, while node 3 discovers nodes 2 ,1, 4, 5and hence the links 2-3 and 1-2, 3-4 and 4-5 it doesnt know about the link 5-6 since it doesnt know its third hop neighbor 6. Similarly, node 4 is aware of the links 3-4, 4-5, 5-6, and 2-3 but not 1-2 since it has no knowledge of 1. To facilitate this, neighboring nodes can exchange the information about missing nodes to get the complete information on two-hop interfering links.

2.7.3 Distributed Node probability based estimations ( DNP )

In this section we give a distributed approach for estimating the link active probabilities. This computes the link active time based on the node transmission probabilities. In this approach the probability that a link is active is the sum of product of probability of node transmission and probability that the traffic from the node is meant to the neighbor at the other end for either end nodes of a link.

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Let Ti Pij : Transmission probability of node i. : Probability that node is transmission is intended to node j. ---- (5) CNi : number of contending neighbor nodes of node i.

ATPij = Ti . Pij+ Tj . Pji.

We calculate the transmission probabilities of node based on the long-term node fairness property of IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol. According to this property, nodes contending for channel get equal opportunity for transmit in the long run. In a multihop network, since the different nodes have different contention set or different number of nodes to contend with, the transmission probability of a node depends on the number of nodes in its contention set. Using the topology discovery method, a node can estimate its transmission probability as Ti = 1/CNi. Probability of a nodes transmission to its neighbor can be calculated based on the traffic pattern. If traffic is going to be equally distributed to a nodes neighbor, it can be taken as 1/no. of immediate neighbors. It is a generic method which can take values depending on the assumed traffic model.

2.7.4 Distributed Link Neighborhood based Estimations

This is another distributed approach where a links opportunity to be active is calculated based on its link neighborhood activity. With our topology discovery method, a node acquires the knowledge of its one and two-hop interfering links. We extend the notion of node fairness to links. In this approach, we consider that channel is shared between contending neighbors equally. Hence we express the ATP of a link as 1/CLij, where CLij is the number of one-hop and two-hop interfering links plus itself. CLij is given by the number of links in the contending set.

30

We have a method to express a links chance to transmit based on its link neighborhood. The proportion of time each link gets to be active is dependent on the number of interfering link neighbors it has. However the effect of each link on this links activity is different and depends on its own link neighborhood. It will be a recursive effect. We dont account for this in our work and just give initial estimates as ATPs.

2.8 ACHIEVABLE BANDWIDTH ESTIMATION

The above estimate of the time available for each link can be converted into available rate of the link in bps. Available Bandwidth = ATP*Channel bandwidth. (6) This gives an estimate of available bandwidth / capacity in a link under saturation condition. However this estimate is only probabilistic without considering all the protocol characteristics. One of the main aspects of IEEE 802.11 protocol is the BEB. The delay in accessing the channel is dependent on the load or contention in the local neighborhood. By taking this into account, our bandwidth estimate becomes improved. We accommodate this into our estimation method by measuring the loss rate in the local neighborhood. This loss rate is a measure of both packet losses due to contention collision and channel errors. Loss rate is expected to follow a time series pattern. We use the loss rate measurement to obtain the achievable bandwidth of a link. Loss rate given by the number of bits lost per second is observed and periodically updated for every update period using exponential weighed average method given by eqn (7). lnew-average = (1- )lcurrent + l previous ----- (7 )

We adopt the parameters for as 0.75 and 1 second as update period in our simulation. The value of chosen helps in removing the short term fluctuation and

31

reflects long-term trend. Since this estimate is made per link, losses per link are appropriately captured. Now the achievable bandwidth is given by Achievable Bandwidth = Available Bandwidth(1 Loss Rate). ----- (8)

The results for centralized and distributed estimations are discussed in chapter 4.

32

CHAPTER 3 ANALYTICAL MODELING OF MULTI-HOP NETWORKS

3.1 MOTIVATION

In the IEEE 802.11 standard based MAC protocol, channel as a common resource is shared among contending nodes using a distributed and random scheme. Each node competes with all other nodes in its neighborhood. In the previous section, the link capacity problem was solved from the node perspective since links become active only when one of the nodes it is attached to becomes active. In this section, a nodes transmission probability is calculated using the analytical model developed for channel and node. Once this is obtained, a links probability of being active can be easily found out. This is a more accurate way of characterizing a links capacity in a system where the channel access mechanism uses a random procedure.

3.1.1 Characteristics of the IEEE 802.11 based Multi-hop Networks

In the IEEE 802.11 standard based multi-hop network, neighborhood of each node is different. Hence the probablity of each node accessing the channel is affected differently depending on the node distribution around it. Each neighboring node would affect a nodes channel access probability to a different degree. We can represent this with a circle around a node that includes the nodes that compete with this each affecting the nodes time for channel access to a different degree.

33

Apart from the neighborhood contention of nodes, a nodes channel access is affected by constraints imposed by the medium access protocol, the IEEE 802.11 DCF in this case. We use the model developed by Wang and Acves (2004) as a basis for multi-hop networks using CSMA/CA to derive the node transmission probabilities for IEEE 802.11 networks. While the work assumes a two-dimensional poisson node distribution, we assume node distributions of string and grid topologies.

3.2

PROTOCOL MODEL AND ASSUMPTIONS

We make the following assumptions for the sake of simplicity and without loss of generality Each node has the same transmission and receiving range R. Heavy traffic assumption : A node always has a packet in its buffer to be sent and that traffic is distributed equally to its neighbors. To simplify our analysis, we assume that nodes operate in time slotted mode, where length of a time slot equals one propagation delay, overhead due to the transmit-to receive turn around time, carrier sensing delay and processing delay. We assume that a node is ready to transmit with probability p and not ready with probability 1-p. p is a slot-independent, protocol specific parameter. However at the level of individual nodes, the probability of being ready to transmit varies for each time slot depending on the current state of the channel and the node. Hence we are interested in calculating the probability that a node transmits in a time slot denoted by p. p = p. P{Channel is sensed idle in a slot } =

34

= p.l.

----- (9)

where l denotes the limiting probability that the channel is in idle state.

3.3

CHANNEL MODEL

The DCF access procedure of the IEEE 802.11 standard requires a node to do most or all of the following before transmitting a packet onto the common Channel. They include carrier sensing, wait for inter frame space time, backoff. Hence even when a node is ready to transmit, it may or may not transmit in a slot depending on the state of a channel, the nodes neighborhood and the constraints imposed by the MAC protocol. To model this, we use the Markov model to capture the effect of channel on a node. The channel around each node is modeled as a circular region with some more nodes. It is assumed that nodes within the region can communicate with each other while they have weak interactions with nodes outside the region. The model is simplified by considering weak interactions where the decision of inner nodes to transmit, defer and backoff is almost not affected by that of outer nodes and vice-versa. With the above assumptions, the channel is modeled as a four-state Markov chain as in Wang and Aceves (2004) with the following states.

35

Fig 6 Channel moled for IEEE 802.11 MAC

Idle : is the state when the channel around the node x is sense idle, its duration is . This denotes the state where there is no transmission. Long is the state when a successful four-way handshake is initiated in the channel by some other node. Tlong = lrts + + lcts + + ldata + + lack = lrts + lcts + ldata + lack + 3. where lrts, lcts, ldata and lack represent the length of rts, cts, data and ack packets. Short 1 is the state when multiple nodes around the channel transmit RTS packets during the same time slot and their transmissions collide. The busy time of the channel in this state is Tshort1. Tshort1 = lrts + . Short 2 is the state when one node around the channel initiates a failed handshake with a node outside the region. Even though CTS packet may not be sent due to collision at or deferral of the receiving node, those nodes that overhear the RTS as well as the sending nodes do not know if the handshake is successfully continued, until the time required for receiving a CTS packet elapses. Since the channel is in

36

effect unusable for that period, for all the nodes sharing the channel, the duration of this state is Tshort2 = lrts + + lcts + = lrts + lcts + 2 .

Using the channel model, steady state probabilities of channel being idle can be derived for string and grid topologies. The derivation applied to the centre nodes of string and grid networks since for a string and grid network with large number of nodes, the edge nodes can be neglected without loss of generality. Also the Markov chain can be solved easily when the number of neighbors are fixed. Expressions for edge nodes can be derived similarly.

First the transition probabilities of the channel Markov chain for string network is calculated. The transition probabilities from any other state to idle is one since before the start of any other transmission, the channel stays in idle state at least for seconds. Pii is the transition probability from idle to idle state of channel. A node x in the middle of the string network, has two immediate neighbors. Since the node x senses the channel to be busy even when the two immediate neighbors receive packets from their neighbors, transmissions from their neighbors to this node is also considered Since all these nodes are assumed to be in the centre of the network, p is same for all these nodes. Pii= (1- p)4 ---- (10)

Pil is the transition prob. from idle to long state. For the node x to be observe a successful packet transmission in the channel, only one neighboring node of x should be involved in a successful transmission. Pil = 2ps (1- p). ----- (11)

37

where ps denotes the probability that a node begins a successful four-way handshake. It is not known yet and will be derived The transition probability, Pis1 from idle to short1 state is the probability that more than one node transmit RTS packets in the same slots. In our case, its is just the probability that both the neighbors of node x transmit simultaneously, given by, Pis1 = p 2. ----- (12)

Now with these probabilities known, we can calculate the transition probability from idle to short2 state, Pis2. Pis2 = 1 (Pii + Pil + Pis1). = 2(1- p) (p - ps). ------ (13)

Let i , l , s1 , s 2 denote the steady-state probabilities of states idle, long, short1, and short2 respectively. From the Markov chain, we have

i Pii + i Pl + i Ps1 + s 2 = i i Pii + 1 - i = i i =

1 1 = 2 - Pii 1 (1- p) 4 ----- (14)

The limiting probability i or long run probability that the channel around the node x is found idle, can be obtained by

l =

iTidle iTidle + l Tlong + short 1Tshort 1 + short 2Tshort 2

i , l , s1 , s 2
Since i Pil = l , i Pis1 = s1 , and i Pis2 = s 2 , we obtain

38

l = l =

iTidle + i Pil Tlong

iTidle . + i P 1Tshort 1 + i P 2 Tshort 2 is is

---- (15)

Tidle . Tidle + Pil Tlong + P 1Tshort 1 + P 2 Tshort 2 is is

Since p= p.l, p = pTidle . Tidle + Pil Tlong + P 1Tshort 1 + P 2 Tshort 2 is is

p = p ( + 2ps(1- p)Tlong + p2 Tshort1 + 2(1- p)(p-ps)Tshort2)-1. ---- (16)

The derivation for centre nodes of a grid network can be similarly derived and the final express is as below. Pii = (1 - p)4 Pil = 4ps(1- p)3. ---- (17) ---- (18)

Pis1 = 1 [(1 - p)4 - 4ps(1- p)]. p 2 [ 3p2 8p + 6] ---- (19)

Pis2 = 1 - Pii - Pil Pis1. 4(1 - p)3(p - ps) ------- (20) 1 . 2 - Pii = 1 . 2 (1 p ')4 ------ (21)

i =

p = p. l . = p . [ + 4* ps *(1 - p)3Tlong + p 2(3 p2 8 p +6)Tshort1 + 4(1- p)3(p- ps) Tshort2 ]. ------ (22)

39

In the above equation the values of ps is yet to be determined which will be obtained from the next steps.

3.4

NODE MODEL

From the above model the steady state probability of channel being idle is obtained. In order to obtain the throughput performance of node, the states of a node needs to be modeled. The node is modeled as a 3 state Markov chain again as in Wang and Aceves (2004). Our intention is to use this model which was used for CSMA/CA based networks to the IEEE 802.11 standard based networks.

Fig 7 Node moled for IEEE 802.11 MAC

The model has three states. The wait state is a state when the node defers for other nodes or backs off, succeed is the state when the node can complete a successful transmission and fail is the state when the node initiates an unsuccessful handshake. We define the length of succeed and fail states as Tsucceed = Tlong.

40

= lrts + lcts + ldata + lack + 3. Tfail = Tshort2. = lrts + lcts + 2.

The duration of the node in wait state is , in this model. This is a simple approach and the work evaluates how good can it be modeled using a single state with a fixed time. While there are many transition probabilities involved, it is sufficient for our purpose if the transition probability Pws, from wait state to succeed state is determined. express Pws can be expressed as follows, Pws = P1. P2. P3.P4. ------ (23)

P1 = Probability that the node transmits = p . P2 = Probability that the destination of this nodes packet does not transmit in the same slot = (1-p). P3 = Probability that none of the other neighs of the node transmits = (1-p). P4 = P that none of the neighs of y transmit for vulnerable period = (1-p)(2lrts + 2) . Pws = 2.p.(1-p)2.(1-p)(2lrts+2). ------ (24)

The transition probability from wait state to succeed state, Pws is found out considering the transmission from this node to every other node. Since in a string network, a node sends to any of its two neighbors, we take twice the transition probability for each of its neighbors. Similarly the probability that a node x continues to stay in the same state, P ww is just the probability that no node including itself transmits in the same slot. Pww = (1-p)3. ------ (25)

41

Let s , w , f denote the steady state probability of state succeed, wait, and fail respectively. The transition probabilities from any state to wait state, Psw, Pfw is 1 since before attempting to send a next packet, each node has to wait for DIFS time. From the markov chain we have,

w Pww + s + f = w . w Pww +1 - w = w . w =
= 1 2 Pww . ------ (26)

1 2 (1 p ')3

The steady state probability of state succeed, s , can be calculated as :

s = w Pws =

Pws = ps. 2 (1 p ')3

------ (27)

This steady state probability is the previously unknown quantity ps. With this knowledge of ps, we can obtain p from equation for p[]. From the node markov model we can also obtain the throughput of a node as follows,

Th =

wTwait

s ldata . + sTsucc + f Tfail

1 = ldata s ( w +(lrts + lcts + 2 )(1 w s ) +(lrts + lcts + ldata + lack )s ) . 1 = ldata Pws ( + (lrts + lcts + 2 )( P ) + (lrts + lcts + ldata + lack ) P ) ws ws

------ (28)

We can use similar methods to derive the throughput for grid topologies. We give the transition probabilities for the channel model as follows.

42

Pii = (1 - p)4.

------ (29)

Pil = 4ps(1- p)3. ------ (30) Pis1 = 1 [(1 - p)4 - 4ps(1- p)]. p 2 [ 3p2 8p + 6]. ------ (31)

Pis2 = 1 - Pii - Pil Pis1. 4(1 - p)3(p - ps). 1 . 2 - Pii ------ (32)

i =
=

1 . 2 (1 p ')4

p = p. l . = p . [ + 4* ps *(1 - p)3Tlong + p 2(3 p2 8 p +6)Tshort1 + 4(1- p)3(p- ps) Tshort2 ]. ------ (33) And using the Markov model for node as in fig, the successful transmission probabilities and node throughput is derived for grid network. Pws = P1. P2. P3.P4. Pws = 4 p(1 - p)4(1- p)3(2.lrts +). ----- (34) Pww = (1 - p)5. ------- (35) 1 2 Pww ------ (36)

w =
=

1 . 2 (1 p ')5

43

ws = w . Pws. = 2 (1 p ')5 = ps. ------- (37)

4 p(1 - p)4 (1- p)3(2.lrts + ) ps = . 2 (1 p ')5 Th = =

wTwait

s ldata + sTsucc + f Tfail

----- (38).

ldata .Pws + PwsTsucc + (1 Pws (1 p ')5 )Tfail

The expressions obtained for string and grid topologies are evaluated in chapter 4.

44

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 SIMULATION MODEL
The simulation model considers an ad hoc network with no mobility, operating using DCF. The simulation setup consists of identical nodes with half-duplex radios. The transmission range of each node is 250 m with the carrier sensing set to 550 m. The simulation parameters are taken from the IEEE 802.11b physical layer using DSSS as given in the table. RTS CTS Data ACK DIFS SIFS Slot Time Contention Window Data rate Basic rate 20 byte 14 byte 2048 byte 14 byte 50 s 10 s 20 s 31 1023 2 Mbps 1 Mbps
Table 1 : Simulation prarameters

A multi-hop ad hoc network is simulated for networks in different topologies like string, grid and Random topologies. The extensive simulation helps validate our approach thoroughly which is topology independent. Packets are generated at every node to saturation. Traffic flow model is considered such that the flow from any node

45

is equally distributed to all its neighbors. Shortest path routing is used and is sufficient since we simulate an ad hoc network with no mobility.

4.2 LINK ATP ESTIMATIONS

The centralized and distributed estimations are validated by comparing it with simulation results obtained for string, grid and random topologies. The metric average deviation is used in evaluating the estimations. Average deviation is defined for our purpose as the average of the difference between the estimated and simulated values of individual links in a network.

4.2.1 CENTRALIZED ESTIMATIONS

The centralized approaches, EW-MIS and NP-MIS are compared with the simulation results for string, grid and random topologies. Fig 8 and Fig 9 show the centralized estimations for string topology of 10 and 18 nodes respectively. It can be observed that the edge links of both the networks get higher active times as expected. It can also be seen that the links next to the edge links get a lesser time than the edge links but higher share compared to the other centre links. It can be explained by the fact that since they have lesser number of interferers, their times to transmit is higher than the centre links. In both the cases, the estimates match the simulation results closely with the average deviation for EW-MIS being 2.51Ee-02 for 10 nodes and 3.14e-02 for 18 nodes and a deviation of 1.53e-02 for 10 nodes and 2.07e-02 for 18 nodes case for NP-MIS.

46

1NeSn 0o s ti g d r 0 . 7 Suto i l in m a Me a eh I -q l i t S uW s g MNea d I - o Be Sd s 0 . 6

0 . 5 A tiv tim o L k c e e f in s

0 . 4

0 . 3

0 . 2

0 . 1

5 Lk i s n

Fig 8 : 10 Node string- centralized

0 . 5 Suto i l in m a M ql eh I - uW t S a i s e g M oBe I - d ad S es N

05 . 4

0 . 4

05 . 3 A tiv tim o L k c e e f in s

0 . 3

05 . 2

0 . 2

05 . 1

0 . 1

05 . 0

0 0

8 Lk i s n

1 0

1 2

1 4

1 6

1 8

Fig 9 : 18 Nodes string centralized

47

0 . 5 Slt n i uo m a i M u et I-qWs S a ih el g Mo a I- d s See NBd

0 .5 4

0 . 4

A t etim o L k civ e f in s

0 .5 3

0 . 3

0 .5 2

0 . 2

0 .5 1

0 . 1

0 .5 0

0 0

8 Ls ik n

1 0

1 2

1 4

1 6

1 8

Fig 10 : 9 Nodes Grid - Centralized

0 . 4 Sa i un m lt i o M aih I-ues Sl g eW q t Mds I- ee SB Na o d

0 . 3 5

0 . 3 At v t m o L k ci e i e f i s n

0 . 2 5

0 . 2

0 . 1 5

0 . 1

0 . 0 5

0 0

1 0 L ik n s

1 5

2 0

2 5

Fig 11 : 16 Node Grid Centralized

48

05 . 3 S ut n i l io m a M- qa eh I eul i t S W s g M- oeae IN B d S d s 0 . 3

05 . 2 A tiv tim o L k c e e f in s

0 . 2

05 . 1

0 . 1

05 . 0

0 0

1 0 Lk i s n

1 5

2 0

2 5

Fig 12 : Random Topology 10 Nodes Centralized

The centralized estimations for grid topology is given in Fig 8 and Fig 9 for 9 and 16 nodes respectively. With the average deviation of 3.70e-02 and 3.88e-02 for EWMIS approach and a deviation of 2.01e-2 and 2.26e-2 for NP-MIS method, the centralized schemes estimate the grid network well. We see that for both the string and grid networks, NP-MIS scheme estimates the active times much better than EWMIS method. This has been true for string network of any length from our experiments. This can been explained by the fact that in the NP-MIS method we give weights to MISs based on the end nodes probability to transmit. Since transmission is scheduled in the IEEE 802.11 based MAC only for nodes, this method of weighting the MISs reflects a links actvity more accurately.

49

4.2.2 DISTRIBUTED ESTIMATIONS

The distributed shemes DLN and DNP are validated for different topologies as in the centralized validation methods. The estimations for string topology is plotted in Fig 13, Fig 14 for 8 and 14 nodes case. The deviation of DLN happens to be 7.73e-02 and 6.86e-02 for 8 and 14 nodes case, while it is 4.88e-02 and 5.32e-02 for DNP. The edge links and centre links behaviour with the edge links getting higher share of time is evident in the plots for string topology . In the case of grid topology experiments with 9 and 16 nodes, the deviations for DLN estimates is 5.43e-02 and 5.30e-02 and that for DNP are 4.28e-02 and 4.48e-02 respectively. Similar to the Centralized estimations, we find that the node based estimations, DNP approximate the link active times closer than the DLN.

0 . 5 Suto i l in m a D-i k eh i tL N sn i g D-o P i tNerb s d o

05 . 4

0 . 4

05 . 3 A tiv tim o L k c e e f in s

0 . 3

05 . 2

0 . 2

05 . 1

0 . 1

05 . 0

4 Lk i s n

Fig 13 : String topology, 8 nodes - Distributed

50

0 . 7 Suto i l in m a D-i k eh i tL N sn i g D- o Pb i tNe r s d o 0 . 6

0 . 5 A tiv tim o L k c e e f in s

0 . 4

0 . 3

0 . 2

0 . 1

6 Lk i s n

1 0

1 1

Fig 14 : String Topology 12 Nodes - Distributed

0 .5 2 Sui n i lt mo a DL Nh i t i ke sn i g DN P i t o rb s d o - e 0 . 2

A tiv tim o L k c e e f in s

0 .5 1

0 . 1

0 .5 0

7 Ls ik n

1 0

1 1

1 2

Fig 15 : Grid Topology 9 Nodes - Distributed

51

0 . 4 Slt n i uo m a i D ike it n ih s N L g D oP it d rb s eo N

0 .5 3

0 . 3 A tiv tim o L k c e e f in s

0 .5 2

0 . 2

0 .5 1

0 . 1

0 .5 0

0 0

8 Ls ik n

1 0

1 2

1 4

1 6

1 8

Fig 16 : Random Topology, 10 Nodes Distributed

05 . 4 S uto i l in m a D-i k eh i tL N s n i g D- o Pb i tNe r s d o

0 . 4

05 . 3

A tiv tim o L k c e e f in s

0 . 3

05 . 2

0 . 2

05 . 1

0 . 1

05 . 0

7 Lk i s n

1 0

1 1

1 2

1 3

Fig 17 : : Random Topology, 8Nodes - Distributed

52

The distributed methods estimate some of the sample random networks more closely than the centralized methods. This can be seen in Fig 16 and Fig 17. We have studied random networks of size 8 and 10 nodes. The DLN estimates for 8 and 10 nodes have a deviation of 4.2e-02 and 2.57e-02 and the DNP estimates have a deviation of 2.68e02 and 1.84e-02 for 8 and 10 nodes with random topology. In the case of random networks experiments for centralized experiments, EW-MIS estimated better than NP-MIS. In the distributed schemes however the pattern of DNP estimates approximating better than the DLN for string and grid repeats for the sample random networks too. Some small number of experiments conducted using random topology gave high deviations. Hence it is difficult to say whether the distributed method is good for networks in random topologies with a small set of experiments and a more systematic evaluation is needed.

4.3 ANALYTICAL RESULTS FOR MARKOV MODEL

In this section the plots obtained for node throughputs computed analytically for string and grid topologies are discussed. In the model, the time a node spends in wait state, Twait is taken as . However in the IEEE 802.11 standard based multi-hop networks, each node stays in the back off stage for some duration. The time for which a node stays in the back off stage is modeled by taking the average time for which it stays in wait state, Twait. In this section, the plots obtained for node throughputs of string and grid topologies for a range of p and Twait values are discussed.

53

Fig 18 : String topology Analytical results

Fig 19 : Grid topology Analytical results

Fig 18 shows the results obtained for normalized throughput of nodes in the centre of a string network calculated under saturated conditions. The node throughput increases to reach its peak around p = 0.05 and approaches 0 as p tends to 0.3. Since p

54

denotes the probability that a node is ready to transmit and since p is same for all nodes, more nodes in the neighborhood compete for the channel, the individual node throughput decreases owing to competition for channel, resulting in collisions and back off.

The fall from maximum throughput is gradual in the case of string topology relative to the grid topology shown in Fig 19. This is due to the higher density of nodes in a grid. The greater number of nodes in a grids neighborhood results in sharp reduction in throughput even for small values of p. Also in a string network, a node reaches its maximum throughput value for p around 0.05. This is much less for grid. This too is due to the fact that higher number of nodes to compete with a node in a grid.

4.4 SIMULATION RESULTS FOR MARKOV MODEL

In this section, the normalized node throughputs of centre nodes obtained from analysis are validated through the values from simulation. Fig 20 shows the normalized node throughputs of centre nodes in a string network with varying string lengths. The analytical expression derived for string and grid topology doesnt have the number of nodes as a variable in its expression while it has the packet transmission probability p as a varying parameter. Since only the Channel idle probability, l is variable, it is used as a common variable term for comparing simulation and analysis. The normalized node throughputs of centre nodes as well as the corresponding l s for a string network of particular size are obtained.

55

Fig 20 Simulation results of string topology

Fig 21 Simulation results of 9 Nodes grid toplogy

56

Fig 22 : Simulation results of 16 Nodes grid toplogy

Fig 21 and Fig 22 compares the analytically computed node throughput values for grid topology with that of the simulated values for a 9 and 16 node cases. Though the values are derived for only centre nodes, the values for all the nodes are plotted by fixing the p as a common parameter for both simulation and analysis. There is a better approximation of calculated values for centre nodes and also the average deviation is about 0.1 much less than that for string network. Also the centre nodes show a deviation of only 0.05. The simulation results in general shows reasonlably good estimates. However these values can be improved by considering a more accurate model of backoff and other factors.

57

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

4.5 CONCLUSION SUMMARY

The IEEE 802.11 standard based Medium Access Control protocol and its effect on capacity in a multi-hop ad hoc networks have been studied. Generalized frameworks for estimating individual link capacities have been proposed along with approaches that can be used for real-time applications. Analytical model for performance evaluation of individual nodes under specific topologies has been studied. The estimation methods proposed have provided a ground work for all future enhancements in this area. The centralized approaches give close estimates for string and grid topologies and sample newtorks with random topologies too. The Distributed methods give good enough estimates but with lesser accuracy compared to the former. While the centralized approaches use an NP-hard algorithm for their estimations, the distributed schemes have very less or no complexity. Given the advantage of real-time estimations, the lesser accuracy of distributed schemes is acceptable. Its worth noting that the deviation of both the schemes was only of the order of 10e-02. The analytical modeling of string and grid topologies provides a much needed insight into the multihop modeling problem. Considering that the model approximates the backoff process, the accuracy of the results are reasonably good.

58

4.6 FUTURE RESEARCH

The ditributed estimates can be improved by taking into account the recursive effect of interference between nodes or links in the network. Regarding the analytical model, a more throrough model of backoff process can be done to capture its randomness. Also the study of multi-hop networks will be more complete only by taking into account the effect of higher layers like routing and traffic.

59

REFERENCES
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9. Hass Z.H., Gerla M., Johnson D.B., Perkins.C.E., Pursley.M.B. and Steenstrup.M. (1992) 'Guest-Editorial : Wireless ad hoc networks', IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications 17(8), pp.13291332. 10. IEEE standard (1999) for Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specification, P802.11. 11. Jain K., Padhye J., Padmanabhan V. and San Diego, CA, pp.66-80. 12. Kazantzidis M., Gerla M. and Sung-Ju Lee. (2001), 'Permissible throughput Network Feedback for Adaptive Multimedia in AODV MANETs', IEEE International Conference on communications, pp.1352-1356. 13. http://citi.insa-lyon.fr/~cchaudet/docs/Guerin-Chaudet-EW2002.pdf 14. Kodialam M. and Nandagopal T. (2003), 'Characterizing achievable rates in multihop wireless Networks : The joint routing and scheduling problem', Proc. 6th ACM MOBICOM, pp.133-144. 15. Li J. and Blake C. (2001), 'Capacity of ad hoc wireless networks', Proc. 7th ACM Mobicom , pp.61-69. 16. Li M., Prabhakaran B. and Sathish S. (2003) 'On Flow Reservation and Admission Control for Distributed Scheduling Strategies in IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN',Proc. ACM/MSWiM, pp.108-115. 17. Liaw Y.S., Dadej A. and Jayasuriya A. (2004), Estimating Throughput available to a Node in Wireless Ad-ho Network, 1st IEEE International Conference on Mobile Ad Hoc and Sensor Systems (MASS), Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA, pp. 555-557. Qiu L. (2003), 'Impact of

Interference On Multi-hop Wireless Network Performance', ACM Mobicom,

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18. Samrath H., Chen K. and Nahrstedt. (2005), 'Dynamic Bandwidth Management for Single-hop Ad Hoc wireless Networks',ACM/Kluwer Mobile Networks and Applications (MONET) Journal, Special Issue on Algorithmic Solutions for Wireless, Mobile, Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks,vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 199-217. 19. Tang K. and Gerla M. (1999), 'Fair Sharing of MAC under TCP in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks', Proceedings of MMT'99, Venice, Italy. 20. Wang Y. and Garcia-Luna-Aceves J.J. (2004), 'Modeling of Collision

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List of Publications :
1. Vijayalakshmi K, Jayaparvathy R, Vaidehi V. and Srikanth S. "Bandwidth Estimation and Admission control for Multi-hop WLANs", pp:128-132, Proc. 11th NCC, Kharagpur, India, 28-30th Jan, 2005. 2. Vijayalakshmi K., Rajesh S., Jayaparvathy R., Sethuraman S. and Srikanth S. (2004), 'Adaptive TCP for 802.11 Based Ad-hoc Networks, at the National Conference on Communications (NCC), Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, pp:494-498. 3. Rajesh S., Vijayalakshmi K., Srikanth S. and Vaidehi V. (2003), 'Capacity and QoS enhancement of ad hoc networks with intermittent smart directional nodes', Proc. 9th NCC, India, pp. 35-39.

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