S

e
x
u
a
l

0
r
l
e
n
t
a
t
l
o
n
,

0
e
n
d
e
r

l
d
e
n
t
l
t
y

a
n
d

l
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
l
o
n
a
l

h
u
m
a
n

k
l
e
h
t
s

L
a
w




P
r
a
c
t
l
t
l
o
n
e
r
s

0
u
l
d
e

h
o
.

u
Practitioners Guide No. 4
Fverywhere ln the world, whatever the polltlcal,
cultural or rellelous envlronment, human rlehts
vlolatlons are perpetrated on the erounds of people's
real or percelved sexual orlentatlon or eender
ldentlty. Many countrles have dlscrlmlnatory laws and
practlces, as well as laws that crlmlnallse expresslons
of sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty. All human
belnes are equal persons before the law reeardless of
thelr sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty, and are
entltled to rlehts and freedoms derlvlne from the
lnherent dlenlty of the human person, as well as to
the equal protectlon of the law wlthout dlscrlmlna-
tlon. ludees and lawyers, as protectors and euaran-
tors of human rlehts, have an essentlal role to protect
the rlehts and freedoms of all persons lrrespectlve of
thelr sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty.
lnternatlonal law provldes the |udlclary and leeal
professlon wlth a powerful tool for protectlon of
rlehts denled on the basls of sexual orlentatlon and
eender ldentlty. Thls 0ulde explalns how lnternatlonal
law and standards can and should be used to provlde
vlctlms of human rlehts vlolatlons, on the erounds of
sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty, the protectlon
to whlch they are entltled. The 0ulde explalns how to
apply the recently adopted oeyakarta Prlnclples and
contalns selected excerpts of prlmary texts from
reelonal courts and trlbunals.
Sexual Orientation,
Gender Identity
and International
Human Rights Law
lnternatlonal Commlsslon of lurlsts
P.0. 8ox 1
kue des 8alns
Ch-1z11 0eneva S
Swltzerland
S
e
x
u
a
l

0
r
l
e
n
t
a
t
l
o
n
,

0
e
n
d
e
r

l
d
e
n
t
l
t
y

a
n
d

l
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
l
o
n
a
l

h
u
m
a
n

k
l
e
h
t
s

L
a
w




P
r
a
c
t
l
t
l
o
n
e
r
s

0
u
l
d
e

h
o
.

u
Practitioners Guide No. 4
Fverywhere ln the world, whatever the polltlcal,
cultural or rellelous envlronment, human rlehts
vlolatlons are perpetrated on the erounds of people's
real or percelved sexual orlentatlon or eender
ldentlty. Many countrles have dlscrlmlnatory laws and
practlces, as well as laws that crlmlnallse expresslons
of sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty. All human
belnes are equal persons before the law reeardless of
thelr sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty, and are
entltled to rlehts and freedoms derlvlne from the
lnherent dlenlty of the human person, as well as to
the equal protectlon of the law wlthout dlscrlmlna-
tlon. ludees and lawyers, as protectors and euaran-
tors of human rlehts, have an essentlal role to protect
the rlehts and freedoms of all persons lrrespectlve of
thelr sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty.
lnternatlonal law provldes the |udlclary and leeal
professlon wlth a powerful tool for protectlon of
rlehts denled on the basls of sexual orlentatlon and
eender ldentlty. Thls 0ulde explalns how lnternatlonal
law and standards can and should be used to provlde
vlctlms of human rlehts vlolatlons, on the erounds of
sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty, the protectlon
to whlch they are entltled. The 0ulde explalns how to
apply the recently adopted oeyakarta Prlnclples and
contalns selected excerpts of prlmary texts from
reelonal courts and trlbunals.
Sexual Orientation,
Gender Identity
and International
Human Rights Law
lnternatlonal Commlsslon of lurlsts
P.0. 8ox 1
kue des 8alns
Ch-1z11 0eneva S
Swltzerland
tnternatiena| Cemmissien eI Iurists
The lnternatlonal Commlsslon of lurlsts (lCl) ls a non-eovernmental oreanlsatlon
devoted to promotlne the understandlne and observance of the rule of law and the
leeal protectlon of human rlehts throuehout the world. lt ls headquartered ln 0eneva,
Swltzerland, and has many natlonal sectlons and affllated oreanlsatlons. lt en|oys
consultatlve status ln the unlted hatlons Fconomlc and Soclal Councll, uhFSC0,
the Councll of Furope and the Afrlcan unlon. The lCl malntalns cooperatlve relatlons
wlth varlous bodles of the 0reanlzatlon of Amerlcan States.
President
Mrs. Mary k08lhS0h, lreland
vice-Presidents
0r. ka|eev 0hAvAh, lndla lustlce lohn 00w0, Australla
xecutive Cemmittee
Prof. vo|ln 0lMlTkllFvlC, Serbla
lustlce unlty 00w, 8otswana
0r. 0ustavo 0ALL0h 0lkAL00, Colombla
Mr. Stellan 0Ak0F, Sweden
Prof. kobert 00L0MAh, unlted States
0r. Pedro hlKKFh, venezuela
lustlce Mlchle klvFT, Canada
Mr. ka|l S0ukAhl, Palestlne
Prof. Lella ZFkk0u0ul, Aleerla
0ther Cemmissien Members
Mr. Muhand AL-hASSAhl, Syrla
Mr. 0hanlm ALhAllAk, Kuwalt
Mr. ka|a AZlZ A00kuSF, Malaysla
Prof. Abdullahl Ah-hA'lM, Sudan
lustlce Solomy 8ALuh0l 80SSA, ueanda
Mr. Abdelazlz 8FhZAK0uk, Morocco
lustlce lan 8lhhlF, Canada
Prof. Alexander 8k0STL, Slovakla
lustlce Arthur ChASKALS0h, South Afrlca
Prof. Santlaeo C0kCuFkA, Mexlco
Prof. Loulse 00SwAL0-8FCK, Swltzerland
lustlce hlsham FL 8ASTAwlSSl, Feypt
Prof. Paula FSCAkAMFlA, Portueal
lustlce Fllsabeth FvATT, Australla
Prof. lochen Fk0wFlh, 0ermany
Mr. koberto 0AkkFT0h, Chlle
Prof. lenny F. 00L0SChMl0T, hetherlands
Ms. Asma lAhAh0lk, Paklstan
Ms. lmrana lALAL, Fl|l
Prof. 0avld KkFTZMFk, lsrael
Prof. Kazlmlerz Marla LAhK0SZ, Poland
lustlce los Antonlo MAkTlh PALLlh, Spaln
Mr. Kathurlma M'lh0Tl, Kenya
lustlce San|l M0hA0Fh0, 8otswana
Ms. Karlnna M0SKALFhK0, kussla
Prof. lulla M0T0C, komanla
Prof. vltlt MuhTAk8h0kh, Thalland
Prof. Manfred h0wAK, Austrla
0r. loree Fduardo PAh CkuZ, urueuay
Prof. Andrel klChTFk, kussla
Slr hleel k00LF, unlted Klnedom
Mr. Claes SAh00kFh, Sweden
Mr. 8ellsarlo dos SAhT0S luhl0k, 8razll
lustlce Phlllppe TFXlFk, France
Prof. 0anlel ThukFk, Swltzerland
Prof. u. 0|l uM0ZuklKF, hleerla
Prof. vllenas vA0APALAS, Llthuanla
Prof. ozo 0K0TA, lapan
lustlce F. kaul ZAFFAk0hl, Areentlna
Benerary Members
Professor 0eorees Abl-Saab, Feypt
lustlce P.h. 8haewatl, lndla
0r. 8outros 8outros-0hall, Feypt
Mr. wllllam l. 8utler, uSA
Prof. Antonlo Cassese, ltaly
lustlce Marle-los Crespln, Seneeal
0ato' Param Cumaraswamy, Malaysla
0r. 0almo A. de Abreu 0alarl, 8razll
Prof. Alfredo Ftchebery, Chlle
Mr. 0esmond Fernando, Srl Lanka
Lord wllllam 0oodhart, unlted Klnedom
lustlce Lennart 0rol, Sweden
Prof. hans-helnrlch lescheck, 0ermany
Mr. Louls lolnet, France
Prof. P.l.0. Kapteyn, hetherlands
lustlce Mlchael 0. Klrby, AC, CM0, Australla
Prof. Kof Kumado, 0hana
Prof. lean Flavlen Lallve, Swltzerland
lustlce Clalre L'heureux-0ub, Canada
0r. kudolf Machacek, Austrla
Prof. 0anlel h. Marchand, France
Mr. l.k.w.S. Mawala, Tanzanla
Mr. Franols-Xavler Mbouyom, Cameroon
Mr. Fall S. harlman, lndla
Slr Shrldath S. kamphal, 0uyana
Mr. 8ertrand kamcharan, 0uyana
0r. loaquln kulz -0lmenez, Spaln
Prof. Chrlstlan Tomuschat, 0ermany
Mr. Mlchael A. Trlantafylldes, Cyprus
Prof. Theo van 8oven, hetherlands
Prof. Luzlus wlldhaber, Swltzerland
P.0. 8ox 1
kue des 8alns
Ch-1z11 0eneva S
Swltzerland
F-mall: lnfo@lc|.ore
www.lc|.ore
tnternatiena| Cemmissien eI Iurists
The lnternatlonal Commlsslon of lurlsts (lCl) ls a non-eovernmental oreanlsatlon
devoted to promotlne the understandlne and observance of the rule of law and the
leeal protectlon of human rlehts throuehout the world. lt ls headquartered ln 0eneva,
Swltzerland, and has many natlonal sectlons and affllated oreanlsatlons. lt en|oys
consultatlve status ln the unlted hatlons Fconomlc and Soclal Councll, uhFSC0,
the Councll of Furope and the Afrlcan unlon. The lCl malntalns cooperatlve relatlons
wlth varlous bodles of the 0reanlzatlon of Amerlcan States.
President
Mrs. Mary k08lhS0h, lreland
vice-Presidents
0r. ka|eev 0hAvAh, lndla lustlce lohn 00w0, Australla
xecutive Cemmittee
Prof. vo|ln 0lMlTkllFvlC, Serbla
lustlce unlty 00w, 8otswana
0r. 0ustavo 0ALL0h 0lkAL00, Colombla
Mr. Stellan 0Ak0F, Sweden
Prof. kobert 00L0MAh, unlted States
0r. Pedro hlKKFh, venezuela
lustlce Mlchle klvFT, Canada
Mr. ka|l S0ukAhl, Palestlne
Prof. Lella ZFkk0u0ul, Aleerla
0ther Cemmissien Members
Mr. Muhand AL-hASSAhl, Syrla
Mr. 0hanlm ALhAllAk, Kuwalt
Mr. ka|a AZlZ A00kuSF, Malaysla
Prof. Abdullahl Ah-hA'lM, Sudan
lustlce Solomy 8ALuh0l 80SSA, ueanda
Mr. Abdelazlz 8FhZAK0uk, Morocco
lustlce lan 8lhhlF, Canada
Prof. Alexander 8k0STL, Slovakla
lustlce Arthur ChASKALS0h, South Afrlca
Prof. Santlaeo C0kCuFkA, Mexlco
Prof. Loulse 00SwAL0-8FCK, Swltzerland
lustlce hlsham FL 8ASTAwlSSl, Feypt
Prof. Paula FSCAkAMFlA, Portueal
lustlce Fllsabeth FvATT, Australla
Prof. lochen Fk0wFlh, 0ermany
Mr. koberto 0AkkFT0h, Chlle
Prof. lenny F. 00L0SChMl0T, hetherlands
Ms. Asma lAhAh0lk, Paklstan
Ms. lmrana lALAL, Fl|l
Prof. 0avld KkFTZMFk, lsrael
Prof. Kazlmlerz Marla LAhK0SZ, Poland
lustlce los Antonlo MAkTlh PALLlh, Spaln
Mr. Kathurlma M'lh0Tl, Kenya
lustlce San|l M0hA0Fh0, 8otswana
Ms. Karlnna M0SKALFhK0, kussla
Prof. lulla M0T0C, komanla
Prof. vltlt MuhTAk8h0kh, Thalland
Prof. Manfred h0wAK, Austrla
0r. loree Fduardo PAh CkuZ, urueuay
Prof. Andrel klChTFk, kussla
Slr hleel k00LF, unlted Klnedom
Mr. Claes SAh00kFh, Sweden
Mr. 8ellsarlo dos SAhT0S luhl0k, 8razll
lustlce Phlllppe TFXlFk, France
Prof. 0anlel ThukFk, Swltzerland
Prof. u. 0|l uM0ZuklKF, hleerla
Prof. vllenas vA0APALAS, Llthuanla
Prof. ozo 0K0TA, lapan
lustlce F. kaul ZAFFAk0hl, Areentlna
Benerary Members
Professor 0eorees Abl-Saab, Feypt
lustlce P.h. 8haewatl, lndla
0r. 8outros 8outros-0hall, Feypt
Mr. wllllam l. 8utler, uSA
Prof. Antonlo Cassese, ltaly
lustlce Marle-los Crespln, Seneeal
0ato' Param Cumaraswamy, Malaysla
0r. 0almo A. de Abreu 0alarl, 8razll
Prof. Alfredo Ftchebery, Chlle
Mr. 0esmond Fernando, Srl Lanka
Lord wllllam 0oodhart, unlted Klnedom
lustlce Lennart 0rol, Sweden
Prof. hans-helnrlch lescheck, 0ermany
Mr. Louls lolnet, France
Prof. P.l.0. Kapteyn, hetherlands
lustlce Mlchael 0. Klrby, AC, CM0, Australla
Prof. Kof Kumado, 0hana
Prof. lean Flavlen Lallve, Swltzerland
lustlce Clalre L'heureux-0ub, Canada
0r. kudolf Machacek, Austrla
Prof. 0anlel h. Marchand, France
Mr. l.k.w.S. Mawala, Tanzanla
Mr. Franols-Xavler Mbouyom, Cameroon
Mr. Fall S. harlman, lndla
Slr Shrldath S. kamphal, 0uyana
Mr. 8ertrand kamcharan, 0uyana
0r. loaquln kulz -0lmenez, Spaln
Prof. Chrlstlan Tomuschat, 0ermany
Mr. Mlchael A. Trlantafylldes, Cyprus
Prof. Theo van 8oven, hetherlands
Prof. Luzlus wlldhaber, Swltzerland
P.0. 8ox 1
kue des 8alns
Ch-1z11 0eneva S
Swltzerland
F-mall: lnfo@lc|.ore
www.lc|.ore
Practitioners 0uide ho. o
Sexual 0rientation, 0ender Identity
and International Ruman kiehts Law
Copyrleht lnternatlonal Commlsslon of lurlsts, zoo
The lCl permlts free reproductlon of extracts from any of lts publl-
catlons provlded that due acknowledement ls elven and a copy of
the publlcatlon carrylne the extract ls sent to lts headquarters at
the followlne address:
tnternatiena| Cemmissien 0I Iurists
P.0. 8ox 1
kue des 8alns
Ch-1z11 0eneva S
Swltzerland
F-mall: lnfo@lc|.ore
www.lc|.ore
Sexual 0rlentatlon, 0ender ldentlty and lnternatlonal human
klehts Law - Practltloners 0ulde ho. u
lS8h: /S-z-o/-1/-u
0eneva, zoo
Practitioners 0uide ho. o
Sexual 0rientation, 0ender Identity
and International Ruman kiehts Law
Thls Practltloners 0ulde was elaborated wlth the contrlbutlon of Phlllp
0ayle and 0avld 8rown. Federlco Andreu-0uzmn provlded leeal
revlew. Prlyamvada arnell edlted and coordlnated lts productlon, Frln
8rechtelsbauer asslsted.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw v
1A L 0f C 0k 1 k 1 5
tntreductien 1
t. Cenera| Censideratiens c
:. Re|igieus and mera| disceurses c
z. "5cientiIic" disceurses S
. Pe|itica| and idee|egica| disceurses 1
o. 0ecrimina|isatien and centinued crimina|isatien 1c
. Mevement tewards recegnitien 16
6. 5eme 0eIinitiens zo
tt. feundatiens in tnternatiena| and Cemparative Pub|ic Law zc
:. Re|atienship between nen-discriminatien and the right te be equa|
beIere the |aw zc
z. 5cepe and reach eI the princip|e eI nen-discriminatien and the
right te be equa| beIere the |aw z6
. ken-discriminatien and the right eI equa|ity beIere the |aw zS
o. ken-discriminatien, equa|ity beIere the |aw and sexua| erientatien
and gender identity z
o.: 1he Uk Buman Rights 1reaty edies and Uk 5pecia|
Precedures en Buman Rights z
o.z 1he urepean Ceurt eI Buman Rights and nen-discriminatien 6
o. 1he tnter-American 5ystem eI Buman Rights S
o.o 1he Ceurt eI Iustice eI the urepean Cemmunities
o. 1he AIrican Cemmissien en Buman and Peep|es' Rights u1
. Petentia| use eI discriminatery impact in pretectien eI sexua|
erientatien and gender identity u
5ummary u6
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u vl
ttt. 1he Right te Private LiIe u/
:. Lega| nature and scepe u/
z. 5tates' eb|igatien te pretect the right te private |iIe u
. Arbitrary er un|awIu| restrictiens en er interIerence with the right
te private |iIe c1
o. 5exua| 0rientatien and Cender tdentity and the right te privacy cz
o.: Cemparative pub|ic |aw and the right te privacy c
. tnterIerence with and restrictien eI the enjeyment eI the right te
privacy in the area eI sexua| erientatien and gender identity 6z
.: Cemparative pub|ic |aw and interIerence and restrictien eI
the right te privacy 6u
5ummary 6/
tv. Arbitrary 0eprivatien eI Liberty 6
:. Lega| kature and 5cepe 6
z. 0eIining arbitrary deprivatien eI |iberty /o
. asic criteria Ier |awIu| deprivatien eI |iberty /z
.: Lega|ity /
.z Legitimate Purpese /c
o. 0eprivatien eI |iberty en greunds eI 5exua| 0rientatien and
Cender tdentity /c
. 5pecia| cencerns regarding LC1 persens |awIu||y deprived eI
their |iberty So
5ummary Su
v. 1he Right te LiIe S/
:. Lega| nature and scepe S/
z. 5tates' eb|igatien te pretect the right te |iIe SS
. Arbitrary deprivatien eI |iIe and death threats o
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw vll
.: xtrajudicia| executien o
.z Arbitrary executien 1
. 5ummary executien and the death pena|ty z
.o 0eath threats
o. 5exua| 0rientatien and Cender tdentity and the right te |iIe u
5ummary /
vt. 1erture and t||-1reatment
:. kature and scepe eI the prehibitien eI terture and i||-treatment
z. 1erture and i||-treatment 1o1
z.: 1erture: scepe eI deIinitien and sexua||y metivated crimes 1o1
z.z Crue|, inhuman er degrading treatment er punishment 1o
. 5tates' eb|igatiens 1ou
o. 1erture and i||-treatment en greunds eI sexua| erientatien and
gender identity 1o/
o.: 1erture and i||-treatment arising Irem prejudice and
discriminatien 1o/
o.z 1erture and i||-treatment via 'cures' impesed en sexua|
minerities 1oS
5ummary 11o
vtt. Rights te freedem eI xpressien, Assemb|y and
Asseciatien 11
:. 5cepe and nature eI the rights 11
:.: freedem eI expressien 11u
:.z 1he rights eI peaceIu| assemb|y and asseciatien 11c
z. 0eregatiens, |imitatiens and restrictiens 11c
z.: Limitatiens and Restrictiens en Ireedem eI expressien 116
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u vlll
z.z Limitatiens and Restrictiens en the rights te Ireedem eI
assemb|y and asseciatien 11/
. freedem eI expressien, peaceIu| assemb|y and asseciatien
app|ied te sexua| erientatien and gender identity. 1zo
5ummary 1zu
vttt. Asy|um and ReIuge 1z/
:. Lega| kature and 5cepe 1z/
z. 5tates' eb|igatiens teward reIugees 1zS
. Asy|um and ReIugee 5tatus en the Creunds eI 5exua| 0rientatien
and Cender tdentity 1o
.: Particu|ar secia| greup inc|uding sexua| minerities 1o
.z Persecutien 1
.z.: 5cepe eI persecutien 1
.z.z Persecutien in re|atien te sexua| erientatien and gender
identity 1
5ummary 16
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1
"Ncithcr thc cxistcrrc cf rcticrcl lcws, rcr thc prcvc-
lcrrc cf rstcn rcr cvcr jstifv thc cbsc, cttcrks,
tcrtrc crJ irJccJ killircs thct ccv, lcsbicr, biscxcl,
crJ trcrsccrJcr pcrscrs crc sbjcrtcJ tc bcrcsc cf
whc thcv crc cr crc pcrrcivcJ tc bc. 8crcsc cf thc
sticnc cttcrhcJ tc isscs srrcrJirc scxcl cricr-
tcticr crJ ccrJcr iJcrtitv, viclcrrc cccirst lC81
pcrscrs is frcccrtlv rrcpcrtcJ, rJcrncrtcJ crJ
cccs ltinctclv rprishcJ. kcrclv Jccs it prcvckc
pblir Jcbctc crJ ctrccc. 1his shcncfl silcrrc is
thc ltinctc rcjcrticr cf thc frJcncrtcl prirriplc cf
rivcrsclitv cf richts."
-Loulse Arbour, Former uh hleh
Commlssloner for human klehts
1
tntreductien
Fverywhere ln the world, whatever the cultural or rellelous envlronment, human
rlehts vlolatlons are perpetrated on the erounds of people's real or percelved sexual
orlentatlon or eender ldentlty, lncludlne some of the most eereelous such as arbltrary
detentlon, torture and extra|udlclal executlons. Many countrles have dlscrlmlnatory
natlonal leelslatlon and practlces, as well as laws that crlmlnallse expresslons of
sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty. Thls often tends to 'leeltlmlse' human rlehts
vlolatlons aealnst eay, lesblan, blsexual and transeendered persons. Thls sltuatlon
ls an ob|ect of concern ln several |udlclal and leeal professlons around the world.
The Constltutlonal Court of Colombla has aptly descrlbed thls:
"Fcr c lcrc tinc, hcncscxcls hcvc bccr sbjcrt tc irtcrsc fcrns cf ncrcir-
clizcticr crJ scricl crJ pclitircl cxrlsicr, rct crlv ir cr rcrtrv bt clsc
ir ncrv cthcr scrictics. Nct crlv hcvc hcncscxcl bchcvicrs bccr crJ
rcrtirc tc bc rrinirclizcJ bv vcrics lcccl prcvisicrs bt, ir cJJiticr, ir
thc Jcilv lifc, pccplc with this scxcl prcfcrcrrc hcvc bccr cxrlJcJ frcn
nltiplc scricl bcrcfits crJ hcvc hcJ tc |crJrc] scricl sticnctizcticr,
whirh hcvc cncrtcJ tc, ir thc ncst cxtrcnc rcscs, rcnpcicrs cf cxtcr-
nircticr cccirst thcsc pcplcticrs. |.] 1his sitcticr cf hcncscxcls hcs
bccr jstificJ vic rcrrcpticrs crrcrJirc tc whirh thcsc pccplc, bcrcsc
thcv prcscrt/Jisplcv c scxcl cricrtcticr Jiffcrcrt frcn thc ncjcritv cf thc
pcplcticr, hcJ bccr rcrsiJcrcJ cbrcrncl, ill cr inncrcl. |.] 1hcsc clJ
rcrrcpticrs cccirst hcncscxclitv rcrtrcJirt csscrticl vclcs cf rcrtcnpc-
1. Prcscrtcticr bv thc uritcJ Ncticrs hich Ccnnissicrcr fcr hncr kichts, Ms. lcisc Arbcr ct thc
lrtcrrcticrcl Ccrfcrcrrc cr lC81 (lcsbicr, Ccvs, 8iscxcl crJ 1rcrsccrJcr| hncr kichts, Montreal, z6
luly zoo6.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u z
rcrv pblir lcw, bcscJ cr plrclisn crJ rcrccriticr cf ctcrcnv crJ cccl
Jicritv cf pccplc crJ Jiffcrcrt wclks cf lifc."
z
ln many countrles, persons wlth dlfferent sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty, vls-
-vls the of model of sexuallty soclally or morally accepted or lmposed, constltute
a vulnerable soclal eroup and are often vlctlms of persecutlon, dlscrlmlnatlon and
eross human rlehts vlolatlons. Courts of several countrles have demonstrated these
sltuatlons. For example, lustlce Alble Sachs of the South Afrlcan Constltutlonal Court
wrote:
"|i]r thc rcsc cf ccvs, histcrv crJ cxpcricrrc tccrh s thct thc srcrrirc
|biz] rcncs rct frcn pcvcrtv cr pcwcrlcssrcss, bt frcn irvisibilitv. lt is
thc tcirtirc cf Jcsirc, it is thc cttribticr cf pcrvcrsitv crJ shcnc tc spcr-
tcrccs bcJilv cffcrticr, it is thc prchibiticr cf thc cxprcssicr cf lcvc, it is
thc Jcricl cf fll ncrcl ritizcrship ir scrictv bcrcsc vc crc whct vc crc,
thct inpirccs cr thc Jicritv crJ sclf-wcrth cf c crcp. 1his spcricl vlrcr-
cbilitv cf ccvs crJ lcsbicrs cs c nircritv crcp whcsc bchcvicr Jcvictcs
frcn thc cffiricl rcrn stcns frcn thc fcrt thct |.] ccvs rcrstittc c Jistirrt
thcch irvisiblc scrticr cf thc rcnnritv thct hcs bccr trcctcJ rct crlv
with Jisrcspcrt cr rcrJcsrcrsicr bt with Jiscpprcvcl crJ rcvlsicr; thcv
crc rct ccrcrcllv cbvics cs c crcp, prcssrizcJ bv scrictv crJ thc lcw tc
rcncir irvisiblc thcir iJcrtifvirc rhcrcrtcristir rcnbircs cll thc crxictics
prcJrcJ bv scxclitv with cll thc clicrctirc cffcrts rcsltirc frcn Jiffcr-
crrc; crJ thcv crc sccr cs cspcricllv rcrtccics cr prcrc tc rcrrptirc
cthcrs. Ncrc cf thcsc fcrtcrs cppl|v] tc cthcr crcps trcJiticrcllv sbjcrt tc
Jisrrinircticr, srh cs pccplc cf rclcr cr wcncr, ccrh cf whc, cf rcrsc,
hcvc hcJ tc sffcr thcir cwr spcrifir fcrns cf cpprcssicr".

The tradltlonal areuments - from rellelous and moral perspectlves as well as from
'sclentlfc' perspectlves - have been challeneed and]or re|ected not only by devel-
opments ln sclence but by lnternatlonal |urlsprudence and ln numerous courts
throuehout the world.
u
All human belnes are persons before the law reeardless of thelr sexual orlentatlon
or eender ldentlty, and are entltled to rlehts and freedoms derlvlne from the lnherent
dlenlty of the human person as well as to the equal protectlon of the law wlthout
dlscrlmlnatlon. ludees and lawyers, as protectors and euarantors of human rlehts for
z. Constltutlonal Court of Colombla, ludement ho. C-uS1]S of September 1S, paras. 1o, 11 and 1z (0rlelnal
ln Spanlsh, unofflclal translatlon).
. Constltutlonal Court of South Afrlca, ludement of 0ctober 1S, Case of Ncticrcl Cccliticr cf Ccv 8 lcsbicr
Fcclitv crJ Arcthcr v. Miristcr cf lstirc crJ cthcrs, Ccsc CCT11]S, paras. 1z/ and 1zS.
u. See for example, Constltutlonal Court of South Afrlca, ludement of 0ctober 1S, Case of Ncticrcl Cccliticr
cf Ccv 8 lcsbicr Fcclitv crJ Arcthcr v. Miristcr cf lstirc crJ cthcrs; Court of Flnal Appeal of the hone
Kone Speclal Admlnlstratlve keelon, ludement of 1/ luly zoo/, Case of Scrrctcrv fcr lstirc v. c k lrc
Zicc crJ lcc kcn Chcr; Constltutlonal Court of Colombla, ludement ho. C-uS1]S of September 1S;
Constltutlonal Trlbunal of Fcuador, ludement ho. 111-/-TC of z/ hovember 1/.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw
all persons, have an essentlal role to protect the rlehts and freedoms of persons wlth
dlfferent sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty. lndeed, as polnted out by the Court of
Flnal Appeal of hone Kone, ln a case ln whlch the |udlclary declared unconstltutlonal
a leeal provlslon allowlne crlmlnallsatlon of homosexuallty:
"1hc rcrts hcvc thc Jtv cf crfcrrirc thc rcrstitticrcl ccrcrtcc cf
ccclitv bcfcrc thc lcw crJ cf crsrirc prctcrticr cccirst Jisrrinirctcrv
lcw."
c
Althoueh lt ls true that the lssue of sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty has been
neelected by lnternatlonal law ln the last decades, the lssues have nevertheless
attracted the concern and attentlon from human rlehts courts and bodles. human
rlehts vlolatlons on the erounds of sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty appear
at varlous levels wlthln the work of the uh treaty bodles and speclal procedures of
the former Commlsslon on human klehts and lts successor, the uh human klehts
Councll. keelonal Courts and bodles have made an lmportant contrlbutlon towards
the protectlon of rlehts of persons wlth dlfferent sexual orlentatlon or eender lden-
tlty as well as developlne leeal areuments based ln lnternatlonal law. ln recent years,
the lssue of sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty has been taken lnto account
and lncorporated ln new leeal lnstruments and leeal standards, both unlversal and
reelonal. Polltlcal bodles of lntereovernmental oreanlsatlons, both unlted hatlons
and reelonal, have adopted resolutlons ralslne the questlon of human rlehts vlola-
tlons commltted on the basls of sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty.
Sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty ralse classlc leeal lssues of lnternatlonal
human rlehts law, such as non-dlscrlmlnatlon, equallty before the law and the rleht
to prlvate llfe, amonest others. however, the questlon of sexual orlentatlon and
eender ldentlty are not restrlcted to these leeal lssues. lndeed, the questlon of
sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty could be ralsed ln relatlon to all human rlehts
and fundamental freedoms. Fxperlence teaches us that ln certaln contexts, persons
wlth dlfferent sexual orlentatlon were not fully recoenlsed as persons under the
law, a unlversal and fundamental rleht. ln many countrles, persons face multlple
obstacles lmpalrlne, because thelr sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty, the rleht
to work, to soclal protectlon, educatlon, and]or adequate houslne. Althoueh ln the
last decade the questlon of sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty has ralsed more
attentlon and found more leeal answers from lnternatlonal human rlehts law and
|urlsprudence, certaln aspects remaln under-developed.
The lCl works to lncrease the leeal protectlon of vlctlms whose human rlehts are
vlolated because of thelr real or percelved sexual orlentatlon and]or eender ldentlty
and to develop lnternatlonal law ln order to provlde, from a hollstlc perspectlve,
c. Court of Flnal Appeal of the hone Kone Speclal Admlnlstratlve keelon, ludement of 1/ luly zoo/, Case of
Scrrctcrv fcr lstirc v. c k lrc Zicc crJ lcc kcn Chcr, Flnal Appeal ho. 1z of zoo6 (Crlmlnal), para.
z.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u u
better recoenltlon and protectlon of human rlehts for persons wlth dlfferent sexual
orlentatlon and eender ldentlty.
As a frst contrlbutlon, the lnternatlonal Commlsslon of lurlsts (lCl), |olntly wlth the
lnternatlonal Servlce for human klehts, sponsored a meetlne of leeal experts on
these lssues. The meetlne took place ln hovember zoo6, ln oeyakarta (lndonesla),
wlth the partlclpatlon of twenty-nlne lnternatlonal human rlehts law experts and
|urlsts, who aereed a statement of Prirriplcs cr thc Applircticr cf lrtcrrcticrcl
hncr kichts lcw ir rclcticr tc Scxcl 0ricrtcticr crJ CcrJcr lJcrtitv (ccvckcrtc
Prirriplcs), whlch were offclally launched ln 0eneva ln March zoo/. The prlnclples
are an authorltatlve lnterpretatlon of lnternatlonal human rlehts law on the sub|ect
and lnclude statements of rlehts as well as oblleatlons of States.
Followlne the adoptlon of the ccvckcrtc Prirriplcs, the lCl declded to lnltlate a
serles of studles wlth the alm of contrlbutlne to the clarlfcatlon of the nature and
scope of exlstlne State oblleatlons ln relatlon to human rlehts and sexual orlen-
tatlon and eender ldentlty, and to develop the leeal areument that lnternatlonal
human rlehts law does and should protect aealnst abuses based on these erounds.
Followlne thls, the lCl has produced a Practitieners Cuide en 5exua| 0rientatien,
Cender tdentity and tnternatiena| Buman Rights Law. Thls 0ulde addresses ques-
tlons of sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty ln relatlon to certaln human rlehts
and fundamental freedoms. The alm ls to clarlfy the exlstlne lnternatlonal leeal
framework to deal wlth abuses of certaln rlehts on the erounds of sexual orlenta-
tlon and eender ldentlty and lllustrate how the leeal areuments for human rlehts
protectlon are properly developed and sustalned. 0ther rlehts and freedoms - such
as the rlehts to be person under the law, to famlly, to work, to soclal protectlon, to
educatlon or to adequate houslne, are not addressed ln thls 0ulde.
lnsplred by the ccvckcrtc Prirriplcs, thls 0ulde draws on many sources of lnterna-
tlonal law and |urlsprudence as well as some comparatlve natlonal law and practlce.
For lnternatlonal human rlehts |urlsprudence, the maln sources are uh human rlehts
treaty bodles, uh speclal procedures, the lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts,
lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts, the Furopean Court of human klehts
and the Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klehts. Followlne a slmple
structure, lt revlews the lnternatlonal law and |urlsprudence as well as comparatlve
law on the addressed sub|ects.
The present 0ulde frst lntroduces the sub|ect by puttlne the treatment of sexual
orlentatlon and eender ldentlty ln an hlstorlcal context, Chapters l and ll provlde
the foundatlons ln lnternatlonal and comparatlve publlc law for human rlehts clalms
based on sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty. ln partlcular, these Chapters explore
how areuments of equallty before the law and non-dlscrlmlnatlon are used to sustaln
thls clalm. Chapter lll looks at the rleht to prlvate llfe. Chapter lv deals wlth arbltrary
deprlvatlon of llberty. The rleht to llfe ls addressed ln Chapter v. Torture and lll-
treatment are dlscussed ln Chapter vl. Chapter vll deals wlth freedom of expresslon
and the rlehts to assembly and assoclatlon. Chapter vlll examlnes asylum rlehts.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw c
"1c pcrclizc scnccrc bcrcsc cf thcir scxcl cricrtc-
ticr is likc whct scJ tc hcppcr tc s; tc bc pcrclizcJ
fcr scncthirc whirh wc rclJ Jc rcthirc cbct cr
cthriritv, cr rcrc. |.] l wclJ firJ it citc rcrrcpt-
cblc tc rcrJcnr, pcrscrtc c nircritv thct hcs clrccJv
bccr pcrscrtcJ."
-Archblshop 0esmond Tutu, hobel Peace Prlce
Laureate and Anellcan archblshop
6
t. Cenera| Censideratiens
hlstorlcally, persons wlth dlfferent sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty vls--vls the
of model of sexuallty soclally or morally accepted or lmposed, have been sub|ect
to persecutlon and dlscrlmlnatlon. A dlverslty of 'areuments' - rellelous, moral,
'sclentlfc', and 'cultural' - have been used ln an attempt to |ustlfy represslon of
homosexuallty and deneeatlon of rlehts for persons of dlfferent sexual orlentatlon or
eender ldentlty. however, lt ls also true that not all socletles and systems of rellelous
or moral values were opposed to homosexuallty and same-sex erotlclsm.
:. Re|igieus and mera| disceurses
Socletles' values and notlons of proprlety have often been based on rellelous ldeolo-
eles of morallty. kellelous and moral dlscourses have shaped attltudes and laws ln
respect of sex and eender. lt ls unsurprlslne therefore, that ldeas and law-maklne
concernlne sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty are stronely embedded wlthln
socletal perceptlons that refect these bellefs. Amone all the Abrahamlc rellelons,
/

there has been a varlety of oppresslon and tolerance of same-sex erotlclsm at
dlfferent tlmes, places and amone dlfferent branches of these rellelons.
lewlsh law orlelnally condemned all non-procreatlve sexual practlces as part of 0od's
mandate to Adam and Fve to populate the Farth.
S
There was also a strone emphasls
on purlty. Conslstent wlth vlolatlon of purlty laws, the penalty for homosexual prac-
tlces was death.

0ther contemporary cultures dld not condemn sodomy, and lt was

varlously practlced as part of rltual or heallne ceremonles, for money, or as part of
the practlce of educatlne youth.
1o
Thls chaneed wlth the advent of Chrlstlanlty.
6. world Soclal Forum, 1 March zoo/, halrobl, Kenya.
/. Thls ls a term used to descrlbe rellelons wlth a hlstorlc-theoloelcal llnk wlth Abraham, malnly ludalsm,
Chrlstlanlty and lslam. See http:]]llsar.lss.wlsc.edu]welcome]abrahamlc.html
S. The 8lble, 0enesls 1:zS.
. The 8lble, Levltlcus 1S:zz, zo:1.
1o. lbiJ.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 6
Chrlstlans dld adopt the prohlbltlon of sodomy. wlth the adoptlon of Chrlstlanlty as
the State rellelon of the koman Fmplre ln the fourth century, the law beean to refect
thls polnt of vlew. For the Chrlstlan Theoloey, sexual actlvlty outslde a procreatlve
functlon was absolutely aealnst the rellelon. The Cathollc Church ruled that same-
sex practlces amone men and women were crlmes "aealnst nature" (rrincr rcrtrc
rctrcn and rrincr rcfcrJn).
11
These prohlbltlons were used to combat paeanlsm
and to lmpose a model of soclal order and dlsclpllne.
lslam has hlstorlcally been the most tolerant of the Abrahamlc rellelons toward
same-sex erotlclsm. ln contrast to the lewlsh and Chrlstlan vlew of same-sex attrac-
tlon, whlch portrayed homosexuallty as "aealnst nature", lslamlc tradltlon vlewed
lt as surrenderlne to a natural temptatlon.
1z
The lslamlc response to sodomy was
consequently more amblvalent. The hcJith reports that Muhammad's son-ln-law and
hls chlef lleutenant executed people "for dolne what Lot's people dld."
1
Conversely,
the Koran states that Musllm martyrs ln Paradlse wlll be surrounded by boys llke
"scattered pearls".
1u
The hcJith also states that Muhammad recommended tolerance toward nkhcr-
rcthr (eender varlant people, often entertalners), allowlne them to enter Mecca
and Medlna wlth some restrlctlons, but wlthout fear of persecutlon as lone as
they practlced lslam.
1c
Therefore, Musllm dlsapproval of homosexual practlces as
slns tended to focus on the lrreverence of the practlces rather than on the act of
sodomy ltself.
16
Throuehout hlstory, many Musllm States malntalned slmultaneous
pollcles of tolerance and dlsclpllne toward certaln forms of homosexual erotlclsm.
ln the contemporary world, thls tenslon can be seen ln the contrastlne examples of
Afehanlstan, where the custom of keeplne bcrhc (danclne boys) stlll thrlves amonest
the landownlne class, whllst lts nelehbour lran, admlnlsters the death penalty for
men convlcted of sodomy.
1/
At the same tlme as the advance of lslam ended the Chrlstlan persecutlons of
homosexuals ln the Mlddle Fast and much of the Medlterranean world, Chrlstlan
Furope also entered a perlod of tolerance. wlth the exceptlon of the vlsleoths,
whose klnedom was ultlmately annexed by the Musllm Callphate, no other Chrlstlan
11. See irtcr clic, lacques Chlffoleau, Contra naturam. Pour une approche casulstlque et procdurale de la
nature mdlvale , ln Mirrclccs, lv, 16, pp. z6c-1z; Mark lordan, 1hc lrvcrticr cf ScJcnv ir Christicr
1hcclccv, unlverslty of Chlcaeo Press, Chlcaeo, 1/; and Carla Casaerande and Sllvana vecchlo, Pch ,
ln lacques Le 00FF and lean-Claude SChMlTT, lc Jirticrrcirc rciscrrc Jc l0rriJcrt ncJicvcl, Parls, Fayard,
1, pp. S//-S/S.
1z. Mlchael 0oodlch, 1hc urncrticrcblc virc: hcncscxclitv ir thc lctcr McJicvcl PcricJ, koss-Frlkson
Publlshers, 1/, p. 111.
1. Mlshkat, vol. 1, p. /6c, PrcsrribcJ Prishncrts.
1u. Sura /6:1.
1c. Sunan Abu-0awud, 8cck o1:Ccrcrcl 8chcvicr (kitcb Al-AJcb|.
16. haphy, cp. rit., p. 16o.
1/. keuters, "Afchcr bcv Jcrrcrs scxcllv cbscJ bv fcrncr wcrlcrJs", 1S hovember zoo/; human klehts
watch, "lrcr: 1wc Mcrc Fxcrticrs fcr hcncscxcl CcrJrt", zz hovember zooc.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw /
klnedom outslde the koman Fmplre crlmlnallsed sodomy.
1S
8eelnnlne ln the tenth
century, eccleslastlcal wrlters beean to call for renewed persecutlon of sodomy, but
these calls eenerally went unheeded.
1
lnstead, Church law focused on lndlvldual
penance, wlth perlods of fastlne and repentance for "slns of lmpurlty", whlle clvll
law remalned altoeether sllent on the lssue.
zo
0nly ln the twelfth century dld the church return to persecutlons. 8eelnnlne frst
wlth the Crusader Councll of hablus ln 11zo and contlnulne ln the more malnstream
Lateran Councll of 11, the Cathollc Church beean to equate sodomy wlth heresy,
assertlne that sex for procreatlon was the "natural order" and rebelllon aealnst
lt was a rebelllon rcrtrc rctrcn (aealnst nature).
z1
The Cathars, members of a
heretlcal sect of Chrlstlanlty repressed by crusaders ln the late twelfth and early
thlrteenth centurles, were often accused of practlclne non-procreatlve sex. lt was
felt that one act of heresy would loelcally lead to the other. The orleln of the Cathar
heresy ln 8ulearla, pronounced 8ccrcs ln the French of the day, eave us the word
"bueeery".
zz
0nce sodomy had been frmly entrenched ln church law as a heret-
lcal act, Furopean clvll lawmakers beean crlmlnallslne lt as well. 8y the thlrteenth
century, sodomy was a capltal offence throuehout Furope. lt would remaln as
such for over half a mlllennlum, carrylne over throueh the Protestant keformatlon
and, wlth the advent of Furopean lmperlallsm, lnto Furope's overseas colonles as
well.
z
0utslde of the world of the monothelstlc rellelons, rellelous teachlne has been eener-
ally less represslve of same-sex erotlclsm. There has also been less dlvlslon between
"rellelous" and "secular", wlth lnstltutlons and customs blendlne elements of both.
For example, 8uddhlsm has very llttle to say about homosexuallty, as the teachlnes
of the 8uddha are completely sllent on same-sex attractlon and on procreatlve sex
allke. ln the Theravada tradltlon of 8uddhlsm, practlced by the ma|orlty of the popu-
latlons of Srl Lanka, Thalland, 8urma, Cambodla and Laos, punlshments for monks
eneaelne ln sexual acts wlth each other ls actually llehter than for monks eneaelne
ln sex wlth lay women - an extremely rare example of llllclt homosexual actlvlty
belne consldered less serlous than heterosexual.
zu
ln Chlna, Confuclan teachlnes
about hlerarchy dld not condemn same-sex attractlon. Two well-known storles from
the han dynasty (zo6 8C-zzo A0) lllustrate bonds of hlerarchlcal loyalty cemented
by sexual attractlon. ln one, 0uke Llne of wel's youne subordlnate Mlzl Xla blt lnto
1S. 0oodlch, cp. rit., p. /-u; Percy, cp. rit., p. 6SS.
1. Percy, cp. rit., p. 6S6; "0ecretals", FrrvrlcpcJic 8ritcrrirc, 111.
zo. 0oodlch, cp. rit., p. zc.
z1. haphy, cp. rit., p. S.
zz. lbiJ., p. //.
z. 0oodlch at S/.
zu. Percy, cp. rit., p. 16; Peter lackson, "Performatlve 0enders, Perverse 0eslres: A 8lo-hlstory of Thalland's
Same-sex and Transeender Cultures", ln lrtcrscrticrs: CcrJcr, histcrv crJ Cltrc ir thc Asicr Ccrtcxt,
ho. , Aueust zoo, p. cu.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u S
a peach and fndlne lt sweet eave lt to the 0uke to fnlsh. ln the other, Fmperor Al's
male concublne 0onexlan fell asleep on the Fmperor's sleeve, and the Fmperor,
havlne to depart, cut the sleeve off rather than wake hls lover. ln the contemporary
Chlnese laneuaee, same-sex attractlon ls stlll known as "cut sleeve" or "shared
peach".
zc
lndlan scrlpture and rellelous law also lack broad condemnatlons of homosexual
actlvlty, especlally before the arrlval of lslam ln the thlrteenth century. The treatlse
Arthashastra, attrlbuted to the lmperlal advlsor Kautllya around oo 8C, condemns
non-procreatlve sex ln mlld terms, lmposlne a small fne and rltual baths for the
act.
z6
The Manusmltrl leeal code, wrltten between zoo 8C and zoo A0, condemns
homosexual practlces only lf they cause loss of caste or female vlrelnlty.
z/
lt should be noted that anthropoloelcal llterature ls rlfe wlth descrlptlons of homo-
sexual sexual practlces ln cultures worldwlde that practlce trance and possesslon
as part of thelr rellelous or heallne tradltlons, or whlch recoenlse a "thlrd sex" that
ls often related to unlque splrltual or shamanlstlc powers.
zS
Concernlne rellelous dlscourses aealnst sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty, lt ls
relevant to underllne what the hleh Court of South Afrlca stated:
"1hcrc is still c sbstcrticl bcJv cf thcclccircl thccht whirh hclJs thct thc
bcsir prpcsc cf thc scxcl rclcticrship is prcrrccticr crJ fcr thct rccscr
clsc prcsrribcs rcrtrcrcpticr. 1hcrc is cr cccllv strcrc bcJv cf thcclccircl
thccht thct rc lcrccr hclJs thc vicw. Scrictcl cttitJcs tc rcrtrcrcpticr
crJ ncrricccs whirh crc Jclibcrctclv rhilJlcss crc clsc rhcrcirc. 1hcsc
rhcrcirc cttitJcs nst ircvitcblv rcsc c rhcrcc ir cttitJcs tc hcnc-
scxclitv."
z
z. "5cientiIic" disceurses
kepresslon of sexual orlentatlons and eender ldentltles has also been conducted
vla 'sclentlfc' approaches. hlstorlcally, and especlally durlne the nlneteenth and the
frst half of the twentleth century, sclentlfc dlscourse has had a fuld connectlon wlth
the moral and rellelous dlscourse. ldeas of normalcy, devlance and soclal daneer
have often been constructed and enforced, represslne those wlth dlfferent sexual
orlentatlon and eender ldentlty.
zc. Percy, cp. rit., p. z16-z1/; Chou wah-Shan, "homosexuallty and the Cultural Polltlcs of Tonezhl ln Chlnese
Socletles", ln 1hc lcrrcl cf hcncscxclitv, harrlneton Park Press, vol. uo, ho. ]u, zoo1, p. z.
z6. Arthashastra u.1.z6.
z/. Manu Smltrl S:6-/o, 11:6S and 11:1/c.
zS. See for example, Percy, cp. rit., p. 6u.
z. ludement of 1c, Case of S. v. h., para. 1zcA-8, clted ln Constltutlonal Court of South Afrlca, ludement of
0ctober 1S, Ncticrcl Cccliticr cf Ccv 8 lcsbicr Fcclitv crJ Arcthcr v. Miristcr cf lstirc crJ cthcrs,
Ccsc CCT11]S, para. S.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw
The lntroductlon of notlons of sexual orlentatlons and eender ldentlty ln sclentlfc
dlscourse arose ln the feld of medlclne. Medlcal texts and natural hlstorles consld-
ered the lssue from tlme to tlme throuehout the pre-modern era. Caraka, a famous
lndlan physlclan of the thlrd century 8C who helped codlfy the "Ayurveda" system of
lndlan medlclne, descrlbed eender "abnormalltles" ln hls treatlse Chcrckcscnhitc.
These lncluded varlous forms of lnter-sex condltlons and sterlllty, alone wlth male
and female homosexuallty.
o
South Aslan 8uddhlst medlcal wrlters of the same era
also descrlbed same-sex deslre, sometlmes erouplne lt wlth varlous forms of male
lmpotence.
1
ln the Arab world, early Musllm physlclans descrlbed same-sex deslre
alternatlvely as a form of patholoey or as coneenltal condltlon, the product of a
person's horoscope at blrth.
z
ln Furope, the 0reek phllosopher Arlstotle offered
explanatlons for homosexual deslre ln men rooted ln epllepsy and the lmproper
fow of semen wlthln the body, but later ln Furope, Chrlstlan physlclans eenerally
avolded the lssue, seelne homosexual practlces as slnful cholces rather than as
products of dlsease.

The nlneteenth and twentleth centurles saw the emereence of sclence as a forum
to repress homosexuallty. From bloloelcal, medlcal, crlmlnoloelcal and socloloelcal
approaches several theorles emereed to |ustlfy, 'sclentlfcally', the represslon of
homosexuallty. The theorles of westphal and Lombroso are examples. ln 1S6o, the
0erman psychlatrlst Karl westphal lnvented the dlaenosls of the mental dlsorder
of "contrary sexual feellne", whlch would later come to be called "lnverslon" ln the
Fnellsh-speaklne world. ln ltaly, Cesare Lombroso, formulated, from the crlmlnal
anthropoloey and bloloey perspectlve, hls theory of the born crlmlnal ("lnnate
crlmlnal offender"), whose weakened nervous system predlsposed hlm to eneaee
ln deeenerate behavlour, whlch lncluded homosexuallty.
u
ln 1S/6 Austrlan psycholo-
elst klchard von Kraft-Fbblne publlshed hls book "Psvrhcpcthic Scxclis". The work
proclalmed that "every expresslon of the sex drlve that does not correspond to the
purposes of nature", l.e., reproductlon, was "perverse". The book also popularlsed
westphal's concept of lnverslon, and led to the frst efforts to treat homosexuallty
as a dlsease. 0arwln's theory of natural selectlon also lndlrectly relnforced the
vlew that homosexuallty as an lllness, as same-sex lntercourse falled to produce
off-sprlne.
c
o. wllllam haphy, cp. rit., p. /6.
1. lbiJ., pp. cS-.
z. haphy, cp. rit., p. 1o1; warren lohannson, "Medlcal Theorles of homosexuallty", ln wllllam Percy, cp. rit.,
pp. /o-1.
. Plckett, 8rent, "hcncscxclitv", The Stanford Fncyclopedla of Phllosophy (wlnter zoo6 Fdltlon|, Fdward
h. Zalta (ed.), p. /1.
u. lucnc Jclirccrtc (The Crlmlnal Man), ltaly, 1S/6. Cesare Lombroso was consldered one of the founders
of the crlmlnoloey (see irtcr clic, 0. Stefanl, 0. Levasseur and k lambu-Merlln, Crinirclccic ct sricrrc
pcritcrticirc, Col. Prcls 0alloz Fd. 0alloz, Parls, 1S).
c. Pleter k. Adrlaens and Andreas 0e 8lock, "The Fvolutlon of a Soclal Constructlon", ln Pcrspcrtivcs ir 8iclccv
crJ McJirirc, u.u (zoo6), p. c/o-cSc.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 1o
Some crlmlnoloelcal theorles whlch emereed ln the early twentleth century lnsplred
by the 'sclentlfc' dlscourse on the bloloelcal and]or soclal determlnlsm, addressed
the questlon of homosexuallty as a form of "eenetlc deeeneracy", "lnherlted char-
acter tralt", "soclal devlance" or a "behavlour of soclal daneerousness". These
crlmlnoloelcal theorles found translatlon ln crlmlnal law ln several countrles. A
number of countrles beean to create laws for "habltual crlmlnals", "vaerants" and
other soclal outcasts to be removed from soclety, often throueh detentlon wlthout
trlal. As eay men and lesblans were percelved as "lnnate crlmlnal offenders", "sexual
lnverts" or "perverts", they were frequently sub|ect to such laws. A typlcal example
ls of Spaln ln 1. There, laws declared "ruffans, procurers, professlonal beeears,
and those who llve from others' beeelne" to be "ln a state of soclal daneerous-
ness" and condemned them to "lnternment ln a work establlshment or aerlcultural
colony".
6
Thls law was modlfed ln 1cu to expllcltly lnclude "homosexuals", who
were sentenced ln addltlon to "absolute seereeatlon from the others".
/
Thelr deten-
tlon comblned rellelous educatlon, hard physlcal labour and torture ln an effort to
cure the presumed dellnquency and also protect soclety from any harm that mleht
have been caused.
S
The sentence could last untll the prlsoner's "cure or, falllne that,
the cessatlon of the state of soclal daneerousness".

ln 0ermany, althoueh the law aealnst homosexual conduct had exlsted for many
years prlor to the kelch Crlmlnal Code
uo
, the hazl reelme took these laws further.
A 1u reform to the 0erman Penal Code allowed for the lndefnlte "preventatlve
custody" of "habltual dellnquents;" thls was supplemented by the 1 lcw cbct
Alicrs tc thc Ccnnritv, whlch provlded for the sterlllzatlon of such persons,
lncludlne "asoclal persons, vaerants, and homosexuals".
u1
homosexuals were
lnterned ln concentratlon camps and branded wlth a plnk-trlanele. Tens of thou-
sands perlshed ln these camps.
uz
Some States ln the unlted States of Amerlca also passed laws around the same tlme
leelslatlne the sterlllzatlon of "habltual crlmlnals", althoueh the uS Supreme Court
6. Artlcle 6 (z) of the lcw cf vccrcrts crJ Misrrccrts (lcv Jc vcccs v Mclccrtcs), of u Aueust 1 (0rlelnal
ln Spanlsh, unofflclal translatlon).
/. Amendment of 1c luly 1cu (0rlelnal ln Spanlsh, unofflclal translatlon).
S. Arturo Arnalte, kcJcJc Jc viclctcs - lc hcncscxcliJcJ cr cl frcrcisnc, Fd. La Fsfera de los Llbros,
Madrld, zoo.
. Artlcle c of the lcw cf vccrcrts crJ Misrrccrts (lcv Jc vcccs v Mclccrtcs).
uo. Thls provlslon dated from 1S/1.
u1. Franclsco Muoz Conde, "Fl proyecto naclonalsoclallsta sobre el tratamlento de los 'extraos a la comu-
nldad'", ln kcvistc Ccripcr, ho. zo, Madrld, 1 lanuary zoo1, p. z.
uz. See irtcr clic: lohansson, warren, "Plnk Trlaneles", ln FrrvrlcpcJic cf hcncscxclitv, cp. rit.; and lohansson,
warren, and Percy, wllllam A. "homosexuals ln hazl 0ermany", ln henry Frledlander (Fd.), Sincr wicscrthcl
Ccrtcr Arrcl: vclnc ;, hew ork, Allled 8ooks, Ltd., 1o; Llvely, Scott, "homosexuallty and the hazl
Party", ln 0eoree A. kekers (Fdltor), 1hc lcrrcl cf hncr Scxclitv, Lewls & Stanley Publlshers, uSA,
16.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 11
lnvalldated these laws.
u
Fven ln socletles where punlshments for soclal dlsorders
were sllehter, such as ln northern Furope and the more urban States of the unlted
States of Amerlca, mlsdemeanour statutes aealnst vaerancy, dlsorderly conduct
and the llke were frequently deployed to harass eay men and lesblans, and sub|ect
them to short-term detentlon.
uu
0urlne the nlneteenth century, approaches emereed dlfferent from sclentlfc dlscl-
pllne counterlne the theorles whlch attempted to |ustlfy, on a 'sclentlfc' basls the
represslon of homosexuallty. For example, ln the 1S6os, 0erman |urlsts Karl helnrlch
ulrlchs and Kroly Kertbenkya proposed the exlstence of a thlrd eender, composed
of people wlth souls or natures of the opposlte sex.
uc
ulrlchs called these people
"uranlans" and Kertbenkya lnvented the term "homosexual" to descrlbe them. 8oth
men asserted thelr bellef on the naturalness and lnnateness of homosexuallty and
advocated for the antl-sodomy laws to be repealed.
Further research lnto same-sex attractlon by doctors and psychlatrlsts such as
Maenus hlrschfeld and Slemund Freud, and even a chanee of heart by von Kraft-
Fbblne hlmself shortly before hls death, dlsputed the concluslon that same-sex
deslre was ln fact a dlsease, but to llttle effect.
u6
Sclence was fully eneaeed ln the
task of seeklne explanatlons and treatments for the 'dlsease' of homosexuallty. The
most commonly accepted explanatlon was that homosexuallty was an "arrested
development" of sexuallty caused by anxlety lnduced ln chlldhood.
u/
hew ork
psychlatrlsts such as Albert Fllls, and Charles Socarldes developed "reparatlve
theraples", ln whlch patlents were told they were slck but could recover throueh
maklne lnslehts lnto the subconsclous source of thelr sexual compulslons and thelr
psychopatholoelcal parents. 0ne practltloner clalmed a z/% success rate, whlle
another clalmed as hleh as one thlrd.
uS
Columbla unlverslty psychlatrlst Sandor
kado developed an "averslon therapy" thls could lnvolve a mlx of psychoanalysls
wlth sesslons showlne the patlent homoerotlc lmaees whlle admlnlsterlne electrlc
shocks or drues to lnduce nausea. ln 16z, thls therapy resulted ln the death of a
8rltlsh soldler convlcted of homosexuallty.
u
Sex chanees, usually compulsory, were
u. uS Supreme Court, ludement of 1 lune 1uz, Case of Skirrcr v. 0klchcnc cx rcl. willicnscr, 16 u.S. cc
(1uz).
uu. wllllam h. Fskrldee, lr, "Prlvacy lurlsprudence and the Apartheld of the Closet, 1u6-161", ln FlcriJc Stctc
urivcrsitv lcw kcvicw, ho. zu, 1/; Shannon Mlnter, "Sodomy and Publlc Morallty 0ffenses under u.S.
lmmleratlon Law: Penallzlne Lesblan and 0ay ldentlty", ln Ccrrcll lrtcrrcticrcl lcw lcrrcl, ho. z6, 1,
p. Sou.
uc. Manfred herzer, "Kertbenkya, koly Mara", ln Percy, cp. rit., p 6c; hubert Kennedy, "ulrlchs, Karl helnrlch",
ln Percy, cp. rit., p. 1.
u6. lbiJ.; warren lohansson, "Maenus hlrschfeld", "Freud, Slemund" and "Freudlan Concepts" ln Percy, cp. rit.,
uo-u/ and cc-c.
u/. Arvlnd harraln and Tarunabh Khaltan, "Medlcallsatlon of homosexuallty", ln Ccnbct lcw, volume 1, ho. 1
(March - Aprll zooz).
uS. lack 0rescher, "l'm our handyman", ln lcrrcl cf hcncscxclitv, volume 6(1) 1S, p. z/; Charles w.
Socarldes, "hcw Ancrirc wcrt Ccv", Leadershlp u, www.leaderu.com]|hs]socarldes.html.
u. 8everley 0'Sllva, "when 0ay Meant Mad", ln 1hc lrJcpcrJcrt, London, u Aueust 16.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 1z
another treatment. ln 1c, famed 8rltlsh computer sclentlst and mathematlclan
Alan Turlne was convlcted of eross lndecency, sentenced to oestroeen ln|ectlons
and dled shortly thereafter.
co
ln South Afrlca nearly oo compulsory sex chanees
were performed on soldlers durlne the apartheld era.
c1
As the sclentlfc communlty erew to adopt the vlew that "sexual lnverslon" was a
mental lllness,
cz
punlshment for the crlme of homosexuallty shlfted toward compul-
sory medlcal treatment. ln 1/o's Spaln the Law of vaerants and Mlscreants was
repealed and replaced wlth the Law about Soclal 0aneerousness and kehabllltatlon.
c

under thls law, "those who commlt homosexual acts", as well as "lnsolent, brutal
or cynlcal" people, the "morally perverted" and "the mentally defclent",
cu
could
be sentenced to a wlde ranee of punlshments, lncludlne, for homosexuals and
prostltutes, "confnement ln a re-educatlon establlshment".
cc
ln the unlted States
of Amerlca, a number of |urlsdlctlons enacted so-called "sexual psychopath" laws
allowlne a court to sentence repeat sexual offenders, lncludlne those whose convlc-
tlons were for consensual homosexual sex, to lnvoluntary confnement and treatment
ln mental hospltals.
c6
The unlted Klnedom allowed some men convlcted of homo-
sexuallty to choose between prlson and sex reasslenment treatment.
c/
Althoueh
ln most countrles, lnvoluntary medlcal treatment laws have now been repealed,
and ln fact forced medlcal treatment ls recoenlsed as valld erounds for clalmlne
asylum,
cS
lnvoluntary treatment contlnues to be practlsed ln some countrles, such
as the unlted Arab Fmlrates and some former Sovlet States.
c
At the same tlme, the research of uS lnvestleators such as Alfred Klnsey and Fvelyn
hooker demonstrated that there was no sclentlfc basls for assertlne that hetero-
sexuallty ls "normal" whlle other forms of sexual orlentatlon are "devlant", or that
same-sex attractlon was patholoelcal. These researchers dld not focus, as prlor
psychlatrlsts had, on convlcted crlmlnals or patlents seeklne treatment, and showed
that homosexuals exhlblted the same frequency of psycholoelcal well-belne and
co. Paul 0ray, "Alcr 1rirc", Tlme, z March 1.
c1. Ana Slmo, "Scth Afrirc", The 0ully, zc Aueust zooo.
cz. For example, the Amerlcan Psychlatrlc Assoclatlon flrst classlfled "homosexuallty" as a dlsease ln 1cz.
Amerlcan Psychlatrlc Assoclatlon, 0laenostlc and Statlstlcal Manual: Mental 0lsorders (0SM-l) (1cz),
S-.
c. Law 16]1/o (ley Sobre Pellerosldad y kehabllltaclon Soclal) of u Aueust 1/o, 80F ho. 1S/.
cu. lbiJ., Artlcle zo.
cc. lbiJ., Artlcle o.
c6. Fskrldee, Jcr. rit., pp. /1z-/16.
c/. See for example, Andrew hodees, Alcr 1rirc: thc Fricnc, vlntaee, kandom house, London 1z.
cS. For example, unlted States Court of Appeals for the hlnth Clrcult, 0eclslon of zu lune 1/, Case of
Pitrhcrskcic v. lNS.
c. unlted States 0epartment of State, Press kelease, Forced Medlcal Treatment of uAF homosexuals, zS
hov zooc, avallable at www.state.eov]r]pa]prs]ps]zooc]c/o.htm; Amnesty lnternatlonal, Crincs cf
hctc, rcrspircrv cf silcrrc: 1crtrc crJ ill-trcctncrt bcscJ cr scxcl iJcrtitv, ACT uo]o16]zoo1, Chapter u
(zoo1).
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1
dlsorder as do heterosexuals.
6o
These concluslons ealned acceptance amone sclen-
tlsts and health professlonals ln the uS throuehout the 16os, culmlnatlne ln the
abandonment of the dlaenosls of homosexuallty as a mental lllness by the Amerl can
Psycholoelcal Assoclatlon ln 1/. Subsequently, the Amerlcan Psycholoelcal,
Psychlatrlc, and Medlcal Assoclatlons have all stated the posltlon that reparatlve
therapy, based on the fawed assumptlon that a patlent should chanee hls or her
sexual orlentatlon, ls lneffectlve and ls llkely to cause harm.
61
Flsewhere, the recoenltlon that varlant sexual orlentatlon ls not a dlsease evolved
more slowly. The Amerlcan Psycholoelcal Assoclatlon has opposed the classlfcatlon
of homosexuallty as a dlsorder slnce 1S/
6z
whllst the psychlatrlc bodles of lapan,
kussla and Chlna dld not do so untll 1c, 1 and zoo1, respectlvely. The world
health 0reanlzatlon removed homosexuallty from the lrtcrrcticrcl Clcssihrcticr
cf 0isccscs crJ kclctcJ hcclth Prcblcns (lC0-1o) ln 1z.
6
ln thls context, the concluslon of the Constltutlonal Court of Colombla ls apt. They
took lnto account the sclentlfc lnvestleatlons made slnce the mlddle of twentleth
century and reports from the world health 0reanlzatlon:
"hcncscxclitv is rct c Jisccsc, rcr c hcrnfl rcrJrt, it rcprcscrts c
vcricticr cf hncr scxcl cricrtcticr. 1hcrcfcrc, thc trcJiticrcl visicrs cf
hcncscxclitv cs c Jisccsc cr cr cbrcrnclitv thct nst bc rrcJ ncJircllv
crc rct crrcptcblc ir rcrtcnpcrcrv plrclistir scrictics".
6u
. Pe|itica| and idee|egica| disceurses
ln addltlon to the rellelous, moral and "sclentlfc" areuments used, the questlon
of homosexuallty has also been utlllsed for polltlcal persecutlons and tareetlne
polltlcal opponents. hlstory ls, lamentably, rlch ln wlth lllustratlons. The Stallnlst
purees and McCarthylsm are |ust two of the many examples. ln lmperlal kussla,
unllke western Furope, medlcal dlscourse on homosexuallty had relatlvely llttle
lnfuence ln the late nlneteenth century. homosexuallty was crlmlnallsed ln 1Sc,
but ln fact the Tsarlst authorltles had a relatlvely lnduleent attltude towards same-
sex practlces. The 8olshevlk revolutlon abroeated the crlmlnal leelslatlon of the
Tsarlst reelme, lncludlne the laws relatlne to same-sex relatlons between consentlne
adults. The Sovlet crlmlnal code of 1zz dld not lnclude homosexuallty as an offence.
6o. Fvelyn hooker, "The Ad|ustment of the Male 0vert homosexual", ln lcrrcl cf Prcjcrtivc 1crhriccs, vol.
z1 (1c/), p. z; A.C. Klnsey, w.8. Pomeroy, C.F. Martln, Scxcl 8chcvicr ir thc hncr Mclc, w.8. Saunders
Fd., Phlladelphla, 1uS.
61. See Karolyn Ann hlcks, "keparatlve Therapy: whether parental attempts to chanee a chlld's sexual orlenta-
tlon can leeally constltute chlld abuse", ln Ancrircr urivcrsitv lcw kcvicw, vol. u, May zooo.
6z. Fox, k.F. (1SS), Proceedlnes of the Amerlcan Psycholoelcal Assoclatlon, lncorporated, for the year 1S/:
Mlnutes of the Annual meetlne of the Councll of kepresentatlves, Ancrircr Psvrhclccist, u, coS-c1.
6. wh0, "lC0-1c", www.who.lnt]classlflcatlons]apps]lcd]lcd1oonllne.
6u. Constltutlonal Court of Colombla, ludement ho. C-uS1]S of September 1S, para. 11 (0rlelnal ln Spanlsh,
unofflclal translatlon).
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 1u
however, the Stallnlst reelme assoclated homosexuallty wlth fasclsm and denounced
"pederasts" as aeents of corruptlon and subverslon of capltallsm. homosexuallty
was re-crlmlnallsed ln 1u,
6c
uslne medlcal laneuaee to provlde sclentlfc |ustlfca-
tlon for the deportatlon of homosexuals to the 0ulae or lnternment ln psychlatrlc
establlshments.
66
The Stallnlst reelme dldn't hesltate to use the new leelslatlon
for polltlcal represslon and purees. The statement of Maxlm 0orkl "0estroy the
homosexuals and fasclsm wlll dlsappear" refected thls polltlcal lnstrumentallsa-
tlon.
6/
lronlcally, ln the unlted States, the areument aealnst homosexuallty was used
durlne the McCarthy Fra as part of the antl-communlst crusade. homosexuals were
portrayed as a threat to natlonal securlty and]or as communlst aeents.
6S
ln thls
context, Presldent 0wleht 0. Flsenhower slened Fxecutlve 0rder 1ouco "Scrritv
kccircncrts fcr Ccvcrrncrt Fnplcvncrt", z/ Aprll 1c, whlch declared homo-
sexuals to be "securlty rlsks" and mandated frlne all federal employees who were
deemed to be eullty of "sexual perverslon."
The sense of natlonhood and cultural relatlvlsm are often used to ob|ect to decrlm-
lnallslne homosexuallty, areulne that lt ls allen to natlonal ldentlty, culture and
values. Countrles lnvoke "natlon", "natlonal tradltlons" and "cultural speclfclty" as
the crlterlon for the unacceptablllty of homosexuallty. ln the now-overruled 1S/ uS
Supreme Court declslon 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk,
6
the ma|orlty deployed reasonlne that
mlrrored the rhetorlc used ln many Southern countrles to retaln sodomy laws. 0ne
|ustlce pronounced that the federal constltutlon dld not confer a "fundamental rleht
upon homosexuals to eneaee ln sodomy", fndlne the prohlbltlon of sodomy "deeply
rooted ln thls hatlon's hlstory and tradltlon". Slmllarly, ln a dlssentlne |udement ln
0Jcccr v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn, a Cyprlot |udee on the Furopean Court of human
klehts noted that "all clvlllzed countrles untll recent years penallzed sodomy", and
foretold "publlc outcry and turmoll" lf such laws were repealed ln elther Cyprus or
horthern lreland, slnce "both countrles are rellelous mlnded and adhere to moral
standards whlch are centurles old".
/o
lf lnternatlonal human rlehts law and |urlsprudence re|ects the areument of cultural
relatlvlsm, that domestlc moral values |ustlfy the denlal or lmpalrment of an lndl-
vlduals sexual orlentatlon, the uh human klehts Commlttee eenerally re|ects the
6c. The 1u law was revoked ln 1.
66. See: healey, 0an, hcncscxcl 0csirc ir kcvclticrcrv kssic: 1hc kcclcticr cf Scxcl crJ CcrJcr 0isscrt,
unlverslty of Chlcaeo Press, zoo1; 0orsuch, Anne F., "homosexual 0eslre ln kevolutlonary kussla: The
keeulatlon of Sexual and 0ender 0lssent", ln lcrrcl cf thc histcrv cf Scxclitv, volume 11, ho. u, 0ctober
zooz; and 0ert hekma, harry 0osterhuls and lames Steakley (Fdltor), Ccv Mcr crJ thc Scxcl histcrv cf
thc Pclitircl lcft, harrlneton Park Press, 1c.
6/. healey, 0an, cp. rit., p. zz/.
6S. 0avld K. lohnson, 1hc lcvcrJcr Srcrc - 1hc CclJ wcr Pcrscrticr cf Ccvs crJ lcsbicrs ir thc FcJcrcl
Ccvcrrncrt, unlverslty of Chlcaeo Press, zoou.
6. uS Supreme Court, ludement of o lune 1S6 '8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk, u/S uS 1S6 (1S6)].
/o. 8oth horthern lreland and Cyprus remalned lntact after 0Jcccr v. uk (1S1) and McJircs v. Cvprs
(1).
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1c
crlmlnallsatlon of homosexuallty on the basls of the rleht to prlvacy, lncludlne
consensual adult sexual actlvlty.
/1
o. 0ecrimina|isatien and centinued crimina|isatien
The Furopean world of the Fnllehtenment had lnherlted the crlmlnal laws rooted
ln 8lbllcal passaees and centurles of Chrlstlan tradltlon that mandated the death
penalty for non-procreatlve sex.
/z
The French kevolutlon broke wlth thls Furopean custom by abollshlne moral crlmes,
lncludlne sodomy, under a new Penal Code, promuleated ln 1/1. updated by
hapoleon, and spread by hls mllltary conquests, the Code was adopted throuehout
Contlnental Furope. After the fall of hapoleon, most countrles repealed thelr
hapoleonlc Codes, but a few - notably France, 8elelum, Spaln and the hetherlands
- dld not re-crlmlnallse sodomy.
/
ltaly ln 1SS (the Klnedom of Two Slcllles and later
the Klnedom of haples) decrlmlnallsed consensual same-sex acts between adults,
as dld Portueal ln 1Scz (but the crlme was relntroduced ln 11z). Subsequently,
some of the new States created ln Furope between the mld-nlneteenth and early
twentleth centurles, such as ltaly and Poland, never lnstltuted a crlmlnal prohl-
bltlon of sodomy, or enacted a varlant of the hapoleonlc Code shortly after thelr
lndependence.
/u
ln other reelons, few other countrles decrlmlnallsed homosexual
relatlonshlps: for example, ln lapan, ln 1SS, the eovernment reversed lts declslon
adopted ln 1S/ maklne consensual sex between men llleeal.
The modern decrlmlnallsatlon movement beean ln the mld-twentleth century. The
areuments were rooted ln the soclal sclences, notably the feld of psycholoey.
0enmark became the frst natlon of the twentleth century to repeal lts sodomy law,
ln 1, followed by Swltzerland ln 1u1 and Sweden ln 1uu.
/c
After the Second
world war, the 8rltlsh wolfenden keport of 1c/ and the Amerlcan Model Penal
Code, frst drafted ln 1c, recommended that the crlme of sodomy be abollshed.
/6

The Amerlcan State of llllnols became the frst to adopt thls recommendatlon ln
161. 8y 1S, half of the states of the unlted States of Amerlca had followed the
lead of llllnols.
//
ln Furope countrles followed a rouehly slmllar but sllehtly more
/1. human klehts Commlttee, vlews of 1 March 1u, Case of Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v. Astrclic, Communlcatlon
ho. uSS]1z, para. S.u.
/z. See for example, Levltlcus 1S:zz.
/. Stephanle Coontz, Mcrriccc, A histcrv: Frcn 0bcJicrrc tc lrtincrv, cr hcw lcvc CcrccrcJ Mcrriccc, Fd.
Peneuln 0roup, hew ork, zooc, Chapter .
/u. kobert wlntemute, "lnternatlonal Trends ln Leeal kecoenltlon of Same-Sex Partnershlps", ln 0irripicr lcw
kcvicw, 0ulnnlplac unlverslty School of Law, uSA, volume z, zoou.
/c. lbiJ., and hubert Kennedy, "Chapter 1: 8eelnnlnes" ln lcrrcl cf hcncscxclitv, volume S, ho. 1]z, 1,
pp. /, 1u.
/6. wllllam Fskrldee, "Challenelne The Apartheld 0f The Closet: establlshlne condltlons for lesblan and eay
lntlmacy, norms, and cltlzenshlp, 161-1S1" ln hcfstrc lcw kcvicw, volume zc, 16.
//. Mellnda Kane, "Soclal Movement Pollcy Success: 0ecrlmlnallzlne State Sodomy Laws, 16-1S", ln
Mcbilizcticr: Ar lrtcrrcticrcl 0crtcrlv, volume S, humber , 0ctober zoo, pp. 1 and 1c.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 16
rapld tra|ectory. Czechoslovakla and huneary were the frst of thls eroup to abollsh
thelr sodomy laws, also ln 161.
/S
8y 1S, most of Furope on both sldes of the
lron Curtaln had decrlmlnallsed sodomy, wlth only fve countrles, the 8rltlsh Crown
0ependencles, and certaln parts of ueoslavla retalnlne thelr antl-sodomy laws.
/
lt should be noted that several countrles ln Latln Amerlca and Fast Asla elther never
had an expllclt leeal prohlbltlon of sodomy or, as was the case ln lapan, Mexlco and
8razll, enacted a verslon of the hapoleonlc Code durlne the nlneteenth century.
So

hotable exceptlons, ln addltlon to those countrles mentloned ln the prevlous para-
eraph, lnclude Chlna, whlch dld not repeal lts antl-sodomy statute untll 1, and
the former 8rltlsh colonles of Southeast Asla, whlch retaln thelr antl-sodomy laws
today.
S1
Most former 8rltlsh colonles of Afrlca, the Carlbbean and South Asla have also
retalned thelr antl-sodomy laws, as have all Mlddle Fastern and horth Afrlcan
natlons, save lsrael.
Sz
keeardlne the former 8rltlsh colonles ln the Carlbbean, many
lnclude ln thelr constltutlon "savlnes law" clauses
S
, whlch malntaln old colonlal
laws and vlctorlan laws, lncludlne the 1S61 provlslons of the uK's 0ffcrrcs cccirst
thc Pcrscrs Art and the 1SSc Crlmlnal law amendment, proscrlblne bueeery and
eross lndecency. The unlted Klnedom repealed vlctorlan laws aealnst homosex-
uallty throueh lts own tumultuous lnterroeatlon of them: beelnnlne wlth the law
and morallty debates that led to the wolfenden keport, followed by the leelslatlve
chanees ln the 16os and human rlehts lnterventlons resultlne from lts eneaeement
wlth the Furopean human klehts system.
. Mevement tewards recegnitien
The year 161 also saw the creatlon of the Mattachlne Soclety of washlneton ln the
unlted States of Amerlca, whose mlsslon to work publlcly "to equallze the status and
posltlon of the homosexual" made a sharp break wlth older "homophlle" oreanlsa-
tlons, whlch had eschewed publlclty.
Su
Slmllar oreanlsatlons erew rapldly elsewhere
around the world, re-characterlslne the effort to repeal antl-sodomy laws as a part
/S. Fskerldee, Jcr. rit., p. Scc; Mlchael lose Torra, "0ay klehts after the lron Curtaln", ln Flctrhcr Fcrn cf wcrlJ
Affcirs, volume zz:z, summer 1S, pp. / and /6.
/. lbiJ., and Pratlma harayan, "Somewhere 0ver the kalnbow: lnternatlonal human klehts Protectlon for
Sexual Mlnorltles ln the hew Mlllennlum", ln 8cstcr urivcrsitv lrtcrrcticrcl lcw lcrrcl, zoo6, ho.zu, pp.
1 and 1/.
So. Charles P. Sherman, "The 0ebt of Modern lapanese Law to French Law", ln Cclifcrric lcw kcvicw, vol. 6,
ho. , March 11S, p. 1S; wayne Percy, cp. rit., p. So6; 0anlel 0ttosson, lC81 wcrlJ lcccl wrcp p srvcv,
Fd. lnternatlonal Lesblan and 0ay Assoclatlon, zoo6.
S1. 0anlel 0ttosson, lC81 wcrlJ lcccl wrcp p srvcv, Jcr. rit.
Sz. lbiJ., and lndlana unlverslty, 0fflce of 0verseas Study, "Cl81 kcscrrcs ir thc MiJJlc Fcst", www.lndlana.
edu]-overseas]lesbleay]mlddleeast.html.
S. See Constltutlons of 8arbados, s z6, lamalca, s z6(S); Trlnldad retalned lts savlne clause even after lt became
a republlc.
Su. Fskerldee, Jcr. rit., pp. Sz1-Szz.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1/
of a broader human rlehts strueele. As early as 16 some actlvlsts were descrlblne
thelr efforts as a "eay llberatlon".
Farly on, the Furopean human rlehts system was frlendly to sexual-orlentatlon-
based clalms. ln 1S1, the Furopean Court of human klehts declared the offences
of bueeery and eross lndecency ln horthern lreland to vlolate the rleht to prlvacy
under Artlcle S of the Furopean Conventlon on human klehts (FChk). Thls declslon
arose from a challenee to the law by a eay man who areued that the exlstence of the
offences ln horthern lreland made hlm llable to crlmlnal prosecutlon and lnfrlneed
on hls rleht to prlvacy. The court ruled ln thls landmark case of 0Jcccr v. 1hc
uritcJ kircJcn that the "malntenance ln force of the lmpuened leelslatlon constl-
tutes a contlnulne lnterference wlth the appllcant's rleht to respect for hls prlvate
llfe (whlch lncludes hls sexual llfe)".
Sc
The Furopean Court declded slmllarly ln 1SS and 1 ln Ncrris v. lrclcrJ
S6
and
McJircs v. Cvprs
S/
respectlvely. 8oth States ln questlon clted strone feellnes
aealnst homosexuallty based on rellelon and clalmed that there was a leeltlmate
alm ln the "protectlon of morals" for malntalnlne the laws. The Furopean Court dld
not defer to the mareln of appreclatlon or the lndlvldual State practlce ln elther case
and lnstead clted the overwhelmlne practlce ln other member States of the Furopean
human rlehts system that had lone decrlmlnallzed consensual sex between adults
of the same sex. The Court found no "presslne soclal need" for the malntenance of
the leelslatlon ln elther sltuatlon. ln performlne lts proportlonallty test, the Furopean
Court found that the harm resultlne from the antl-homosexual laws throueh the
vlolatlon of the rleht to a prlvate llfe outwelehed the "leeltlmate alms" pursued by
the law ln questlon.
The Furopean Court was however unwllllne to examlne a broader scope for sexual-
orlentatlon rlehts beyond strlklne down penal laws throueh the rleht to prlvacy
provlslon.
SS
lt was not untll 1 that the Furopean Court expressed a broader
role for the rleht to prlvacy, ln the cases of lstic Prccr crJ 8crkctt v. 1hc uritcJ
kircJcn
S
and Snith crJ CrcJv v. uritcJ kircJcn.
o
uslne Artlcle S of the FChk,
the Court felled laws that excluded eays and lesblans from the mllltary and opened
up an lnterpretatlon of prlvacy that envlsaeed eay and lesblan llfe reachlne beyond
closed doors and lnto the publlc realm. Also lmportantly ln 1, the Furopean Court
expressly affrmed "sexual orlentatlon" as a prohlblted cateeory of dlscrlmlnatlon,
Sc. Furopean Court of human klehts, ludement of zz 0ctober 1S1, Appllcatlon ho. /czc]/6, para. u1.
S6. ludement of z6 0ctober 1SS, Case of Ncrris v. lrclcrJ, Appllcatlon ho. 1ocS1]S.
S/. ludement of zz Aprll 1, Case of McJircs v. Cvprs, Appllcatlon ho. 1co/o]S.
SS. The Furopean Court of human klehts conslstently refused to pronounce on areuments of dlscrlmlnatlon
based on dlfferent aees of consent between homosexuals and heterosexuals ln the cases of 0Jcccr, Ncrris,
and McJircs.
S. ludement of z/ September 1, Appllcatlons ho. 1u1/]6 and z//]6.
o. ludement of z/ September 1, Appllcatlons ho. Sc]6 and S6]6.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 1S
strlklne down a Portueuese court declslon that dlspossessed a father of hls custody
rlehts because he was eay.
1
To date slx countrles have enacted leelslatlon allowlne same-sex marrlaee: the
hetherlands,
z
8elelum,

Spaln,
u
Canada,
c
horway
6
and South Afrlca.
/
Two of
these States dld so by order of thelr respectlve supreme courts.
S
An addltlonal 1S
countrles

and federal States of others fve countrles

1oo
recoenlse under dlfferent
leeal feures (Clvll unlon, reelstered partnershlp, clvll partnershlp, clvll solldarlty
pact, etcetera) same-sex partnershlps that fall short of all the rlehts and dutles of
marrlaee. The rleht of same-sex couples to adopt chlldren, or to be free of dlscrlmlna-
tlon ln the declslon to place an adopted chlld, remalns unsettled. The Furopean Court
of human klehts has ruled that a State that allows adoptlon by slnele persons may
not take that person's sexual orlentatlon lnto account arbltrarlly when conslderlne
thelr petltlon for adoptlon.
1o1
however, thls case left two questlons unanswered:
whether lt would be posslble for a State to produce a |ustlfable reason to deny a
petltlon to adopt on the erounds of sexual orlentatlon and whether States may effec-
tlvely dlscrlmlnate aealnst eays and lesblans by restrlctlne ellelblllty for adoptlon
to marrled couples, whlle not erantlne the rleht to marrlaee to same-sex couples.
1oz

Flsewhere, most States of the unlted States of Amerlca allow for eay and lesblan
1. ludement of z1 0ecember 1, Case of Sclccirc Jc Silvc Mctc v. Pcrtccl, Appllcatlon ho. zo]6.
z. Clvll Code, Artlcle o, 8ook l, reform of zoo1.
. Clvll Code, Artlcle 1u, 8ook l, Tltle v, Chapter l, reform of 1 February zoo, Mcritcr 8clcc, zS February
zoo, pp. SSo-S.
u. Clvll Code, Artlcle uu, reformed by Law 1]zooc, o lune zooc, 8clctir Jcl FstcJc, z luly zooc.
c. Clvll Marrlaee Act of zo luly zooc.
6. The Stcrtirc (horweelan Parllament) approved equal marrlaee ln lune zooS wlth the new laws taklne effect
from 1 lanuary zoo. The leelslatlon repeals the kccistcrcJ Pcrtrcrship Art and provldes prevlously reels-
tered partners the optlon of convertlne thelr partnershlps to marrlaee.
/. Clvll unlon Act 'ho. 1/ of zoo6], o hov zoo6.
S. kcfcrcrrc rc Scnc-Scx Mcrriccc 'zoou] S.C.k. 6S, zoou SCC / (Canada); Fcric crJ 8crthvs v. Miristcr
cf hcnc Affcirs, Case CCT zc]o (South Afrlca).
. Andorra; Colombla; Croatla; Czech kepubllc; 0enmark; Flnland; France; 0ermany; huneary; lceland; lsrael;
Luxemboure; hew Zealand; Slovenla; Sweden; Swltzerland; unlted Klnedom and urueuay.
1oo. Areentlna (Autonomous Clty of 8uenos Alres ; the Provlnce of ko heero and the clty of vllla Carlos Paz),
Australla (Australlan Capltal Terrltory, Tasmanla and vlctorla), 8razll (klo de lanelro), Mexlco (Coahulla,
Mexlco 0.F.) and unlted States of Amerlca (Connectlcut, hawall, hew hampshlre, hew lersey, vermont,
0lstrlct of Columbla, Malne, 0reeon and washlneton).
1o1. ludement of zz lanuary zooS, Case of F.8. v. Frcrrc, Appllcatlon ho. ucu6]oz.
1oz. Thls ls the case, for example, ln the Amerlcan state of utah, whlch prohlblts unmarrled couples from adoptlne,
and also prohlblts same-sex marrlaee. utah Code Tltle o Chapter 1 Sectlon z and Tltle /S8 Chapter 6 Sectlon
11/.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1
adoptlon by slnele persons or couples,
1o
and such adoptlons are allowed ln South
Afrlca,
1ou
lsrael, Spaln and ln most parts of Canada and of Australla.
1oc
Proeress ln human rlehts based on sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty has not
been llmlted to horth Amerlca and Furope. ln the 1/os and 1Sos, local move-
ments to vlndlcate the rlehts of eays and lesblans were formed around the world.
Colombla's Mcvinicrtc pcr lc libcrcricr hcncscxcl concluded a successful
campalen to decrlmlnallse sodomy ln 1S1. 0ther successful campalens were waeed
by local oreanlsatlons ln hew Zealand, lsrael and Australla.
The eay and lesblan movement was not merely focused on repeallne antl-sodomy
laws, lt lncluded other human rlehts lssues, such as non-dlscrlmlnatlon and recoenl-
tlon. The end of the Cold war broueht new opportunltles for human rlehts actlvlsm.
ln the decade after 11, the erowth of local clvll soclety and the expanslon of the
Councll of Furope helped brlne down the sodomy laws of 1 countrles ln Fastern
Furope and of the former Sovlet unlon. 0ver the past decade, the lesblan, eay,
blsexual, and transeender (L08T) rlehts movement, as lt ls now known, has comblned
local and transnatlonal efforts to repeal the sodomy laws of Chlle, Cape verde, Fl|l,
the Marshall lslands, Moneolla, hlcaraeua and the remalnder of the unlted States
of Amerlca.
1o6
ln the Amerlcas, beelnnlne ln 1u, several countrles enacted prohl-
bltlons on sexual-orlentatlon dlscrlmlnatlon, by a constltutlonal amendment ln
Fcuador,
1o/
by leelslatlon ln Mexlco,
1oS
by a Supreme Court rullne ln Canada,
1o
by
a serles of Constltutlonal Court rullnes ln Colombla
11o
and by an executlve order ln
venezuela.
111
ln thls context, the adoptlon, ln lune zooS, by the 0eneral Assembly
of the 0reanlzatlon of Amerlcan States, by consensus, of lts frst kesolutlon on
"human klehts, Sexual 0rlentatlon and 0ender ldentlty" ls partlcularly relevant.
11z

1o. 0ary l. 0ates, M.v. Lee 8adeett, lennlfer Fhrle Macomber and Kate Chambers, AJcpticr crJ Fcstcr Ccrc bv
Ccv crJ lcsbicr Pcrcrts ir thc uritcJ Stctcs, Fd. The wllllams lnstltute (uCLA School of Law) ] The urban
lnstltute - washlneton, 0C, March zoo/, p. .
1ou. Constltutlonal Court of South Afrlca, ludement of 1o September zooz, Case of 0 1cit crJ Jc vcs v. Miristcr
fcr wclfcrc crJ Pcplcticr 0cvclcpncrt, Case CCT uo]o1.
1oc. Adoptlon Act of 1u, part , dlvlslon 6, sectlon , wcstcrr Astrclic CcrscliJctcJ Arts.
1o6. 0anlel 0ttoson, Stctc SpcrscrcJ hcncphcbic, Fd. lnternatlonal Lesblan and 0ay Assoclatlon, Aprll zoo/,
(http:]]www.llea.ore]statehomophobla]State_sponsored_homophobla_lL0A_o/.pdf.).
1o/. Constltutlon of Fcuador, Artlcle z, para. .
1oS. Federal Law to Prevent and Fllmlnate 0lscrlmlnatlon (lcv FcJcrcl pcrc Prcvcrir v Flinircr lc 0isrrinircricr|
of 11 lune zoo.
1o. Fccr v. CcrcJc, '1c] z S.C.k. c1.
11o. See for example, Constltutlonal Court of Colombla: ludements ho. T-o/]u, T-1o1]S, C-uS1]S, C-co/],
T-z6S]oo, C-/]oz and T-o1]ou.
111. keeulatlon of the Statutory law of the work (kcclcncrtc Jc lc lcv 0rcdrirc Jcl 1rcbcjc), ln the offlclal
|ournal (Ccrctc 0firicl) ho. c.zz of zc lanuary 1.
11z. A0]kFS. zuc (XXXvlll-0]oS), "human klehts, Sexual 0rlentatlon and 0ender ldentlty", adopted the lune
zooS.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u zo
Flsewhere ln the world, antl-dlscrlmlnatlon laws or constltutlonal provlslons exlst
ln South Afrlca,
11
lsrael,
11u
Talwan
11c
and Fl|l.
116
6. 5eme 0eIinitiens
ln addresslne the lssue of sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty lt ls neces-
sary to clarlfy certaln terms and notlons. Frequently people use the terms "eay",
"lesblan", "transeendered", "transexual" ln descrlblne one's sexual orlentatlon.
The Prirriplcs cr thc Applircticr cf lrtcrrcticrcl hncr kichts lcw ir rclcticr
tc Scxcl 0ricrtcticr crJ CcrJcr lJcrtitv (ccvckcrtc Prirriplcs) provlde useful
defnltlons.
Accordlne to the preamble of the oeyakarta Prlnclples, scxcl cricrtcticr:
"rcfcr|s] tc ccrh pcrscrs rcpcritv fcr prcfcrJ cncticrcl, cffcrticrcl crJ
scxcl cttrcrticr tc, crJ irtinctc crJ scxcl rclcticrs with, irJiviJcls cf c
Jiffcrcrt ccrJcr cr thc scnc ccrJcr cr ncrc thcr crc ccrJcr."
The status of one's sexual orlentatlon establlshes the eender of the ob|ect of one's
sexual attractlon or experlences. The sexual orlentatlon of a person ls often dlvlded
ln terms of a) homosexual, descrlblne same-eender attractlon, b) heterosexual,
descrlblne opposlte-eender attractlon and c) blsexual, descrlblne both opposlte
and same-sex attractlon. These descrlptlons have thelr roots ln medlcal lnterest ln
lssues of sexuallty and sometlmes slt uneaslly wlth some advocates because they
have thelr orlelns ln a perlod ln medlcal hlstory when homosexuallty was ldentlfed
and treated as a patholoelcal lllness.
11/
The orlelns of words such as lesblan, eay and straleht, and thelr lnvolvement ln
debates about cultural relatlvlsm, have created anxletles about thelr standard
deployment ln unlted hatlons or some leeal rlehts contexts. These concerns have
elven rlse to creatlon of the term "men who have sex wlth men", or MSM, to descrlbe
men who eneaee ln same-sex behavlours.
11S
Thls ls an attempt to create a cate-
eory that avolds the sub|ectlve clalm to a sexual ldentlty or, at least, the polltlcal
connotatlons of some labels. lnstead, MSM addresses the need for classlfcatlon
of behavlours for publlc health lnltlatlves. MSMs have been declared a vulnerable
eroup for hlv]Al0S preventlon.
11. Constltutlon of South Afrlca, Artlcle , para. .
11u. Fccl Fnplcvncrt 0ppcrtritv Art (1z); 0crilcwitz v. Fl Al, Supreme Court of lsrael, 1c.
11c. www.state.eov]e]drl]rls]hrrpt]zoo/]1ooc1/.htm.
116. Constltutlon of Fl|l, Artlcle S, sectlon z(a).
11/. See eenerally, Mlller, Allce, "Scxcl richts wcrJs crJ thcir nccrircs: 1hc cctcwcv tc cffcrtivc hncr richts
wcrk cr scxcl crJ ccrJcr Jivcrsitv", paper submltted for the oeyakarta meetlne, hovember zoo6.
11S. See uhAl0S, "men who have sex wlth men" (http:]]www.unalds.ore]en]PollcyAndPractlce]KeyPopulatlons]
MenSexMen]).
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw z1
For the purpose of human rlehts protectlon, eender expresslon ls also lmportant to
acknowledee and ldentlfy. The notlon of what properly constltutes male or female
norms has been a source of human rlehts abuses aealnst lndlvlduals who do not
ft or conform to the stereotyplcal models of mascullne or femlnlne. Personal
deportment, mode of dress, mannerlsms, speech patterns, soclal behavlour and
lnteractlons, economlc lndependence of women and the absence of an opposlte-sex
partner are all features that may subvert eender expectatlons.
Accordlne to the preamble of the oeyakarta Prlnclples, ccrJcr iJcrtitv:
"rcfcr|s] tc ccrh pcrscrs Jccplv fclt irtcrrcl crJ irJiviJcl cxpcricrrc cf
ccrJcr, whirh ncv cr ncv rct rcrrcspcrJ with thc scx cssicrcJ ct birth,
irrlJirc thc pcrscrcl scrsc cf thc bcJv (whirh ncv irvclvc, if frcclv
rhcscr, ncJifircticr cf bcJilv cppccrcrrc cr frrticr bv ncJircl, srcircl
cr cthcr nccrs| crJ cthcr cxprcssicrs cf ccrJcr, irrlJirc Jrcss, spccrh
crJ ncrrcrisns."
A transeender person ls someone whose deeply held sense of eender ls dlfferent
from thelr physlcal characterlstlcs at the tlme of blrth. A person may be a female-to-
male transeender (FTM) ln that he has a eender ldentlty that ls predomlnantly male,
even thoueh he was born wlth a female body. Slmllarly, a person may be male-to-
female transeender (MTF) ln that she has a eender ldentlty that ls predomlnantly
female, even thoueh she was born wlth a male body or physlcal characterlstlcs.
A transsexual person ls one who has undereone physlcal or hormonal alteratlons
by sureery or therapy, ln order to assume new physlcal eender characterlstlcs.
Transeender and transsexual people can have any sexual orlentatlon: lt ls lmpor-
tant to dlstlneulsh the eender from the sexual actlvlty. lt wlll be later examlned, that
the advances ln "eender ldentlty" from the |urlsprudence of the Furopean Court of
human klehts are hueely premlsed on assumlne new eender throueh complete
allenment of the physlcal body by sureery, hormonal alteratlons and the potentlal
for heterosexual performance (transexuallsm). The |urlsprudentlal foundatlon for
thls posltlon was rooted ln uK natlonal |urlsprudence. ln hls dlssentlne |udement
11

ln the 8rltlsh case of Ccrbctt v. Ccrbctt, Lord lustlce Thorpe sald:
"|t]c nckc thc rhrcncscncl fcrtcr rcrrlsivc, cr cvcr Jcnircrt, sccns tc
nc pcrtirlcrlv ccsticrcblc ir thc rcrtcxt cf ncrriccc. Fcr it is cr irvisiblc
fcctrc cf cr irJiviJcl, irrcpcblc cf pcrrcpticr cr rccistrcticr cthcr thcr
bv sricrtifir tcst. lt nckcs rc rcrtribticr tc thc phvsiclccircl cr psvrhc-
lccircl sclf. lrJccJ ir thc rcrtcxt cf thc irstitticr cf ncrriccc cs it is tcJcv
it sccns tc nc richt cs c ncttcr cf prirriplc crJ lccir tc civc prcJcni-
rcrrc tc psvrhclccircl fcrtcrs jst cs it sccn richt tc rcrrv ct thc csscrticl
11. ludement of z February 1/o, Case of Ccrbctt v. Ccrbctt (otherwlse called Ashley), para. 1cc, clted ln
Furopean Court of human klehts, ludement of 11 luly zooz, Case of l. v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon
ho. zc6So]u, para. 6.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u zz
csscssncrt cf ccrJcr ct cr shcrtlv bcfcrc thc tinc cf ncrriccc rcthcr thcr
ct thc tinc cf birth."
1zo
ln the Australlan case of kc kcvir, a case of valldlty of marrlaee of transsexual, Mr.
lustlce Chlsholm held:
"|b]crcsc thc wcrJs ncr crJ wcncr hcvc thcir crJircrv rcrtcnpcrcrv
nccrirc, thcrc is rc fcrnlcir sclticr tc Jctcrnirirc thc scx cf cr irJi-
viJcl fcr thc prpcsc cf thc lcw cf ncrriccc. 1hct is, it rcrrct bc sciJ cs
c ncttcr cf lcw thct thc ccsticr ir c pcrtirlcr rcsc will bc JctcrnircJ bv
cpplvirc c sirclc rritcricr, cr linitcJ list cf rritcric. 1hs it is wrcrc tc scv
thct c pcrscrs scx JcpcrJs cr crv sirclc fcrtcr, srh cs rhrcncscncs
cr ccritcl scx; cr scnc linitcJ rcrcc cf fcrtcrs, srh cs thc stctc cf thc
pcrscrs ccrcJs, rhrcncscncs cr ccritcls (whcthcr ct birth cr ct scnc
cthcr tinc|. Sinilcrlv, it wclJ bc wrcrc ir lcw tc scv thct thc ccsticr rcr
bc rcsclvcJ bv rcfcrcrrc sclclv tc thc pcrscrs psvrhclccircl stctc, cr bv
iJcrtifvirc thc pcrscrs brcir scx.
1c Jctcrnirc c pcrscrs scx fcr thc lcw cf ncrriccc, cll rclcvcrt ncttcrs
rccJ tc bc rcrsiJcrcJ. l Jc rct scck tc stctc c rcnplctc list cr scccst thct
crv fcrtcrs rcrcsscrilv hcvc ncrc inpcrtcrrc thcr cthcrs. hcwcvcr thc
rclcvcrt ncttcrs irrlJc, ir nv cpiricr, thc pcrscrs biclccircl crJ phvsircl
rhcrcrtcristirs ct birth (irrlJirc ccrcJs, ccritcls crJ rhrcncscncs|; thc
pcrscrs lifc cxpcricrrcs, irrlJirc thc scx ir whirh hc cr shc wcs brccht
p crJ thc pcrscrs cttitJc tc it; thc pcrscrs sclf-pcrrcpticr cs c ncr cr c
wcncr; thc cxtcrt tc whirh thc pcrscr hcs frrticrcJ ir scrictv cs c ncr cr
c wcncr; crv hcrncrcl, srcircl cr cthcr ncJircl scx rc-cssicrncrt trcct-
ncrts thc pcrscr hcs rJcrccrc, crJ thc rcrscccrrcs cf srh trcctncrt;
crJ thc pcrscrs biclccircl, psvrhclccircl crJ phvsircl rhcrcrtcristirs ct thc
tinc cf thc ncrriccc".
1z1
L08T ls an acronym for "lesblan, eay, blsexual and transeender" people. lt comblnes
the sexual orlentatlon-based ldentltles of lesblan, eay and blsexual wlth a non-
sexual orlentatlon created cateeory, transeender. The unlted hatlons treatment
of the lssues of sexual orlentatlon, eender ldentlty and eender expresslon have
also lumped all these questlons for treatment under the banner of sexual mlnorl-
tles. Professor Allce Mlller oplnes that thoueh thls umbrella term has been used by
uh experts and mechanlsms to deal wlth lssues of dlscrlmlnatlon, excluslon and
1zo. ludement of z February 1/o.
1z1. ludement of 1z 0ctober zoo1, Famlly Court of Australla - At Sldney, Flle ho. SS16 0F 1, 'zoo1] Fam CA
1o/u, para. zS.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw z
stlematlsatlon, lt ls unclear what eroups are lncluded as sexual mlnorltles and how
the status ls determlned.
1zz
She notes that thoueh thls cateeorlsatlon ls helpful for
elvlne promlnence to the lssues, lt may be a troublesome "shorthand" ln terms of
dellneatlne cateeorles of human rlehts abuses concernlne sexuallty and eender.
1zz. Allce Mlller further notes: "First, it is rrlccr cxcrtlv whc is rcvcrcJ bv thc tcrn crJ rcrtcsts crJ rcnpcti-
ticrs inncJictclv crisc cvcr whc fits rJcr thc nbrcllc (with scx wcrkcrs clbcwirc lcsbicrs crJ ccvs fcr
irrlsicr|, cs wcll cs whc hcs ncst crtitlcncrt tc "nircritv" stcts. ScrcrJ, thc rlbbirc tcccthcr cf thc
Jispcrctc crcps nckcs it cppccr thct thcv cll sffcr frcn thc scnc kirJ cf Jisrrinircticr cr cbsc--crJ
thcrcfcrc thct thc scnc kirJ cf rcncJics will sffirc fcr cll. 1hc cnrin-ccthcrn cffcrt ths lccvcs it
rrlccr whct spcrifir cspcrts cf thc lcws cr pclirics crc rJcr rcvicw fcr thcir cbsivc cr Jisrrinirctcrv
cffcrt. Chcllcrcirc rrinirclizcticr cf scx wcrk cr rcfcrn cf prcstitticr lcws is c vcrv Jiffcrcrt rcspcrsc
thcr crcrtirc rcr-Jisrrinircticr prctcrticrs fcr Jisrrinircticr bcscJ cr ccrJcr iJcrtitv cr cxprcssicr"
(Alirc Millcr, "Sexual rlehts words and thelr meanlnes:..", Jcr. rit.).
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw zc
"1hcrc is cr irscpcrcblc rcrrcrticr tc rcspcrt crJ
ccrcrtcc hncr richts crJ thc prirriplc cf ccclitv
crJ rcr-Jisrrinircticr. Stctcs crc cbliccJ tc rcspcrt
crJ ccrcrtcc thc fll crJ frcc cxcrrisc cf richts crJ
frccJcns withct crv Jisrrinircticr. Ncr-rcnplicrrc
bv thc Stctc with thc ccrcrcl cbliccticr tc rcspcrt
crJ ccrcrtcc hncr richts, cwirc tc crv Jisrrini-
rctcrv trcctncrt, civcs risc tc its irtcrrcticrcl
rcspcrsibilitv".
-lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts
1z
tt. feundatiens in tnternatiena| and Cemparative
Pub|ic Law
All human belnes are persons before the law, reeardless of thelr sexual orlentatlon
or eender ldentlty, entltled to freedoms derlvlne from the lnherent dlenlty of the
human person: equallty before the law, non-dlscrlmlnatlon and equal protectlon
of the law.
:. Re|atienship between nen-discriminatien and the right te be
equa| beIere the |aw
The prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon
1zu
and the rleht to be equal before the law
1zc
are
unlversally recoenlsed and protected under lnternatlonal law. The uh human klehts
Commlttee declares that:
1z. Advlsory 0plnlon 0C-1S]o, lriJircl CcrJiticr crJ kichts cf thc urJcrncrtcJ Micrcrts, of 1/ September
zoo, Serles A ho. 1S, para. Sc.
1zu. Artlcles 1 () and cc of the unlted hatlons Charter; Artlcle / of the unlversal 0eclaratlon of human klehts;
Artlcles z, u (1) and z6 of the lnternatlonal Covenant on Clvll and Polltlcal klehts (lCCPk); Artlcle z of the
lnternatlonal Covenant on Fconomlc, Soclal and Cultural klehts; Artlcle z of the Conventlon of the klehts
of the Chlld; Artlcle / of the lnternatlonal Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klehts of All Mlerant workers
and Members of Thelr Famllles; Artlcle of the Conventlon on the klehts of Persons wlth 0lsabllltles; Artlcle
1u of the Furopean Conventlon on human klehts; Protocol ho. 1z of the Furopean Conventlon on human
klehts; Artlcle z of the Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klehts; Artlcle of the Afrlcan Charter on the
klehts and welfare of the Chlld; Artlcle ll of the Amerlcan 0eclaratlon of the klehts and 0utles of Man; Artlcle
1 of the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts; Artlcles and 11 of the Arab Charter on human klehts; and
Artlcle z1 of the Charter of Fundamental klehts of the Furopean unlon.
1zc. Artlcle / of the unlversal 0eclaratlon of human klehts; Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk; Artlcle of the Afrlcan Charter
on human and Peoples' klehts; Artlcle ll of the Amerlcan 0eclaratlon of the klehts and 0utles of Man; Artlcle
zu of the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts; Protocol ho. 1z of the Furopean Conventlon on human
klehts; Artlcle 11 of the Arab Charter on human klehts; and Artlcle zo of the Charter of Fundamental klehts
of the Furopean unlon.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u z6
"Ncr-Jisrrinircticr, tcccthcr with ccclitv bcfcrc thc lcw crJ cccl prctcr-
ticr cf thc lcw withct crv Jisrrinircticr, rcrstittc c bcsir crJ ccrcrcl
prirriplc rclctirc tc thc prctcrticr cf hncr richts."
1z6
The close and lnterdependent relatlonshlp between the prlnclple of non-dlscrlm-
lnatlon and the rleht to equallty before the law ls evldenced by Artlcle z6 of the
lrtcrrcticrcl Ccvcrcrt cr Civil crJ Pclitircl kichts (lCCPk), whlch states that "'a]ll
persons are equal before the law and are entltled wlthout any dlscrlmlnatlon to
the equal protectlon of the law. '.] 'T]he law shall prohlblt any dlscrlmlnatlon and
euarantee to all persons equal and effectlve protectlon aealnst dlscrlmlnatlon on
any eround such as race, colour, sex, laneuaee, rellelon, polltlcal or other oplnlon,
natlonal or soclal orleln, property, blrth, or other status."
1z/
z. 5cepe and reach eI the princip|e eI nen-discriminatien and the
right te be equa| beIere the |aw
The prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon and the rleht to be equal before the law requlres
that the State not only protect people from dlscrlmlnatlon from State aeents but
also from prlvate entltles and persons. Accordlne to the human klehts Commlttee,
non-dlscrlmlnatlon lmplles the prohlbltlon of "dlscrlmlnatlon ln law or ln fact ln any
feld reeulated and protected by publlc authorltles".
1zS
To elve effect to the prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon and the rleht to be equal before
the law, the human klehts Commlttee has polnted out that "the term 'dlscrlmlnatlon'
'..] should be understood to lmply any dlstlnctlon, excluslon, restrlctlon or prefer-
ence whlch ls based on any eround such as race, colour, sex, laneuaee, rellelon,
polltlcal or other oplnlon, natlonal or soclal orleln, property, blrth or other status,
and whlch has the purpose or effect of nulllfylne or lmpalrlne the recoenltlon, en|oy-
ment or exerclse by all persons, on an equal footlne, of all rlehts and freedoms".
1z

The Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and People's klehts
1o
and the Furopean Court
of human klehts
11
have adopted a slmllar approach. The lnter-Amerlcan Court of
human klehts, for lts part, has stated that "'l]n the amblt of the lnternatlonal Law
of human klehts, '..] whlch permeates lts whole rcrps jris, ls '..] the prlnclple of
equallty and non-dlscrlmlnatlon. '.] '0]lscrlmlnatlon ls defned, essentlally as any
dlstlnctlon, excluslon, restrlctlon or llmltatlon, or prlvlleee, to the detrlment of the
human rlehts enshrlned thereln. The prohlbltlon of dlscrlmlnatlon comprlses both
1z6. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc.18, Ncr-Jisrrinircticr, para. 1.
1z/. lCCPk, Artlcle z6.
1zS. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc.18, Ncr-Jisrrinircticr, para. 1z.
1z. lbiJ., para. /.
1o. See irtcr clic: lcccl kcscrrcs FcrJcticr v. Zcnbic, Communlcatlon z11]S (/ May zooo), paras. 6, /o
and ftn. .
11. See irtcr clic: ludement of z luly 16S, Case of Ccrtcir Aspcrts cf thc lcws cr thc usc cf lcrccccs ir
FJrcticr ir 8clcin, Appllcatlon ho 1u/u]6z; 16//]6z; 161]6z; 1/6]6; 1u]6; z1z6]6u.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw z/
the totallty of those rlehts, at substantlve level, as well as the condltlons of thelr
exerclse, at procedural level."
1z
hon-dlscrlmlnatlon and equallty before the law also entalls posltlve oblleatlons as
underllned by the human klehts Commlttee:
"thc pcsitivc cbliccticrs cr Stctcs Pcrtics tc crsrc Ccvcrcrt richts will
crlv bc fllv JisrhcrccJ if irJiviJcls crc prctcrtcJ bv thc Stctc |..] 1hcrc
ncv bc rirrnstcrrcs ir whirh c fcilrc tc crsrc Ccvcrcrt richts cs
rccircJ bv crtirlc 2 wclJ civc risc tc viclcticrs bv Stctcs Pcrtics cf thcsc
richts, cs c rcslt cf Stctcs Pcrtics pcrnittirc cr fcilirc tc tckc cpprcprictc
nccsrcs cr tc cxcrrisc Jc Jiliccrrc tc prcvcrt, prish, irvcsticctc cr
rcJrcss thc hcrn rcscJ bv srh crts bv privctc pcrscrs cr crtitics. Stctcs
crc rcnirJcJ cf thc irtcrrclcticrship bctwccr thc pcsitivc cbliccticrs
inpcscJ rJcr crtirlc 2 crJ thc rccJ tc prcviJc cffcrtivc rcncJics ir thc
cvcrt cf brccrh rJcr crtirlc 2, pcrccrcph ."
1
Concernlne the questlon of non-dlscrlmlnatlon and mlnorltles, the human klehts
Commlttee has outllned that the entltlement to en|oy the rlehts protected by the
lCCPk (Artlcle z.1) wlthout dlscrlmlnatlon "applles to all lndlvlduals wlthln the terrl-
tory or under the |urlsdlctlon of the State whether or not those persons belone to a
mlnorlty. ln addltlon, there ls a dlstlnct rleht provlded under Artlcle z6 for equallty
before the law, equal protectlon of the law, and non-dlscrlmlnatlon ln respect of
rlehts eranted and oblleatlons lmposed by the States. lt eoverns the exerclse of all
rlehts, whether protected under the Covenant or not, whlch the State party confers
by law on lndlvlduals wlthln lts terrltory or under lts |urlsdlctlon, lrrespectlve of
whether they belone to the mlnorltles speclfed ln Artlcle z/ or not."
1u
The human klehts Commlttee has consldered that, althoueh the rlehts to non-
dlscrlmlnatlon and to be equal before the law (Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk) have not
been llsted amone the non-deroeable provlslons ln Artlcle u (z) of the lCCPk, "there
are elements or dlmenslons of the rleht to non-dlscrlmlnatlon that cannot be dero-
eated from ln any clrcumstances".
1c
The lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts eoes
further, concludlne that, "the prlnclple of equallty before the law, equal protec-
tlon before the law and non-dlscrlmlnatlon belones to js rcccrs, because the
whole leeal structure of natlonal and lnternatlonal publlc order rests on lt and lt ls
a fundamental prlnclple that permeates all laws. howadays, no leeal act that ls ln
conflct wlth thls fundamental prlnclple ls acceptable. 0lscrlmlnatory treatment of
any person, owlne to eender, race, colour, laneuaee, rellelon or bellef, polltlcal or
1z. Advlsory 0plnlon ho. 0C-1S]o, Jcr. rit., para. c.
1. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1, 1hc Nctrc cf thc Ccrcrcl lcccl 0bliccticr lnpcscJ
cr Stctcs Pcrtics tc thc Ccvcrcrt, para. S.
1u. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, kichts cf nircritics, (Artirlc 2;|, para. u.
1c. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, Stctcs cf Fncrccrrv, (Artirlc o|, para. S.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u zS
other oplnlon, natlonal, ethnlc or soclal orleln, natlonallty, aee, economlc sltuatlon,
property, clvll status, blrth or any other status ls unacceptable.
. ken-discriminatien and the right eI equa|ity beIere the |aw
The prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon and the rleht of equallty before the law does not
preclude dlfferentlal treatment and dlstlnctlons for certaln cateeorles of lndlvlduals,
vls--vls certaln rlehts and freedom, such as mlnors, the lndleenous, allens, non-
cltlzens etcetera.
16
As the human klehts Commlttee has polnted out, "'t]he rleht to
equallty before the law and to equal protectlon of the law wlthout any dlscrlmlnatlon
does not make all dlfferences of treatment dlscrlmlnatory"
1/
and "'t]he en|oyment
of rlehts and freedoms on an equal footlne, however, does not mean ldentlcal treat-
ment ln every lnstance".
1S
At the same tlme dlfferentlal treatment ls only acceptable
lf lt ls founded on reasonable and ob|ectlve crlterla.
1
lt must have a leeltlmate
purpose.
1uo
The lnter-Amerlcan Court has descrlbed lts formula for dlscernlne what lt has oplned
amenable to protectlon: "'t]here may well exlst certaln factual lnequalltles that mleht
leeltlmately elve rlse to lnequalltles ln leeal treatment that do not vlolate prlnclples
of |ustlce. They may ln fact be lnstrumental ln achlevlne |ustlce or ln protectlne those
who fnd themselves ln a weak leeal posltlon '.] lt follows that there would be no
dlscrlmlnatlon ln dlfferences ln treatment of lndlvlduals by a State when the clas-
slfcatlons selected are based on substantlal factual dlfferences and there exlsts a
reasonable relatlonshlp of proportlonallty between these dlfferences and the alms
of the leeal rule under revlew."
1u1
The lnter-Amerlcan Court has emphaslsed that a
"dlstlnctlon that lacks ob|ectlve and reasonable |ustlfcatlon ls dlscrlmlnatory"
1uz
and
has polnted out that, when lt ls necessary to restrlct a rleht, the restrlctlon should
be proportlonate to thls purpose.
1u
16. See for example Artlcles 1o (), 1, zc of the lCCPk.
1/. vlews of Aprll 1S/, Case of S. w. M. 8rccks v. thc NcthcrlcrJs, Communlcatlon ho. 1/z]1Su, para. 1, ln
uh document Supp. ho. uo (A]uz]uo), annex vlll.8,. See also, amone others, vlews of Aprll 1S/, Case of
Zwccr-Jc-vrics v. 1hc NcthcrlcrJs, Communlcatlon ho. 1Sz]1Su; vlews of Aprll 1S, Case of lbrchinc
Ccvc crJ cthcrs v. Frcrrc, Communlcatlon ho. 16]1Sc; and vlews of 1 luly 1c, Case of Alirc Sinrck
v. 1hc Czcrh kcpblir, Communlcatlon ho. c16]1z.
1S. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 18, Ncr-Jisrrinircticr, para. S.
1. lbiJ., para. 1.
1uo. lbiJ.
1u1. Advlsory 0plnlon 0C-u]Su, PrcpcscJ AncrJncrts cf thc Nctrclizcticr Prcvisicrs cf thc Ccrstitticr cf
Ccstc kirc, of 1 lanuary 1Su, Serles A ho. u, paras. c6-c/.
1uz. ludement of z lune zooc, Case of ctcnc v. Nircrccc, Serles C ho. 1z/, para. 1Sc.
1u. lbiJ., para. zo6.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw z
o. ken-discriminatien, equa|ity beIere the |aw and sexua|
erientatien and gender identity
There ls a radlcal posltlvlst assertlon that no protectlon of "sexual orlentatlon" or
"eender ldentlty" exlsts ln lnternatlonal human rlehts law, slnce these cateeorles are
not speclfcally enumerated ln the core lnternatlonal human rlehts treatles. however,
lnternatlonal lnstruments were not meant to be exhaustlve ln thelr enumeratlon
of status and the reference to "or other status" ls the clearest lndlcatlon of the
lntentlon to encompass protectlon for unnamed cateeorles. The acceptance of a non-
dlscrlmlnatlon norm ln lnternatlonal law therefore admlts an lnherent openness to
cateeorles of protectlon that were unnamed and the eenera of "sexual orlentatlon"
and "eender ldentlty", have found cateeorles for clalms.
keeardlne Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk, on equallty before the law and rleht to be free
from dlscrlmlnatlon, the absence of "sexual orlentatlon" and "eender ldentlty" as
expressly stated cateeorles of non-dlscrlmlnatlon, does not exclude them from the
lntended protectlon of thls artlcle. The lncluslon of an "other status" cateeory by
the drafters, clearly contemplated erounds of dlscrlmlnatlon that were elther not
llsted or that would evolve ln soclety. 0eneral Comment 1S of the human klehts
Commlttee explalns that Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk ls free standlne and ls premlsed on
ensurlne equallty before the law.
1uu
ln order to ensure protectlon lt ls an emerelne trend ln new human rlehts lnstru-
ments and standards to lncorporate "sexual orlentatlon" or "eender ldentlty" ln
the prohlblted erounds of dlscrlmlnatlon. lndeed, the uh 0eneral Assembly have
ureed all States to ensure the effectlve protectlon of the rleht to llfe and to lnvestl-
eate promptly and thorouehly all kllllnes commltted for any dlscrlmlnatory reason,
lncludlne sexual orlentatlon.
1uc
The Parllamentary Assembly of the Councll of Furope
has adopted several resolutlons on the questlon of dlscrlmlnatlon on sexual orlenta-
tlon and eender ldentlty (S00l) erounds.
1u6
kecently, the 0eneral Assembly of the
0reanlzatlon of Amerlcan States have adopted lts frst resolutlon on human klehts,
Sexual 0rlentatlon and 0ender ldentlty.
1u/
ln addltlon, new lnternatlonal lnstruments
1uu. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 18, Ncr-Jisrrinircticr, para. 1z.
1uc. See kesolutlons on "Fxtra|udlclal, summary or arbltrary executlons" ho. 61]1/ of 1 0ecember zoo6, ho.
c]1/ of zo 0ecember zoou and ho. c/]z1u of 1S 0ecember zooz.
1u6. See irtcr clic: kecommendatlon zu (1S1) 1, on Jisrrinircticr cccirst hcncscxcls, adopted the 1 0ctober
1S1; kecommendatlon 1u/o (zooo) of the Parllamentary Assembly on sitcticr cf ccvs crJ lcsbicrs
crJ thcir pcrtrcrs ir rcspcrt cf csvln crJ innicrcticr ir thc ncnbcr Stctcs cf thc Ccrril cf Frcpc;
kecommendatlon 1u/u (zooo) of the Parllamentary Assembly on sitcticr cf lcsbicrs crJ ccvs ir Ccrril
cf Frcpc ncnbcr Stctcs; kecommendatlon 16c (zoo) of the Parllamentary Assembly on lcsbicrs crJ
ccvs ir spcrt.
1u/. kesolutlon A0]kFS. zuc (XXXvlll-0]oS) of lune zooS.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u o
have expllcltly lnteerated sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty ln the llst of prohlb-
lted erounds of dlscrlmlnatlon.
1uS
Leelslatlve work wlthln the Furopean unlon has taken a number of leelslatlve steps
to combat dlscrlmlnatlon based on sexual orlentatlon. Artlcle 1 of the 1/ 1rcctv
cf AnstcrJcn empowered Member States of the Furopean Communlty to "take
approprlate actlon to combat dlscrlmlnatlon based on sex, raclal or ethnlc orleln,
rellelon or bellef, dlsablllty, aee or sexual orlentatlon".
1u
Thls led to the Fmployment
0lrectlve of zooo
1co
that oblleed all member States to lntroduce leelslatlon bannlne
dlscrlmlnatlon ln employment on a number of erounds, lncludlne sexual orlentatlon,
by 0ecember zoo. 0lrectlve zoou]cS]FC of the Furopean Parllament
1c1
llsted sexual
orlentatlon amone the prohlblted erounds for dlscrlmlnatlon. Staff keeulatlons of
offclals for the Furopean Communltles provldes: "'o]ffclals shall be entltled to equal
treatment under these Staff keeulatlons wlthout reference, dlrect or lndlrect, to '.]
sex or sexual orlentatlon, wlthout pre|udlce to the relevant provlslons requlrlne a
speclfc marltal status".
1cz
The Frcpccr Arrcst wcrrcrt
1c
preamble states, "'t]hls
Framework 0eclslon respects fundamental rlehts and observes the prlnclples recoe-
nlzed by Artlcle 6 of the Treaty on Furopean unlon and refected ln the Charter of
Fundamental klehts of the Furopean unlon, ln partlcular Chapter vl thereof. hothlne
ln thls Framework 0eclslon may be lnterpreted as prohlbltlne refusal to surrender a
person for whom a Furopean arrest warrant has been lssued when there are reasons
to belleve, on the basls of ob|ectlve elements, that the sald arrest warrant has been
lssued for the purpose of prosecutlne or punlshlne a person on the erounds of hls or
her '.] sexual orlentatlon".
1cu
ln the Chcrtcr cf FrJcncrtcl kichts cf thc Frcpccr
uricr,
1cc
Artlcle z1 (1) on "hon-dlscrlmlnatlon" states that, "dlscrlmlnatlon based
on any eround such as sex, race, colour, ethnlc or soclal orleln, eenetlc features,
laneuaee, rellelon or bellef, polltlcal or any other oplnlon, membershlp of a natlonal
1uS. See irtcr clic: the Prlnclples and 8est Practlces on the Protectlon of Persons 0eprlved of Llberty ln the
Amerlcas, approved by the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts ln zooS; the lbero-Amerlcan
Conventlon on oune People's klehts (entered lnto force ln zooS); Charter of Fundamental klehts of the
Furopean unlon (Artlcle z1.1); and the Councll Framework 0eclslon on the Furopean arrest warrant and the
surrender procedures between Member States, adopted by the Councll of the Furopean unlon on 1 lune
zooz.
1u. See http:]]europa.eu.lnt]eur-lex]en]treatles]dat]amsterdam.html#ooo1o1ooo1
1co. Councll 0lrectlve zooo]/S]FCof z/ hovember zooo cstcblishirc c ccrcrcl frcncwcrk fcr cccl
trcctncrt ir cnplcvncrt crJ crrpcticr. See http:]]europa.eu.lnt]eur-lex]prl]en]o|]dat]zooo]l_o]
l_ozooo1zozenoo16oozz.pdf
1c1. 0lrectlve zoou]cS]FC of the Furopean Parllament and of the Councll, of z Aprll zoou, on thc richt cf
ritizcrs cf thc uricr crJ thcir fcnilv ncnbcrs tc ncvc crJ rcsiJc frcclv withir thc tcrritcrv cf thc Mcnbcr
Stctcs.
1cz. Councll keeulatlon (FC, FCSC, Furatom) ho /S1]S of / Aprll 1S (0l 1S L 11, p. u; 'the Staff keeulatlons,"
Artlcle 1a (1)).
1c. Ccrril Frcncwcrk 0crisicr cr thc Frcpccr crrcst wcrrcrt crJ thc srrcrJcr prcrcJrcs bctwccr Mcnbcr
Stctcs, adopted by the Councll of the Furopean unlon on 1 lune zooz.
1cu. Preamble, para. 1z.
1cc. As slened and proclalmed by the Presldents of the Furopean Parllament, the Councll and the Commlsslon
at the Furopean Councll meetlne ln hlce on / 0ecember zooo.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1
mlnorlty, property, blrth, dlsablllty, aee or sexual orlentatlon shall be prohlblted".
These lnstruments cement the norms set fourth ln the Frcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr
hncr kichts and mandates States wlshlne to |oln the Furopean unlon to lntroduce
leelslatlon bannlne dlscrlmlnatlon ln employment based on sexual orlentatlon. ln
addltlon, lt overwhelmlnely relnforces antl-dlscrlmlnatlon based on sexual orlenta-
tlon wlthln the Furopean human rlehts system.
There ls also proeresslve leelslatlon ln the lnter-Amerlcan human rlehts system. The
Prirriplcs crJ 8cst Prcrtircs cr thc Prctcrticr cf Pcrscrs 0cprivcJ cf libcrtv ir thc
Ancrircs, adopted by the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts ln March
zooS, states, "'u]nder no clrcumstances shall persons deprlved of llberty be dlscrlml-
nated aealnst for reasons of '.] sexual orlentatlon".
1c6
The ArJccr Chcrtcr fcr thc
Prcncticr crJ Prctcrticr cf hncr kichts
1c/
lncludes sexual orlentatlon on the llst
of prohlblted erounds for dlscrlmlnatlon. The lbcrc-Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr crc
Pccplcs kichts, adopted ln zooc and entered lnto force ln zooS, lncludes sexual
orlentatlon ln the prohlblted erounds of dlscrlmlnatlon and protects the rleht of the
youne people to have thelr own ldentlty and personallty, lncludlne thelr sexual orlen-
tatlon.
1cS
0urlne the preparatory process for the wcrlJ Ccrfcrcrrc cccirst kcrisn,
kcricl 0isrrinircticr, Xcrcphcbic crJ kclctcJ lrtclcrcrrc (0urban, zoo1), the
Amerlcan States adopted a 0eclaratlon and Plan of Actlon on c-/ 0ecember zooo ln
Santlaeo, Chlle, whlch reaffrmed the prohlbltlon of dlscrlmlnatlon based on sexual
orlentatlon erounds and ureed States "to elve prlorlty to promotlne and protectlne
the full and equal en|oyment by women and men of all human rlehts and funda-
mental freedoms wlthout dlstlnctlon of any klnd 'such as] sexual orlentatlon".
1c
The evolutlon of lnternatlonal refueee law on has been lllustratlve ln constructlne
"sexual orlentatlon" as a protected cateeory ln lnternatlonal law. Sexual orlentatlon
has been lncreaslnely used as a basls to fnd a "partlcular soclal eroup" permls-
slble for protectlon under refueee law.
16o
Professor lames C. hathaway has proposed
the lnter-relatlonshlp between the fve recoenlsed erounds of persecutlon and the
notlon of clvll and polltlcal rlehts, and the ratlonale for dlscernlne cateeorles of
protectlon:
"1hc ncJcrr rcfccc Jcfiriticr ccvc vcirc tc this prcnisc bv ncvirc
cwcv frcn prctcrticr cr thc bcsis cf rcncJ, ncrcirclizcJ crcps, crJ
tcwcrJ c ncrc ccrcrir fcrnlcticr cf thc ncnbcrship prirriplc. Civcr thc
prcvcilirc princrv cf thc rivil crJ pclitircl pcrcJicn cf hncr richts, it wcs
1c6. Prlnclple ll Fcclitv crJ rcr-Jisrrinircticr.
1c/. Artlcle 1o of the Andean Communlty (lnteerated by 8ollvla, Colombla, Fcuador, Peru and venezuela) have
adopted on z6 luly zooz the Andean Charter for the promotlon and Protectlon of human klehts (slened by
the Presldents of 8ollvla, Colombla, Fcuador, Peru and venezuela).
1cS. Artlcles c ("Prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon") and 1u (1) ("kleht to the ldentlty and personallty") respectlvely
of the lbcrc-Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr crc Pccplcs kichts.
1c. See uh 0ocument wCk]kC0hF]SAhT]zooo]L.1]kev.u of zo 0ecember zooo, para. 1u.
16o. See eenerally, Chapter vlll on Asylum and kefuee.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u z
rcrtcxtcllv lccircl thct ncrcirclizcticr shclJ bc JcfircJ bv rcfcrcrrc
tc rcrns cf rcr-Jisrrinircticr: c rcfccc wcs JcfircJ cs c pcrscr ct risk
cf scrics hcrn fcr rccscrs cf rcrc, rclicicr, rcticrclitv, ncnbcrship cf c
pcrtirlcr scricl crcp, cr pclitircl cpiricr. 1hc rcticrclc fcr this linitcticr
wcs rct thct cthcr pcrscrs wcrc lcss ct risk, bt wcs rcthcr thct, ct lccst
ir thc rcrtcxt cf thc histcrircl ncncrt, pcrscrs cffcrtcJ bv thcsc fcrns
cf frJcncrtcl scric-pclitircl Jisfrcrrhiscncrt wcrc lcss likclv tc bc ir c
pcsiticr tc scck cffcrtivc rcJrcss frcn withir thc Stctc".
161
o.: 1he Uk Buman Rights 1reaty edies and Uk 5pecia| Precedures
en Buman Rights
The uh human klehts Treaty 8odles have dlscerned sexual orlentatlon as a cateeory
for protectlon aealnst dlscrlmlnatlon and equallty before the law.
The human klehts Commlttee has affrmed that the reference to "equal and effectlve
protectlon aealnst dlscrlmlnatlon on any eround such as race, colour, sex, laneuaee,
rellelon, polltlcal or other oplnlon, natlonal or soclal orleln, property, blrth or other
status" ln Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk lncludes dlscrlmlnatlon on erounds of sexual
orlentatlon.
16z
The Commlttee on Fconomlc, Soclal and Cultural klehts had stated that, "'b]y vlrtue
of artlcle z.z and artlcle 'the lnternatlonal Covenant on Fconomlc, Soclal and
Cultural klehts] proscrlbes any dlscrlmlnatlon ln access to health care and underlylne
determlnants of health, as well as to means and entltlements for thelr procurement,
on the erounds of '.] health status (lncludlne hlv]Al0S), sexual orlentatlon '.]
whlch has the lntentlon or effect of nulllfylne or lmpalrlne the equal en|oyment or
exerclse of the rleht to health".
16
The Commlttee Aealnst Torture has consldered that the sexual orlentatlon ls one
of the prohlblted erounds lncluded ln the prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon.
16u
The
Commlttee on the klehts of the Chlld has llsted sexual orlentatlon amone the prohlb-
lted erounds of dlscrlmlnatlon ln lts 0eneral Comments reeardlne adolescent health,
hlv]Al0S and the rlehts of the chlld.
16c
161. lames C hathaway, 1hc lcw cf kcfccc Stcts, 8utterworth's, Toronto, 11, p. 16.
16z. human klehts Commlttee: vlews of 1 March 1u, Case of Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v. Astrclic, Communlcatlon
ho. uSS]1z, paras. S.z-S./. See also: vlews of 6 Aueust zoo, Case of FJwcrJ crc v. Astrclic,
Communlcatlon ho. u1]zooo, para. 1o.u; and vlews of o March zoo/, Case of X v. Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon
ho. 161]zooc, para. /.z.
16. Commlttee on Fconomlc, Soclal and Cultural klehts, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1o: 1hc richt tc thc hichcst
cttcircblc stcrJcrJ cf hcclth (Artirlc 12|, para. 1S. See also, Commlttee on Fconomlc, Soclal and Cultural
klehts, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1<: 1hc richt tc wctcr, para. 1.
16u. Commlttee Aealnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2: lnplcncrtcticr cf Artirlc 2 bv Stctcs pcrtics, paras.
z1 & zz.
16c. Commlttee on the klehts of the Chlld, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. o: AJclcsrcrt hcclth, para. 6 and Ccrcrcl
Ccnncrt Nc. , hlv/Al0S crJ thc richts cf thc rhilJ., para. S.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw
lurlsprudence of the human klehts Commlttee has proeresslvely become more open
to uslne dlscrlmlnatlon, based on sexual orlentatlon, under Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk
as 'other status'. Prevlously lt had refralned from uslne Artlcle z6, when lt could rule
on dlscrlmlnatlon under Artlcle z.1 under en|oyment of rlehts wlthout dlscrlmlna-
tlon. ln the 1u case of 1ccrcr v. Astrclic,
166
the human klehts Commlttee held
that laws crlmlnallslne homosexuallty constltuted an unlawful lnterference wlth
the rleht to prlvacy, protected and euaranteed by Artlcle 1/ of the lCCPk, and the
euarantee to en|oy the rleht under Artlcle z.1. Toonen was a eay Australlan cltlzen,
resldent ln the State of Tasmanla. he areued that sectlons 1zz
16/
and 1z
16S
of the
Tasmanla Crlmlnal Code charelne unnatural sexual lntercourse and lndecent prac-
tlce between males vlolated hls rlehts: not to be dlscrlmlnated (Artlcle z(1) of the
lCCPk), to prlvacy (Artlcle 1/ of the lCCPk) and to equal protectlon under the law
wlthout any dlscrlmlnatlon (Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk). The Commlttee found a vlola-
tlon of Artlcle z(1) and 1/(1) but dld not conslder lt necessary to conslder a vlolatlon
of the non-dlscrlmlnatlon provlslon of Artlcle z6. The Commlttee declded that the
en|oyment of the rleht to prlvacy was euaranteed under Artlcle z(1) of the lCCPk and
lnterpreted "sex" ln Artlcle z(1) to lnclude "sexual orlentatlon". 0n the questlon of
whether there was dlscrlmlnatlon, the Commlttee concluded:
"|t]hc Stctc pcrtv hcs sccht thc Ccnnittccs ciJcrrc cs tc whcthcr scxcl
cricrtcticr ncv bc rcrsiJcrcJ cr cthcr stcts fcr thc prpcscs cf crtirlc
26. 1hc scnc issc rclJ crisc rJcr crtirlc 2, pcrccrcph 1, cf thc Ccvcrcrt.
1hc Ccnnittcc rcrfircs itsclf tc rctirc, hcwcvcr, thct ir its vicw thc rcfcr-
crrc tc scx ir crtirlcs 2, pcrccrcph 1, crJ 26 is tc bc tckcr cs irrlJirc
scxcl cricrtcticr".
16
ln assesslne the reasonableness of the retentlon of the laws, the Commlttee re|ected
the Australlan areuments that moral lssues were purely a matter of domestlc
concern. The Commlttee noted the fact that Tasmanla was the only Australlan
State that retalned bueeery laws and that the State Party had conceded both that
a reasonable level of tolerance exlsted towards homosexuallty throuehout the rest
of Australla and the lack of "reasonable and ob|ectlve crlterla" of the contended
provlslons of the Tasmanla crlmlnal code.
lt has been areued that the use of the "other status" provlslon under Artlcles z(1) and
z6 of the lCCPk would have been more satlsfylne, lnstead of an lnterpretatlon that
166. vlews of 1 March 1u, Communlcatlon ho. uSS]1z, Case of Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v. Astrclic, uh 0oc.
CCPk]C]co]0]uSS]1z of u Aprll 1u.
16/. Sectlon 1zz stated that: "Any person who: a) has sexual lntercourse wlth any person aealnst the order of
nature '..] c) consents to a male person havlne sexual lntercourse wlth hlm or her aealnst the order of nature
ls eullty of a crlme".
16S. Sectlon 1z stated that: "Any male person who, elther ln publlc or prlvate, commlts any lndecent assault
upon or other act of eross lndecency wlth another male person, or procures another male person to commlt
any act of eross lndecency upon hlmself or any other male person ls eullty of a crlme".
16. vlews of 1 March 1u, Case of Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v. Astrclic, Jcr. rit., para. S./.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u u
lncludes "sexual orlentatlon" ln the defnltlon of "sex".
1/o
The Commlttee's formula-
tlon mleht have elven undlluted promlnence to the nuance of homosexuallty and the
partlcular concerns that lt presents for protectlon under the lCCPk. The dlstlnctly
separate treatment of "sex" and "sexual orlentatlon" ln other lnstruments
1/1
lndl-
cates that the cateeorles of "sex" and "sexual orlentatlon" have en|oyed dlstlnctly
separate meanlnes ln lnternatlonal law. lt may be noteworthy that the Commlttee
dld not proceed to fnd dlscrlmlnatlon under Artlcle z6 of the Covenant, whlch may
have further affrmed the eenus of "sexual orlentatlon" as amenable to protectlon
from dlscrlmlnatlon.
The subsequent |urlsprudence relatlne to sexual orlentatlon ln the unlted hatlons
has proeressed away from the 1ccrcr formulatlon ln clalmlne protectlon for the
cateeory of sexual orlentatlon ln lnternatlonal human rlehts law under 'sex' rather
than 'other status'. ln crc v. Astrclic,
1/z
Mr. oune applled for a war veteran's
dependant penslon. The Federal 0epartment of veteran Affalrs refused to conslder
hls appllcatlon because hls partner of S years was also male. The relevant law
stated that to be a "member of a couple" the persons must be "of the opposlte sex".
Mr. oune complalned that he was belne dlscrlmlnated on the erounds of hls sexual
orlentatlon. The human klehts Commlttee found that the State Party had vlolated
Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk by denylne the author a penslon on the basls of hls sex or
sexual orlentatlon.
1/
The Commlttee recalled lts earller |urlsprudence that the prohl-
bltlon aealnst dlscrlmlnatlon under Artlcle z6 also comprlsed dlscrlmlnatlon based
on sexual orlentatlon. whlle notlne that not every dlstlnctlon amounted to prohlb-
lted dlscrlmlnatlon under the lCCPk, the Commlttee observed that the State Party
had provlded no areuments on how thls dlstlnctlon between same-sex partners,
who are excluded from penslon benefts under law, and unmarrled heterosexual
1/o. See Sarah loseph, "0ay klehts under the lCCPk-Commentary on Toonen v. Australla", ln urivcrsitv cf
1csncric lcw kcvicw, vol. 1, ho. z, 1u; Anna Funder, "The Toonen Case", ln Pblir lcw kcvicw, vol. c,
1u; wayne Morean, "ldentlfylne Fvll for what lt ls: Tasmanla, Sexual Perverslty and the unlted hatlons",
ln Mclbcrrc urivcrsitv lcw kcvicw, vol. 1, 1u.
1/1. Fxplanatory keport of the Steerlne Commlttee for human klehts (C00h) of Artlcle 1 Protocol 1z of the
Conventlon for the Protectlon of human klehts and Fundamental Freedoms whlch speaks about "sexual
orlentatlon" as a prohlblted cateeory at http:]]www.humanrlehts.coe.lnt] Prot1z] Protocol%zo1z%zo
and%zoFxp%zokep.htm. See para. zo of the Fxplanatory keport: "1hc list cf rcr-Jisrrinircticr crcrJs
ir Artirlc 1 is iJcrtircl tc thct ir Artirlc 1o cf thc Ccrvcrticr. 1his sclticr wcs rcrsiJcrcJ prcfcrcblc cvcr
cthcrs, srh cs cxprcsslv irrlJirc rcrtcir cJJiticrcl rcr-Jisrrinircticr crcrJs (fcr cxcnplc, phvsircl
cr ncrtcl Jiscbilitv, scxcl cricrtcticr cr ccc|, rct bcrcsc cf c lcrk cf cwcrcrcss thct srh crcrJs hcvc
bcrcnc pcrtirlcrlv inpcrtcrt ir tcJcvs scrictics cs rcnpcrcJ with thc tinc cf Jrcftirc cf Artirlc 1o cf thc
Ccrvcrticr, bt bcrcsc srh cr irrlsicr wcs rcrsiJcrcJ rrcrcsscrv frcn c lcccl pcirt cf vicw sirrc
thc list cf rcr-Jisrrinircticr crcrJs is rct cxhcstivc, crJ bcrcsc irrlsicr cf crv pcrtirlcr cJJi-
ticrcl crcrJ nicht civc risc tc rwcrrcrtcJ c rcrtrcric irtcrprctcticrs cs rcccrJs Jisrrinircticr bcscJ
cr crcrJs rct sc irrlJcJ. lt is rcrcllcJ thct thc Frcpccr Ccrt cf hncr kichts hcs clrccJv cpplicJ
Artirlc 1o ir rclcticr tc Jisrrinircticr crcrJs rct cxpliritlv ncrticrcJ ir thct prcvisicr (scc, fcr cxcnplc,
cs rcrrcrrs thc crcrJ cf scxcl cricrtcticr, thc jJcncrt cf 21 0crcnbcr 1 ir thc rcsc cf Sclccirc
Jc Silvc Mctc v. Pcrtccl|". Thls dlscusslon takes place dlstlnctly apart from under the rubrlc of "sex,"
whlch also exlsts as a separate cateeory ln the FChk.
1/z. vlew of 6 Aueust zoo, Case of FJwcrJ crc v. Astrclic, Communlcatlon ho. u1]zooo, uh 0oc. CCPk]
C]/S]0]u1]zooo, 1S September, zoo.
1/. lbiJ., para. 1o.u.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw c
partners, who are eranted such benefts, was reasonable and ob|ectlve, hor had lt
provlded evldence whlch would polnt to the exlstence of factors |ustlfylne such a
dlstlnctlon. Consequently, the Commlttee found that the State Party had vlolated
Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk by denylne the author a penslon on the basls of hls sex or
sexual orlentatlon.
The human klehts Commlttee declded slmllarly ln the case of X v. Cclcnbic.
1/u
The
Commlttee polnted out that, "the prohlbltlon aealnst dlscrlmlnatlon under artlcle z6
comprlses also dlscrlmlnatlon based on sexual orlentatlon, 'and that] dlfferences ln
beneft entltlements between marrled couples and heterosexual unmarrled couples
were reasonable and ob|ectlve, as the couples ln questlon had the cholce to marry
or not, wlth all the ensulne consequences".
1/c
The Commlttee has concluded that
"the vlctlm of a vlolatlon of artlcle z6, ls entltled to an effectlve remedy, lncludlne
reconslderatlon of hls request for a penslon wlthout dlscrlmlnatlon on erounds of
sex or sexual orlentatlon".
1/6
The uh Speclal Procedures on human klehts have pronounced on the questlon of
rlehts of non-dlscrlmlnatlon and to be equal before the law ln relatlon to dlscrlml-
natlon ln relatlon to sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty. The uh worklne 0roup
on Arbltrary 0etentlon, ln expresslne lts vlews on homosexuals who are detalned
or elven prlson sentences solely because of thelr sexual orlentatlon oplned that
"detentlon 'ls] arbltrary because lt vlolate's] artlcles z (1) and z6 of the 'lCCPk]
whlch euarantee's] equallty before the law and the rleht to equal leeal protectlon
aealnst all forms of dlscrlmlnatlon, lncludlne that based on sex".
1//
The worklne
0roup based thls oplnlon on the uh human klehts Commlttee's statement that the
"reference to 'sex' ln artlcles z, paraeraph 1 and z6 ls to be taken as lncludlne sexual
orlentatlon".
1/S
ln a declslon concernlne cc persons arrested on the erounds of thelr
sexual orlentatlon, the worklne 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon has consldered that
the "detentlon of '.] persons prosecuted on the erounds that, by thelr sexual orlen-
tatlon, they lnclted 'soclal dlssentlon' constltutes an arbltrary deprlvatlon of llberty,
belne ln contraventlon of the provlslons of artlcle z, paraeraph 1, of the unlversal
0eclaratlon of human klehts, and artlcles z, paraeraph 1, and z6 of the lnternatlonal
Covenant on Clvll and Polltlcal klehts".
1/
ln a later declslon concernlne 11 persons
1/u. vlews of 1 lanuary zoo1, Case of X v. Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon ho. 161]zooc, uh 0oc. CCPk]
C]S]0]161]zooc of 1u May zoo/.
1/c. lbiJ., para. /.z.
1/6. lbiJ., para. .
1//. keport of the worklne 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon, uh 0oc. F]Ch.u]zoou], of 1c 0ecember zoo, para.
/.
1/S. lbiJ. See also worklne 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon, 0plnlon ho /]zooz (Feypt), para. z/, ln uh 0oc. F]
Ch.u]zoo]S]Add.1.
1/. worklne 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon, 0plnlon ho /]zooz (Feypt) of z1 lune zooz, para. zS, ln uh 0oc. F]
Ch.u]zoo]S]Add.1.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 6
detalned for thelr sexual orlentatlon and prosecuted under an antl-sodomy law, the
worklne 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon has stated that:
"Fvcr sirrc thc hncr kichts Ccnnittcc cJcptcJ its vicw ir 1ccrcr v.
Astrclic crJ itsclf cJcptcJ its 0piricr ;/2cc2 (Fcvpt|, thc wcrkirc Crcp
hcs fcllcwcJ thc lirc tckcr ir thcsc rcscs. 1hct nccrs thct thc cxistcrrc
cf lcws rrinirclizirc hcncscxcl bchcvicr bctwccr rcrscrtirc cJlts ir
privctc crJ thc cpplircticr cf rrinircl pcrcltics cccirst pcrscrs crrscJ
cf srh bchcvicr viclctc thc richts tc privcrv crJ frccJcn frcn Jisrrini-
rcticr sct fcrth ir thc lrtcrrcticrcl Ccvcrcrt cr Civil crJ Pclitircl kichts.
Ccrscccrtlv, thc wcrkirc Crcp rcrsiJcrs . thc rrinirclizcticr cf hcnc-
scxclitv ir Ccncrccricr lcw irrcnpctiblc with crtirlcs 1; crJ 26 cf thc
lrtcrrcticrcl Ccvcrcrt cr Civil crJ Pclitircl kichts, whirh irstrncrt
Ccncrccr hcs rctificJ."
1So
o.z 1he urepean Ceurt eI Buman Rights and nen-discriminatien
ln the perlod around the 0Jcccr case
1S1
, the Furopean Court of human klehts
seemed unwllllne to formulate a broader scope for eay rlehts beyond challenelne
penal laws wlth the use of the rleht to prlvacy provlslon.
1Sz
lt was ln 1 that the
Furopean Court expressed a broader role for the rleht to prlvacy and non-dlscrlm-
lnatlon, ln the twln cases of lstic-Prccr crJ 8crkctt v. uritcJ kircJcn
1S
and
Snith crJ CrcJv v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn.
1Su
ln Snith crJ CrcJv, the Furopean
Court oplned, that "the questlon for the Court ls whether the above-noted neea-
tlve attltudes constltute suffclent |ustlfcatlon for the lnterferences at lssue. The
Court observes from the keport of the hPAT 'hcncscxcl Pclirv Asscssncrt 1ccn]
that these attltudes, even lf slncerely felt by those who expressed them, raneed
from stereotyplcal expresslons of hostlllty to those of homosexual orlentatlon, to
vaeue expresslons of unease about the presence of homosexual colleaeues. To the
extent that they represent a predlsposed blas on the part of a heterosexual ma|orlty
aealnst a homosexual mlnorlty, these neeatlve attltudes cannot, of themselves, be
consldered by the Court to amount to suffclent |ustlfcatlon for the lnterferences
wlth the appllcants' rlehts outllned above any more than "slmllar neeatlve attltudes
towards those of a dlfferent race, orleln or colour".
1Sc
uslne Artlcle S of the Frcpccr
Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts, the Court struck down laws that excluded eays and
1So. 0plnlon ho zz]zoo6 (Cameroon) of 1 Aueust zoo6, para. 1, ln uh 0oc. A]hkC]u]uo]Add.1.
1S1. See sectlon c, The movement towards recoenltlon, Chapter l.
1Sz. The Furopean Court of human klehts conslstently refused to pronounce on areuments of dlscrlmlnatlon
based on dlfferent aees of consent between homosexuals and heterosexuals ln the cases of 0Jcccr v.
uritcJ kircJcn (18|, Ncrris v. lrclcrJ (1SS), and McJircs v. Cvprs (1).
1S. ludement of z/ September 1 (Flnal z/ 0ecember 1), Case of lstic-Prccr crJ 8crkctt v. uritcJ
kircJcn, Appllcatlons ho. 1u1/]6 and z//]6.
1Su. ludement of z/ September 1, Case of Snith crJ CrcJv v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlons ho. Sc]6
and S6]6.
1Sc. lbiJ., para. /.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw /
lesblans from the mllltary and opened up an lnterpretatlon of prlvacy that envlsaeed
the publlc manlfestatlons of the eay experlence. The Court framed lts reasonlne as
follows:
"|t]hc Ccrt rcrsiJcrs thct, ir thc rirrnstcrrcs cf thc prcscrt rcsc, thc
cpplircrts rcnplcirts thct thcv wcrc JisrrinirctcJ cccirst cr crcrJs cf
thcir scxcl cricrtcticr bv rccscr cf thc cxistcrrc crJ cpplircticr cf thc
pclirv cf thc Miristrv cf 0cfcrrc, cncrts ir cffcrt tc thc scnc rcnplcirt,
clbcit sccr frcn c Jiffcrcrt crclc, thct thc Ccrt hcs clrccJv rcrsiJcrcJ ir
rclcticr tc Artirlc 8 cf thc Ccrvcrticr".
1S6
The Furopean Court ln Sclccirc Jc Silvc Mctc v. Pcrtccl expressly affrmed
"sexual orlentatlon" as a prohlblted cateeory of dlscrlmlnatlon, strlklne down a decl-
slon of a Portueuese court that dlspossessed a father of hls custody rlehts because
he was eay.
1S/
The Furopean Court declded that "the appllcant's homosexuallty was
a factor whlch was declslve ln the fnal declslon. That concluslon ls supported by
the fact that the Court of Appeal, when rullne on the appllcant's rleht to contact,
warned hlm not to adopt conduct whlch mleht make the chlld reallze that her father
was llvlne wlth another man 'ln condltlons resembllne those of man and wlfe'".
1SS

The Furopean Court concluded that that:
"thcrc wcs c Jiffcrcrrc cf trcctncrt |.] bcscJ cr thc cpplircrts scxcl
cricrtcticr, c rcrrcpt whirh is rJcbtcJlv rcvcrcJ bv Artirlc 1o cf thc
Ccrvcrticr. 1hc Ccrt rcitcrctcs ir thct rcrrcrticr thct thc list sct ct ir
thct prcvisicr is illstrctivc crJ rct cxhcstivc, cs is shcwr bv thc wcrJs
crv crcrJ srh cs (ir Frcrrh rctcnncrt|".
1S
ln the case of S.l. v. Astric before the Furopean Court, the appllcant alleeed that
the malntenance of Artlcle zo of the Austrlan Crlmlnal Code, whlch penallsed
homosexual acts of adult men wlth consentlne adolescents between fourteen
and elehteen years of aee, vlolated hls rleht to respect for hls prlvate llfe and was
dlscrlmlnatory. The Furopean Court noted that Parllament, ln lts conslderatlon of
sclentlfc evldence ln favour of equal aee of consent for both heterosexuals and
homosexuals, had re|ected the notlon that "male adolescents were 'recrulted' lnto
homosexuallty". The Court reasoned that:
"|t]c thc cxtcrt thct Artirlc 2c cf thc Crinircl CcJc cnbcJicJ c prcJis-
pcscJ bics cr thc pcrt cf c hctcrcscxcl ncjcritv cccirst c hcncscxcl
nircritv, thcsc rccctivc cttitJcs rcrrct cf thcnsclvcs bc rcrsiJcrcJ bv
thc Ccrt tc cncrt tc sffiricrt jstifircticr fcr thc Jiffcrcrticl trcctncrt
1S6. lstic-Prccr crJ 8crkctt v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn, Jcr. rit., para. 1oS.
1S/. ludement of z1 0ecember 1 (flnal z1 March zooo), Case of SclccirJc Jc Silvc Mctc v. Pcrtccl,
Appllcatlon ho. zo]6.
1SS. lbiJ., para. c.
1S. lbiJ., para. zS.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u S
crv ncrc thcr sinilcr rccctivc cttitJcs tcwcrJs thcsc cf c Jiffcrcrt rcrc,
cricir cr rclcr".
1o
ln the case of CccJwir v. uritcJ kircJcn, the Court has slenlfcantly advanced
questlons of eender ldentlty. The appllcant alleeed vlolatlons of Artlcles S (rleht to
prlvacy), 1z (rleht to marry), 1 (rleht to remedy) and 1u (non-dlscrlmlnatlon) of the
Frcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts ln respect of the leeal status of transsexuals
ln the unlted Klnedom and partlcularly thelr treatment ln the sphere of employment,
soclal securlty, penslons and marrlaee. After fndlne vlolatlons of Artlcles S and 1z,
the Court concluded that no separate lssue arose under Artlcle 1u.
11
Slmllarly, ln the case of vcr kbrk v. Ccrncrv,
1z
the Court decllned to conslder a
vlolatlon of Artlcles 6 and S ln con|unctlon wlth 1u, ln respect of an lnvaslve court
lnqulry of whether the appllcant eenulnely requlred eender reasslenment sureery
that |ustlfed relmbursement clalms. The Court declded that the lssues were
adequately dealt wlth by Artlcle S of the Conventlon.
o. 1he tnter-American 5ystem eI Buman Rights
Llke other lnternatlonal human rlehts lnstruments, there are no expllclt references
to "sexual orlentatlon" or "eender ldentlty" ln the human rlehts lnstruments of the
lnter-Amerlcan system,
1
wlth the exceptlon of the Prirriplcs crJ 8cst Prcrtircs
cr thc Prctcrticr cf Pcrscrs 0cprivcJ cf libcrtv ir thc Ancrircs. however, ln
lts AJviscrv 0piricr cr thc lriJircl CcrJiticr crJ kichts cf thc urJcrncrtcJ
Micrcrts, the lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts has polnted out that "'l]t ls
perfectly posslble, besldes belne deslrable, to turn attentlons to all the areas of
dlscrlmlnatory human behavlour, lncludlne those whlch have so far been lenored or
neelected at lnternatlonal level (e.e., irtcr clic, soclal status, lncome, medlcal state,
aee, sexual orlentatlon, amone others)".
1u
The lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts has started to address thls
lssue. ln the frst case on human rlehts and sexual orlentatlon ln the lnter-Amerlcan
system, Mcrtc lric lvcrcz CirclJc v. Cclcnbic, a petltlon concernlne an lnmate
at a women's prlson who was denled the rleht to lntlmate vlslts wlth her same-sex
partner, the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon declded to admlt the petltlon because lt
found that, "ln prlnclple, the clalm of the petltloner refers to facts that could lnvolve,
irtcr clic, a vlolatlon of Artlcle 11(z) of the Amerlcan Conventlon ln so far as they
1o. ludement of lanuary zoo (flnal Aprll zoo), Case of S.l v. Astric, Appllcatlon ho. uco], para.
uu.
11. ludement of 11 luly zooz, Case of Christirc CccJwir v. uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho. zSc/]c.
1z. ludement of 1z lune zoo, Case of vcr krk v. Ccrncrv, Appllcatlon ho. c6S]/.
1. See irtcr clic, Artlcle ll of the Amerlcan 0eclaratlon on the klehts and 0utles of Man; Artlcles 1(1) and zu of
the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts; Artlcle of the lnter-Amerlcan 0emocratlc Charter; Prlnclple z
of the 0eclaratlon of Prlnclples on Freedom of Fxpresslon.
1u. Advlsory 0plnlon 0C-1S]o, lriJircl CcrJiticr crJ kichts cf thc urJcrncrtcJ Micrcrts, of 1/ September
zoo, Serles A ho. 1S, para. 6.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw
could constltute an arbltrary or abuslve lnterference wlth her prlvate llfe".
1c
The
lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon has polnted out that the crlmlnallzatlon of homosexu-
allty and deprlvatlon of llberty slmply because of sexual preference ls a practlce
"contrary to the provlslons of varlous artlcles of the Amerlcan Conventlon and must
therefore be corrected".
16
8ased on the prlnclple of equallty and non-dlscrlmlnatlon,
and taklne lnto account that "'s]exual preference ls lncluded as a cateeory as lt ls
encompassed by the very concept of sex", the Speclal kapporteurshlp on Mlerant
workers and thelr Famllles of the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts has
consldered that mleratlon pollcy cannot dlscrlmlnate for reasons of "sexual prefer-
ence" (sexual orlentatlon).
1/
o.o 1he Ceurt eI Iustice eI the urepean Cemmunities
The Court of lustlce of the Furopean Communltles (the Furopean Court of lustlce)
has also addressed the questlon of sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty. ln lts
ludement of the Ccnnissicr cf thc Frcpccr Ccnnritics v. FcJcrcl kcpblir cf
Ccrncrv,
1S
the Court declared that, by falllne to adopt all the laws, reeulatlons
and admlnlstratlve provlslons necessary to comply wlth Councll 0lrectlve zooo]/S]
FC of z/ hovember zooo establlshlne a eeneral framework for equal treatment ln
employment and occupatlon, as far as concerns dlscrlmlnatlon based on rellelon or
bellef, dlsablllty and sexual orlentatlon, the Federal kepubllc of 0ermany had falled
to fulfl lts oblleatlons under that dlrectlve.
ln the case of P. v. S. crJ Ccrrwcll Ccrtv Ccrril, the Furopean Court of lustlce
1

held that dlscrlmlnatlon arlslne from eender reasslenment constltuted dlscrlmlna-
tlon on erounds of sex
zoo
and prevented the dlsmlssal of a transsexual for a reason
related to a eender reasslenment. The appllcant had been employed as the eeneral
manaeer of an educatlonal establlshment, operated by the County Councll, and
respondent S was the head of the establlshment. P was taken on as a male employee
but later lnformed S that she was plannlne to have eender reasslenment ln order to
llve as a woman. The appllcant later wrote to S confrmlne that she was to undereo
an operatlon for eender reasslenment. The eovernors of the establlshment were
lnformed and durlne that summer P took slck leave for lnltlal surelcal treatment.
Consequently, she was soon after elven three months' notlce of dlsmlssal and not
permltted to return from slck leave ln her female eender role. The fnal surelcal
1c. Case number 11.6c6, keport ho. /1] (Admlsslblllty) of u May 1, para. z1.
16. lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts, Press release ho. zu]1u.
1/. ScrcrJ Prccrcss rcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcrship cr Micrcrt wcrkcrs crJ thcir Fcnilics ir thc
hcnisphcrc, 0FA]Ser.L]v]ll.111, 0oc. zo rev., 16 Aprll zoo1.
1S. Court (Fourth Chamber), ludement of z February zoo6, Ccnnissicr cf thc Frcpccr Ccnnritics v. FcJcrcl
kcpblir cf Ccrncrv, Case C-u-oc.
1. ludement of o Aprll 16, P. v. S. crJ Ccrrwcll Ccrtv Ccrril, Case C-1]u.
zoo. Councll 0lrectlve /6]zo/]FFC of February 1/6 on the lmplementatlon of the prlnclple of equal treatment
for men and women as reeards access to employment, vocatlonal tralnlne and promotlon and worklne
condltlons (Fqual Treatment 0lrectlve).
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u uo
operatlon took place before the notlce of dlsmlssal had explred. P complalned, and
the Court aereed, that she had been dlscrlmlnated aealnst on erounds of sex. The
Furopean Court of lustlce held that:
"whcrc c pcrscr is JisnisscJ cr thc crcrJ thct hc cr shc irtcrJs tc
rJcrcc cr hcs rJcrccrc ccrJcr rccssicrncrt, hc cr shc is trcctcJ rfc-
vcrcblv bv rcnpcriscr with pcrscrs cf thc scx tc whirh hc cr shc wcs
JccncJ tc bclcrc bcfcrc rJcrccirc ccrJcr rccssicrncrt. 1c tclcrctc srh
Jisrrinircticr wclJ bc tcrtcncrt, cs rcccrJs srh c pcrscr, tc c fcilrc
tc rcspcrt thc Jicritv crJ frccJcn tc whirh hc cr shc is crtitlcJ crJ whirh
thc Ccrt hcs c Jtv tc scfcccrJ".
zo1
ln the case of Scrch Mcrccrct kirhcrJs v. Scrrctcrv cf Stctc fcr wcrk crJ Pcrsicrs,
zoz

the appllcant was born on zS February 1uz and her blrth certlfcate reelstered her
eender as male. havlne been dlaenosed as sufferlne from eender dysphorla, she
underwent eender reasslenment sureery on May zoo1. 0n 1u February zooz she
applled to the Secretary of State for work and Penslons for a retlrement penslon to
be pald from zS February zooz, the date on whlch she turned 6o, the aee at whlch,
under natlonal law, a woman born before 6 Aprll 1co ls ellelble to recelve a retlre-
ment penslon. 8y declslon of 1z March zooz, the appllcatlon was refused on the
eround that 'the clalm was made more than u years before the clalmant reaches aee
6c", whlch ls the retlrement aee for men ln the unlted Klnedom. The Court consld-
ered whether Councll 0lrectlve /]/]FFC
zo
prohlblted the refusal of a retlrement
penslon to a male-to-female transsexual untll she reached the aee of 6c, thoueh
she would have been entltled to such a penslon at the aee of 6o had she been held
to be a woman as a matter of natlonal law.
The Court clted P. v. S. crJ Ccrrwcll Ccrtv Ccrril and noted that the rleht not
to be dlscrlmlnated aealnst on erounds of sex ls one of the fundamental human
rlehts that the Court had to ensure.
zou
ln determlnlne the scope of Councll 0lrectlve
/]/]FFC, the Court consldered that lt could not be confned to slmply construe
dlscrlmlnatlon based on the fact that a person ls of one or other sex. The scope of
that dlrectlve was also found to be dlscrlmlnatory, arlslne from the eender reasslen-
ment of the person concerned.
zo1. ludement of o Aprll 16, P v S crJ Ccrrwcll Ccrtv Ccrril, Case C-1]u, paras. z1-zz. The Sexual
0lscrlmlnatlon (0ender ke-asslenment) keeulatlons uK 1 were lssued to comply wlth the rullne of the
Furopean Court of lustlce ln P. v. S. crJ Ccrrwcll Ccrtv Ccrril. Thls provldes eenerally that transsexual
persons should not be treated less favourably ln employment because they are transsexual (whether pre- or
post-operatlve).
zoz. ludement of z/ Aprll zoo6, Scrch Mcrccrct kirhcrJs v. Scrrctcrv cf Stctc fcr wcrk crJ Pcrsicrs, Case
C-uz]ou.
zo. Councll 0lrectlve /]/]FFC of 1 0ecember 1/S on the prccrcssivc inplcncrtcticr cf thc prirriplc cf cccl
trcctncrt fcr ncr crJ wcncr ir ncttcrs cf scricl scrritv (See Artlcles u,1 and /,1).
zou. Case C-1]u, Jcr. rit., para. 1.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw u1
The Furopean Court of lustlce also declded that the unequal treatment at lssue ln
the case was Sarah Marearet klchards' lnablllty to have her new eender, acqulred
followlne sureery, recoenlsed and consequently obtaln a penslon under the Pcrsicrs
Art cf 1<. 8y not recoenlslne her eender, when she reached the retlrement aee of
6o, unllke women whose eender was not the result of eender reasslenment sureery,
klchards was not consldered ellelble for a penslon. The Court consldered the unequal
treatment, to whlch klchards was sub|ect, as dlscrlmlnatory and prohlblted by Artlcle
u(1) of Councll 0lrectlve /]/]FFC.
zoc
The Court also noted that Artlcle u(1) of 0lrectlve /]/]FFC ls to be lnterpreted as
precludlne leelslatlon whlch denles a person who has lawfully undereone male-to-
female eender reasslenment entltlement to a retlrement penslon on the eround that
she has not reached the aee of 6c, when she would have been entltled to such a
penslon at the aee of 6o had she been held to be a woman as a matter of natlonal
law.
lt ls evldent from these cases that the lssue of "eender ldentlty" have been pressed
slenlfcantly wlthln the Furopean Court of lustlce system and notably, under the
rubrlc of dlscrlmlnatlon based on "sex".
o. 1he AIrican Cemmissien en Buman and Peep|es' Rights
The Afrircr Chcrtcr cr hncr crJ Pccplcs kichts (AChPk) observes a scheme
of equallty before the law and equal protectlon of the law ln the same veln as the
urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cf hncr kichts and the lCCPk.
zo6
The framlne of Artlcle zS
of the AChPk ls sllehtly dlfferent from the aforementloned lnstruments as lt lnvokes
a laneuaee of each lndlvldual's duty ln relatlon to other lndlvlduals, rather than a
eeneral "rleht" of non-dlscrlmlnatlon. hevertheless, the basls of all these lnstru-
ments remalns the commltment to equallty before the law and non-dlscrlmlnatlon.
The scope of the "rleht" of non-dlscrlmlnatlon ln the AChPk ls areuably free standlne,
as lt ls ln the lCCPk, and does not only contemplate the non-dlscrlmlnatory appllca-
tlon of rlehts that are provlded for ln the Afrlcan Charter, but confers a free-standlne
zoc. Case C-uz]ou, Jcr. rit.,; see also the case of k.8 v. NhS Accrrv at: http:]]www.pfc.ore.uk]node]61. The
8rltlsh Professor Stephen whlttle has polnted out that: "1hc rcsc cf kirhcrJs rcrfirns thc prcvics rcsc
cf k.8 v. NhS Pcrsicrs Accrrv bt with nrh ncrc rlcritv crJ thcrcfcrc rcrtcirtv." 8oth cases concerned
penslons and they conflrm that any natlonal leelslatlon, or workplace practlce, whlch affords pay related
beneflts based upon sex or marltal status, that results ln a transsexual person who ls permanently llvlne ln
thelr new eender role belne denled beneflts ls, ln prlnclple, lncompatlble wlth the requlrements of Artlcle
1u1 FC. Artlcle 1u1 states that "Fcrh Mcnbcr Stctc shcll crsrc thct thc prirriplc cf cccl pcv fcr nclc crJ
fcnclc wcrkcrs fcr cccl wcrk cr wcrk cf cccl vclc is cpplicJ". 1his is rcccrJlcss cf whcthcr c pcrscr is
cnplcvcJ ir thc pblir cr privctc scrtcr, crJ thc wcrJ "pcv" is brccJlv JcfircJ, tc irrlJc crv rcrsiJcrcticr
whcthcr ir rcsh cr ir kirJ, whirh thc wcrkcr rcrcivcs Jircrtlv cr irJircrtlv, ir rcspcrt cf his cnplcvncrt,
frcn his cnplcvcr"." (http:]]www.pfc.ore.uk]flles]rlchards-analysls.pdf )
zo6. Artlcle of the AChPk states that each lndlvldual shall be "cccl bcfcrc thc lcw" and ls entltled to "cccl
prctcrticr cf thc lcw," whlle Artlcle zS prescrlbes that "cvcrv irJiviJcl shcll hcvc thc Jtv tc rcspcrt crJ
rcrsiJcr his fcllcw bcircs withct Jisrrinircticr, crJ tc ncirtcir rclcticrs cincJ ct prcnctirc, scfc-
ccrJirc crJ rcirfcrrirc ntcl rcspcrt crJ tclcrcrrc".
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u uz
and lndependent rleht aealnst dlscrlmlnatlon. The ordlnary and erammatlcal meanlne
of the dlscrlmlnatlon provlslon ln Artlcle zS envlsaees cateeorles such as "sexual
orlentatlon" and "eender ldentlty" that are not otherwlse speclfcally enumerated ln
the AChPk. Artlcle of the AChPk - whlch confers equallty before the law and equal
protectlon of the law - contemplates protectlon for all, reeardless of sexual orlenta-
tlon. ln addltlon, Artlcle z of the AChPk ensures protectlon for "sexual orlentatlon",
elther by the cateeory of "other status" or ln the defnltlon of "sex".
lt must also be noted that even lf the AChPk acknowledees a rleht to non-dlscrlm-
lnatlon based on sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty, the assertlon of any such
rlehts may be met wlth the correspondlne areument that thls rleht ls llmlted by
Artlcle z/ (z). Thls provlslon stlpulates that rlehts must be exerclsed "wlth due
reeard to the rlehts of others, collectlve securlty, morallty and common lnterest".
havlne ralsed a princ fcric vlolatlon, the onus would then be on the State to demon-
strate that such a rleht ls llmlted or restrlcted ln terms of Artlcle z/ (z). The Afrlcan
Commlsslon has applled a proportlonallty test whlch requlres that such llmltatlons
are "strlctly proportlonate wlth and absolutely necessary for the advantaees that
are to be obtalned" and may not lnterpret the rleht ln a manner that renders lt
meanlneless.
zo/
Murray and vll|oen, ln thelr semlnal artlcle on non-dlscrlmlnatlon
based on sexual orlentatlon and the Afrlcan Commlsslon, clted areuments of Afrlcan
values, ma|orlty morallty and hlv preventlon that may be lnvoked as llmltatlons
on any constructlon of a rleht to non-dlscrlmlnatlon wlthln the AChPk, and offered
reasonlne on how these areuments may be met, elven the aforementloned standards
of proportlonallty.
zoS
ln addltlon, the AChPk lays a clear foundatlon for the |urldlcal constructlon of rlehts
that could concelvably reference treatment ln other human rlehts systems. Artlcle
6o of the AChPk stlpulates that:
"|t]hc Ccnnissicr shcll Jrcw irspircticr frcn irtcrrcticrcl lcw cr hncr
crJ pccplcs richts, pcrtirlcrlv frcn thc prcvisicrs cf vcrics Afrircr irstr-
ncrts cr hncr crJ pccplcs richts, thc Chcrtcr cf thc uritcJ Ncticrs,
thc Chcrtcr cf thc 0rccrizcticr cf Afrircr uritv, thc urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr
cf hncr kichts, cthcr irstrncrts cJcptcJ bv thc uritcJ Ncticrs crJ
bv Afrircr rcrtrics ir thc ficlJ cf hncr crJ pccplcs richts cs wcll cs
frcn thc prcvisicrs cf vcrics irstrncrts cJcptcJ withir thc SpcriclizcJ
Accrrics cf thc uritcJ Ncticrs cf whirh thc Pcrtics tc thc prcscrt Chcrtcr
crc ncnbcrs."
zo/. McJic kichts crJ Arcthcr v. Niccric, Communlcatlon 1oc], 1zS]u, 1o]u and 1cz]6 6-/o(1S).
zoS. See eenerally, kachel Murray and Frans vll|oen, "Towards hon-0lscrlmlnatlon on the 8asls of Sexual
0rlentatlon: The hormatlve 8asls and Procedural Posslbllltles before the Afrlcan Commlsslon on human
and Peoples' klehts and the Afrlcan unlon", ln hncr kichts 0crtcrlv, vol. z, zoo/, pp. S6-111.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw u
ln addltlon Artlcle 61 of the AChPk states:
"|t]hc Ccnnissicr shcll clsc tckc irtc rcrsiJcrcticr, cs sbsiJicrv nccsrcs
tc Jctcrnirc thc prirriplcs cf lcw, cthcr ccrcrcl cr spcricl irtcrrcticrcl
rcrvcrticrs, lcvirc Jcwr rlcs cxprcsslv rcrccrizcJ bv Mcnbcr Stctcs cf
thc 0rccrizcticr cf Afrircr uritv, Afrircr prcrtircs rcrsistcrt with irtcrrc-
ticrcl rcrns cr hncr crJ Pccplcs kichts, rstcns ccrcrcllv crrcptcJ cs
lcw, ccrcrcl prirriplcs cf lcw rcrccrizcJ bv Afrircr Stctcs cs wcll cs lcccl
prcrcJcrts crJ Jcrtrirc."
. Petentia| use eI discriminatery impact in pretectien eI sexua|
erientatien and gender identity
The questlon of whether an outwardly neutral pollcy dlsproportlonately dlsadvan-
taelne a speclfc eroup constltutes lmpermlsslble dlscrlmlnatlon ls unsettled. Thls
ls an lmportant area to human rlehts concernlne S00l. 0ften, vaeue morallty provl-
slons are used aealnst sexual mlnorltles, and statutes such as the bueeery laws,
thoueh they lmpllcate anal sex between a man and a woman, are used dlspropor-
tlonately aealnst eay men.
The tradltlonal vlew ls well expressed ln the Furopean Court of human klehts'
AbJlcziz, Ccbclcs crJ 8clkcrJcli v. uritcJ kircJcn
zo
oplnlon, applylne the
reasonlne ln the 8clcicr lircistir Ccsc
z1o
. The Court there dld not fnd that the laws
ln questlon vlolated Artlcle 1u on the erounds of race and natlonal orleln, as the mere
fact that the laws dlsproportlonately affected 8lacks and Aslans was "not a suffclent
reason to conslder them as raclst ln character: lt ls an effect whlch derlves '.] from
the fact that, amone those wlshlne to lmmlerate, some ethnlc eroups outnumbered
others".
z11
The Court also found that the lmpacts dld not "transeress the prlnclple
of proportlonallty".
z1z
The same loelc was used by the human klehts Commlttee ln a case ln whlch a Slkh
soueht to use the prohlbltlon of rellelous dlscrlmlnatlon under Artlcle 1S of the lCCPk
to obtaln rellef from a Canadlan law requlrlne the use of hardhats ln constructlon
sltes. The Commlttee concluded that the, "leelslatlon whlch, on the face of lt, ls
neutral ln that lt applles to all persons wlthout dlstlnctlon '.] ls |ustlfed by refer-
ence to the erounds lald down ln Artlcle 1S, paraeraph , and 'ls] to be reearded as
reasonable and dlrected towards ob|ectlve purposes that are compatlble wlth the
zo. ludement of zS May 1Sc, Case of AbJlcziz, Ccbclcs crJ 8clkcrJcli v. uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho.
z1u]So, u/]S1 and u/u]S1.
z1o. ludement of z luly 16S, Appllcatlon hos. 1u/u]6z, 16//]6z, 161]6z, 1/6]6, 1u]6 and z1z6]6u.
z11. AbJlcziz, Ccbclcs crJ 8clkcrJcli v. uritcJ kircJcn, Jcr. rit., para. Sc.
z1z. lbiJ., para. SS.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u uu
Covenant"
z1
, desplte the law operatlne ln a way that "ls sald to '.] dlscrlmlnate '.]
aealnst persons of the Slkh rellelon"
z1u
under Artlcle z6.
Furopean |urlsprudence beean to dlveree from the tradltlonal vlew beelnnlne wlth a
serles of employment dlscrlmlnatlon cases. As early as 1S6, the Furopean Court of
lustlce, ln 8ilkc-kcfhcs Cnbh v. kcrir wcbcr vcr hcrtz, found that "'A]rtlcle 11
of the FFC Treaty ls lnfrlneed by a department store company whlch excludes part-
tlme employees from lts occupatlonal penslon scheme, where that excluslon affects
a far ereater number of women than men, unless the undertaklne shows that the
excluslon ls based on ob|ectlvely |ustlfed factors unrelated to any dlscrlmlnatlon on
erounds of sex".
z1c
Thls vlew was codlfed by the Fu parllament ln a palr of Councll
0lrectlves, /]So]FC ln 0ecember 1/ and zooo]u]FC ln lune zooo. The frst of
these 0lrectlves, on the burden of proof ln sex dlscrlmlnatlon complalnts before
member States of the Furopean unlon, defned "lndlrect dlscrlmlnatlon" as "an
apparently neutral provlslon, crlterlon or practlce 'that] dlsadvantaees a substan-
tlally hleher proportlon of the members of one sex unless that provlslon, crlterlon
or practlce ls approprlate and necessary and can be |ustlfed by ob|ectlve factors
unrelated to sex".
z16
The latter provlde for Fu member States to lmplement leelsla-
tlve prohlbltlons on raclal dlscrlmlnatlon ln employment to "provlde, ln partlcular,
for lndlrect dlscrlmlnatlon to be establlshed by any means lncludlne on the basls of
statlstlcal evldence".
z1/
8y contrast, the Furopean Court of human klehts has been reluctant to apply Fu
standards on lndlrect dlscrlmlnatlon, especlally outslde of employment. For example,
ln the case of Ncrhcvc crJ 0thcrs v. 8lccric, the Furopean Court of human klehts
took note of the exlstence of Councll 0lrectlve zooo]u]FC but decllned to apply lt
to a case ln whlch a koma wldow alleeed that the mllltary pollce shootlne her Aw0L
(absent wlthout leave) husband, ln the wlder context of antl-koma dlscrlmlnatlon by
law enforcement, was an act of raclally motlvated vlolence ln vlolatlon of Artlcle 1u
of the Frcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts.
z1S
lnstead, the Court ruled that elven
the facts of the case a demonstratlon of raclst lntent would be requlred, desplte
presentatlon of evldence of blas on the part of the shooter, the coroner and the
lnvestleatlve authorltles.
z1
z1. human klehts Commlttee, vlews of hovember 1S, Case of kcrrcl Sirch 8hirJcr v. CcrcJc,
Communlcatlon hos. zoS]1S6, para. 6.1, ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C]/]0]zoS]1S6.
z1u. lbiJ., para. 6.z.
z1c. ludement of 1 May 1S6, Case 1/o]Su, para. 1.
z16. Councll 0lrectlve /]So]FC of 1c 0ecember 1/ on thc brJcr cf prccf ir rcscs cf Jisrrinircticr bcscJ
cr scx, Celex no. 1/LooSo, Artlcle z z.
z1/. Councll 0lrectlve zooo]u]FC of z lune zooo inplcncrtirc thc prirriplc cf cccl trcctncrt bctwccr
pcrscrs irrcspcrtivc cf rcricl cr cthrir cricir, Celex no. ozoooLoou, preamble, para. 1c.
z1S. ludement of 6 luly zooc, Case of Ncrhcvc crJ 0thcrs v. 8lccric, Appllcatlon ho. uc//]S and uc/]S,
paras. So, 1uu-1c.
z1. lbiJ., para. 1c/.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw uc
ln a recent case, the Furopean Court of human klehts' 0rand Chamber, however, ln
what wlll llkely prove to be a semlnal case, lssued an oplnlon, 0.h. crJ 0thcrs v. thc
Czcrh kcpblir, ln favour of a party alleelne lndlrect dlscrlmlnatlon.
zzo
Thls oplnlon
sueeests that the Court ls wllllne to concede the prlnclple whlle exerclslne conserv-
atlsm ln lts appllcatlon. The Court ruled that an outwardly neutral Czech speclal
educatlon law that resulted ln koma chlldren belne asslened to speclal educatlon
schools at thlrty tlmes the rate of non-koma chlldren was dlscrlmlnatory, notlne that
"'w]here lt has been shown that leelslatlon produces such a dlscrlmlnatory effect,
the 0rand Chamber conslders that, as wlth cases concernlne employment or the
provlslon of servlces, lt ls not necessary ln cases ln the educatlonal sphere '.] to
prove any dlscrlmlnatory lntent on the part of the relevant authorltles".
zz1
however,
0.h. crJ 0thcrs ls also lmportant for lts llmltatlons as well as lts declslon. hotably,
the Court, wlthout explanatlon, llmlted lts recoenltlon of the dlsparate lmpact of
dlscrlmlnatlon to the felds of educatlon, employment and provlslon of servlces.
Also, the facts of the case were rare ln thelr extremlty - a thlrty-fold dlfference ln
lmpact between koma and non-koma chlldren. ln future cases wlth smaller dlfferen-
tlals, the Court could contlnue to rely on lts more conservatlve prlor |urlsprudence
lf lt wlshes to do so.
The human klehts Commlttee's vlew on dlsparate lmpact dlscrlmlnatlon has also
chaneed ln recent years. ln lts 0eneral Comment ho. 1S, the Commlttee noted that
"dlscrlmlnatlon ln fact" can occur even ln an absence of "dlscrlmlnatlon ln law",
and that the authorltles were prohlblted from eneaelne ln elther.
zzz
Thls left the
door open for a vlew or oplnlon fndlne that a State has vlolated the lCCPk throueh
dlscrlmlnatlon ln fact.
ln contrast to the approach used ln Furope and by uh treaty bodles, the lnter-
Amerlcan Court has recoenlsed the dlscrlmlnatory lmpact of faclally neutral laws as
lmpermlsslble dlscrlmlnatlon. ln the case of ctcnc v. Nircrccc, the Court ordered
the repeal of a law requlrlne candldates for parllament to have a polltlcal party affll-
atlon, because polltlcal partles are "a form of oreanlzatlon that ls not characterlstlc
of the lndleenous communltles of the Atlantlc Coast".
zz
The Court went out of lts
way to note that the "clrcumstances of the lnstant case, '.] are not necessarlly
comparable to the clrcumstances of all polltlcal eroups that may be present ln other
natlonal socletles or sectors of a natlonal soclety".
zzu
Therefore, lts holdlne was not that such a law pcr sc vlolates the Ancrircr
Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts, but rather that the lmpact lt has ln hlcaraeua, elven
that country's unlque ethno-cultural makeup, renders lt ln vlolatlon.
zzo. ludement of 1 hovember zoo/, Case of 0.h. crJ 0thcrs v. thc Czcrh kcpblir, Appllcatlon ho. c/zc]oo.
zz1. lbiJ., para. 1u.
zzz. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 18, Jcr. rit., paras. and 1z.
zz. ludement of z lune zooc, Case of ctcnc v. Nircrccc, Serles C ho. 1z/, para. z1u.
zzu. lbiJ., para. z1.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u u6
5ummary
The prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon and the rleht to be equal before the law !
are lnterdependent and unlversally recoenlsed and protected under lnterna-
tlonal law. 8oth derlve from the notlon of lnherent human dlenlty;
The llst of prohlblted cateeorles of dlscrlmlnatlon ln lnternatlonal human !
rlehts lnstruments ls not exhaustlve and the lncluslon of the "other status"
cateeory by the drafters contemplates erounds such as "sexual orlentatlon"
and "eender ldentlty". The human rlehts |urlsprudence, both unlversal and
reelonal, as well as a few new lnternatlonal lnstruments have recoenlsed
and reafflrmed that "sexual orlentatlon" and "eender ldentlty" are part of
the prohlblted erounds of dlscrlmlnatlon;
The prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon and the rleht to be equal before the law !
requlre that the State not only protect people from dlscrlmlnatlon from State
aeents but also by prlvate entltles and persons. The duty of the State ls to
ensure that all human belnes en|oy rlehts equally and wlthout dlscrlmlnatlon.
Prohlbltlons aealnst raclal dlscrlmlnatlon are a peremptory norm of lnterna-
tlonal law (js rcccrs) from whlch no deroeatlon ls permltted;
The prlnclples of equallty before the law and non-dlscrlmlnatlon authorlse !
dlfferentlal treatment, and dlstlnctlons for certaln cateeorles of lndlvlduals,
vls--vls certaln rlehts and freedoms, such as mlnors, the lndleenous, allens,
non-cltlzens etc. 0lfferentlal treatment ls only permlsslble where lt ls founded
on reasonable and ob|ectlve crlterla and must have a leeltlmate purpose.
0lfferentlal treatment or dlstlnctlon that lacks ob|ectlve and reasonable |ustl-
flcatlon or does not have a leeltlmate purpose ls dlscrlmlnatory.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw u/
"|S]cxcl cricrtcticr |.] is cr csscrticllv privctc ncri-
fcstcticr cf hncr pcrscrclitv".
-Furopean Court of human klehts
zzc
ttt. 1he Right te Private LiIe
:. Lega| nature and scepe
The "rleht to prlvate llfe" ls protected by many lnternatlonal human rlehts lnstru-
ments.
zz6
The rleht ls vlolated lf an lndlvldual's prlvacy ls lnterfered wlth elther
unlawfully or lawfully but arbltrarlly. The lrtcrrcticrcl Ccvcrcrt cr Civil crJ Pclitircl
kichts (lCCPk) prohlblts "arbltrary or unlawful lnterference wlth 'a person's] prlvacy,
famlly, home or correspondence" and erants "the rleht to the protectlon of the law
aealnst such lnterference".
zz/
Thls standard ls repeated ln the Ccrvcrticr cr thc
kichts cf thc ChilJ, the lrtcrrcticrcl Ccrvcrticr cr thc Prctcrticr cf thc kichts cf
All Micrcrt wcrkcrs crJ Mcnbcrs cf 1hcir Fcnilics, the Ccrvcrticr cr thc kichts cf
Pcrscrs with 0iscbilitics, the Frcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts, thc Ancrircr
Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts, the Arcb Chcrtcr cr hncr kichts, and the Afrircr
Chcrtcr cr thc kichts crJ wclfcrc cf thc ChilJ.
zzS
The Afrircr Chcrtcr cr hncr crJ
Pccplcs kichts ls the only reelonal lnstrument that says nothlne about prlvacy or
freedom from State lnterference ln the famlly.
zz
The rleht to prlvate llfe ls a broad umbrella coverlne irtcr clic lnteerlty of the home,
body and famlly, the determlnatlon and development of one's own personallty,
personal ldentlty and lnter-personal relatlonshlps. The lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon
zzc. ludement of z/ September 1, Case of Snith crJ CrcJv v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho. Sc]6
and S6]6, para. 1z/.
zz6. ln addltlon to the lnstruments clted above, thls rleht ls found ln the unlversal 0eclaratlon of human klehts
(Artlcle 1z); 0eclaratlon on the human klehts of lndlvlduals who are not hatlonals of the Country ln whlch
They Llve (Artlcle c); unlted hatlons Standard Mlnlmum kules for hon-custodlal Measures (The Tokyo kules)
(kule .11); unlted hatlons kules for the Protectlon of luvenlles 0eprlved of thelr Llberty (kules z, c, 6o
and S/); unlted hatlons Standard Mlnlmum kules for the Admlnlstratlon of luvenlle lustlce ("The 8el|lne
kules") (kule S); unlted hatlons Prlnclples for 0lder Persons (Prlnclple 1u); Prlnclples for the protectlon of
persons wlth mental lllness and the lmprovement of mental health care (Prlnclple 1); Amerlcan 0eclaratlon
on the klehts and 0utles of Man (Artlcle vl); Prlnclples and 0uldellnes on the kleht to a Falr Trlal and Leeal
Asslstance ln Afrlca (Prlnclple h (h)); Furopean Conventlon for the Protectlon of lndlvlduals wlth reeard to
Automatlc Processlne of Personal 0ata (Artlcle 1); Charter of Fundamental klehts of the Furopean unlon
(Artlcle /); and the Calro 0eclaratlon on human klehts ln lslam (Artlcle 1S.b).
zz/. lCCPk, Artlcle 1/.
zzS. Conventlon on the klehts of the Chlld, Artlcle 16; lnternatlonal Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klehts
of All Mlerant workers and Members of Thelr Famllles, Artlcle 1u; Conventlon on the klehts of Persons wlth
0lsabllltles, Artlcle zz (whlch also requlres the protectlon of "the prlvacy of personal, health and rehablllta-
tlon lnformatlon of persons wlth dlsabllltles on an equal basls wlth others"); Amerlcan Conventlon on human
klehts, Artlcle 11; Arab Charter on human klehts, Artlcle z1; and Afrlcan Charter on the klehts and welfare
of the Chlld, Artlcle 1o.
zz. Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klehts, Artlcles 1S, z/, and zS.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u uS
on human klehts has stated that, "the rleht to prlvacy euarantees that each lndl-
vldual has a sphere lnto whlch no one can lntrude, a zone of actlvlty whlch ls wholly
one's own. ln thls sense, varlous euarantees throuehout the 'Amerlcan] Conventlon
whlch protect the sanctlty of the person create zones of prlvacy".
zo
An exhaustlve
defnltlon of the notlon of "prlvate llfe" ls lmposslble to achleve, as the Furopean
Court of human klehts has observed:
"it wclJ bc tcc rcstrirtivc tc linit thc rcticr tc cr irrcr rirrlc ir whirh thc
irJiviJcl ncv livc his cwr pcrscrcl lifc cs hc rhccscs crJ tc cxrlJc thcrc
frcn crtirclv thc ctsiJc wcrlJ rct crrcnpcsscJ withir thct rirrlc. kcspcrt
fcr privctc lifc nst clsc rcnprisc tc c rcrtcir Jccrcc thc richt tc cstcblish
crJ Jcvclcp rclcticrships with cthcr hncr bcircs".
z1
The Furopean Court has also polnted out that the rleht to prlvacy "can sometlmes
embrace aspects of an lndlvldual's physlcal and soclal ldentlty. '.] 'F]or example,
eender ldentlfcatlon, name and sexual orlentatlon and sexual llfe fall wlthln the
personal sphere protected by Artlcle S 'of the Furopean Conventlon on human
klehts]".
zz
Addltlonal outllnes of the scope of the rleht to prlvate llfe have been drawn by the
human klehts Commlttee, whlch has polnted out that "the notlon of prlvacy refers to
the sphere of a person's llfe ln whlch he or she can freely express hls or her ldentlty,
be lt by enterlne lnto relatlonshlp wlth others or alone".
z
Treaty bodles and lnternatlonal courts have found vlolatlons of the rleht to prlvacy ln
a ereat varlety of sltuatlons, lncludlne arbltrary or unlawful entry lnto prlvate homes
by law enforcement,
zu
State lnterference wlth women's reproductlve freedom,
zc

non-consensual or coerclve unnecessary testlne for hlv,
z6
fallure to protect women
aealnst rape,
z/
undue lnterference wlth prlsoners' correspondence,
zS
arbltrary
refusal to erant name chanees,
z
permlttlne the constructlon of tourlst develop-
zo. keport ho. S]6 of 1c 0ctober 16, Case ho. 1o.co6, X c (Arccrtirc), para. 1.
z1. ludement of 16 0ecember 1z, Case of Nicnitz v. Ccrncrv, Appllcatlon ho. 1/1o]SS, para. z .
zz. ludement of z Aprll zooz, Case of Prcttv v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho. zu6]oz, para. 61.
z. human klehts Commlttee, vlews of 1 0ctober 1u, Case of A.k.Cccricl crJ M.A.k. Arik v. 1hc NcthcrlcrJs,
Communlcatlon ho. uc]11, para. 1o,z.
zu. human klehts Commlttee, vlews of zu 0ctober zooz, Case of Ccrcrcl ct cl. v. Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon
ho. //S]1/ ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C]/6]0]//S]1/.
zc. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 28: Fcclitv cf richts bctwccr ncr crJ wcncr (Artirlc
|, para. zo.
z6. Furopean Court of lustlce, ludement of c 0ctober 1u, Case of X v. Ccnnissicr cf thc Frcpccr
Ccnnritics, FCl Case C-uou]z-P, paras. 1-z1 and z.
z/. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 28, (Artirlc |, para. zo.
zS. human klehts Commlttee, vlews of z March 1S, Case of Miccl Arccl Fstrcllc v. urccv, Communlcatlon
ho. /u]1So, para. .z.
z. human klehts Commlttee, Case of A.k. Cccricl crJ M.A.k. Arik v. 1hc NcthcrlcrJs, Jcr. rit., paras. 1o.z-
1o.c.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw u
ments on lndleenous peoples' ancestral burlal erounds,
zuo
customs reeulatlons
prohlbltlne the lmportatlon of properly prescrlbed drues for personal use,
zu1
and
the unwarranted destructlon of homes durlne mllltary operatlons,
zuz
amone many
others.
z. 5tates' eb|igatien te pretect the right te private |iIe
The State's competent leelslatlve, admlnlstratlve and |udlclal authorltles are oblleed
to euarantee the rleht to prlvate llfe. The human klehts Commlttee has observed that
the "oblleatlons lmposed by '.] artlcle '1/ of the lCCPk] requlre the State to adopt
leelslatlve and other measures to elve effect to the prohlbltlon aealnst 'arbltrary
or unlawful] lnterferences and attacks as well as to the protectlon of thls rleht".
zu

These oblleatlons requlre States to "address the actlvltles of prlvate persons or
entltles, 'lncludlne] the prlvacy-related euarantees of artlcle 1/, 'whlch] must be
protected by law".
zuu
Further, "'p]rovlslon must also be made for everyone effectlvely
to be able to protect hlmself aealnst any unlawful attacks that do occur and to have
an effectlve remedy aealnst those responslble".
zuc
lnternatlonal human rlehts bodles and courts have held on a number of occaslons
that, ln addltlon to the prlmary oblleatlon of refralnlne from arbltrary lnterference
ln prlvate llfe, respect for prlvacy may also entall posltlve oblleatlons. The lnter-
Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts has observed:
"|c]rtirlcs 1 crJ 2 cf thc Ccrvcrticr cstcblish cr cbliccticr tc crsrc thc
richts prctcrtcJ bv thc Ccrvcrticr, crJ rccirc thct thc Stctc Pcrtics cJcpt
srh lccislctivc cr cthcr nccsrcs cs ncv bc rcrcsscrv tc civc cffcrt tc
thcsc richts (rcrccrizcJ ir thc Ccrvcrticr| cr frccJcns |.]. ArrcrJirclv,
cll thc Stctcs Pcrtics tc thc Ccrvcrticr hcvc cr cbliccticr tc crsrc thct
thcsc richts crc cJccctclv crJ cffcrtivclv prctcrtcJ bv thcir Jcncstir lcccl
svstcns |.] . urJcr thc Ccrvcrticr thc Stctc |.] hcs c pcsitivc cbliccticr tc
prctcrt pcrscrs withir its jrisJirticr frcn viclcticrs cf thc richt tc privcrv
crJ, whcrcvcr thct richt is brccrhcJ, tc prcviJc rcncJics thct crc prcnpt,
zuo. human klehts Commlttee, vlews of z 0ecember of 1/, Case of Frcrris hcp crJ 1cpccit 8csscrt v.
Frcrrc, Communlcatlon ho. cu]1, para. 1o..
zu1. Furopean Court of lustlce, ludement of S Aprll 1z, Case of Ccnnissicr cf thc Frcpccr Ccnnritics v.
FcJcrcl kcpblir cf Ccrncrv, Case C-6z]o.
zuz. Furopean Court of human klehts, ludement of zu Aprll 1S, Case of Sclrk crJ Askcr v. 1rkcv, Appllcatlon
ho. 1z]1/]/6]S- paras. S6-S/; lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts, ludement of 1 luly zoo6,
Case of ltcrcc Mcsscrrcs v. Cclcnbic, paras. 1z-1/.
zu. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 16, (Artirlc 1;|, 1hc richt tc rcspcrt cf privcrv, fcnilv, hcnc
crJ rcrrcspcrJcrrc, crJ prctcrticr cf hcrcr crJ rcptcticr, para. 1.
zuu. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1, Nctrc cf thc Ccrcrcl lcccl 0bliccticr lnpcscJ cr
Stctcs Pcrtics, para. S.
zuc. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 16, para. 11.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u co
cffcrtivc crJ cJccctc tc rcJrcss crv irjrv rcscJ bv c viclcticr cf thct
richt".
zu6
The Furopean Court of human klehts malntalns a slmllar vlew. The Court has:
"hclJ cr c rnbcr cf crrcsicrs thct, clthcch thc csscrticl cbjcrt cf Artirlc
8 is tc prctcrt thc irJiviJcl cccirst crbitrcrv irtcrfcrcrrc bv thc pblir
cthcritics, thcrc ncv ir cJJiticr bc pcsitivc cbliccticrs irhcrcrt ir cr
cffcrtivc rcspcrt fcr privctc lifc, clbcit sbjcrt tc thc Stctcs ncrcir cf cpprc-
ricticr, |.] . lr Jctcrnirirc whcthcr cr rct srh cr cbliccticr cxists, rcccrJ
nst bc hcJ tc thc fcir bclcrrc thct hcs tc bc strrk bctwccr thc ccrcrcl
irtcrcst crJ thc irtcrcsts cf thc irJiviJcl".
zu/
Courts and treaty bodles sometlmes seem reluctant to concede a vlolatlon of the
rleht to prlvacy when a vlolatlon of a dlfferent rleht ln the same lnstrument has
also been breached. For example, ln the case of Mcritzc urrtic v. Cctcnclc, the
petltloner and her famlly suffered from survelllance and pollce harassment before
she became a polltlcal prlsoner. Subsequently, when lmprlsoned she then suffered
vlolatlons of her correspondence and was forced to make false publlc confesslons.
The lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts found that those actlons all vlolated
the provlslons of the treaty erantlne the rleht to humane treatment whlle ln deten-
tlon, and decllned to dlscuss the lssue of prlvacy.
zuS
Slmllarly, after the Furopean
Court of human klehts ruled that the deportatlon of an hlv-posltlve prlsoner to St.
Kltts would amount to cruel and lnhuman treatment under Artlcle , due to lack of
medlcal facllltles avallable and absence of famlly support, the Court found that hls
prlvacy rleht to "bodlly lnteerlty" also at rlsk, "ralsed no separate lssue" and dld
not conslder lt.
zu
The uh human klehts Commlttee may have attempted a dellneatlon of the outer
contours of the rleht to prlvacy when lt observed that, "as all persons llve ln soclety,
the protectlon of prlvacy ls necessarlly relatlve. however, the competent publlc
authorltles should only be able to call for such lnformatlon relatlne to an lndlvldual's
prlvate llfe 'when] the knowledee of whlch ls essentlal ln the lnterests of soclety as
understood under the Covenant".
zco
zu6. keport ho. 11]6 of z May 16, Case 11.zo (Chlle), paras. 66 and 6/.
zu/. ludement of 1/ 0ctober 1S6, Case of kccs v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon no. cz]S1, paras. c, /.
zuS. ludement of z/ hovember zoo, Case of Mcritzc urrtic v. Cctcnclc.
zu. ludement of z May 1/, Case of 0. v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho. 1u6]16]/6/]6u, para. 6u.
zco. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 16, Jcr. rit., para. /.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw c1
. Arbitrary er un|awIu| restrictiens en er interIerence with the
right te private |iIe
under lnternatlonal human rlehts law, the rleht to prlvacy ls a non-absolute rleht
whlch can be restrlcted ln tlmes of normallty, as well as ln tlmes of emereency.
however, human rlehts that are sub|ect to lawful llmltatlon (lncludlne ln tlmes of
emereency) can never be deemed to have dlsappeared: deroeatlon does not mean
obllteratlon.
zc1
ln tlmes of normallty any restrlctlons or lnterference must be sub|ect to law and not
arbltrary. The human klehts Commlttee has deemed that an lnterference or restrlc-
tlon may be permltted only lf essentlal to the lnterests of soclety, and lf natlonal
leelslatlon speclfes ln detall the preclse clrcumstances ln whlch such lnterference
or restrlctlon ls to occur.
zcz
Furthermore, lnterference must "be ln accordance wlth
the provlslons, alms and ob|ectlves of the 'lCCPk] and be reasonable ln the partlcular
clrcumstances of the case".
zc
The human klehts Commlttee has consldered that "arbltrary lnterference" wlth the
rleht to prlvacy can lnclude lnterference provlded for under the law. The Commlttee
has stated that the monltorlne or censorshlp of communlcatlons should be sub|ect
to satlsfactory leeal safeeuards aealnst thelr arbltrary appllcatlon, lncludlne |udlclal
oversleht. Searches of a person's home should be restrlcted to a search for neces-
sary evldence and should not be allowed to amount to harassment. ln the case of
personal or body searches, States must take effectlve measures to ensure that such
searches are carrled out ln a manner conslstent wlth the dlenlty of the person who ls
belne searched. Monltorlne of phone, emall and fax communlcatlons of lndlvlduals,
both wlthln and outslde a State, wlthout any |udlclal or other lndependent over-
sleht, ralses serlous questlons about thelr compatlblllty wlth the rleht to an effectlve
remedy and the rleht to prlvacy (Artlcles z() and 1/ of the lCCPk).
zcu
The Furopean Court of human klehts has sald that a State has a duty not to lnter-
fere wlth lts sub|ects' prlvacy except ln strlctly llmlted clrcumstances prescrlbed
by law that are ln the publlc lnterest, have a leeltlmate alm and are necessary ln
zc1. hlcole 0uestlaux, Speclal kapporteur of the former uh Sub-Commlsslon, StJv fcr thc inplircticrs fcr
hncr richts cf rcrcrt Jcvclcpncrts rcrrcrrirc sitcticrs krcwr cs stctcs cf siccc cr cncrccrrv, uh
0oc F]Ch.u]Sub.z]1Sz]1c, para. 1z.
zcz. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 16, Jcr. rit., para. S.
zc. human klehts Commlttee, vlews of 1 hovember zoou, Case of Artcris Ccrrclis vcr hlst v. 1hc NcthcrlcrJs,
Communlcatlon ho. o]1, para. /.. See also: human klehts Commlttee, vlews of Aprll zoo1, Case of
kcfccl ArncrJc kcjcs Ccrric v. Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon 6S/]16, and human klehts Commlttee, vlews
of Aprll 1/, Case of Cicsc Ccrcpc v. CcrcJc, Communlcatlon ho. ccS]1, para. 11.u.
zcu. CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc hncr kichts Ccnnittcc: uritcJ Stctcs cf Ancrirc, Jcr. rit., para. z1.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u cz
a democratlc soclety.
zcc
The Furopean Commlsslon on human klehts eoes further
by outllnlne that a State may lnterfere wlth prlvate llfe only when "the lndlvldual
hlmself brlnes hls prlvate llfe lnto contact wlth publlc llfe or lnto close connectlon
wlth other protected lnterests".
zc6
The lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts
and the lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts conslder that ln cases of rlehts, such
as the rleht to prlvacy, for whlch the Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts does not
provlde rules establlshlne or llmltlne States' ablllty to restrlct them, then the rlehts
are sub|ect to restrlctlon under the Artlcle z (z) of the Conventlon, whlch states
that "the rlehts of each person are llmlted by the rlehts of others, by the securlty
of all, and by the |ust demands of the eeneral welfare ln a democratlc soclety".
The lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts has polnted out that restrlctlons on
the rlehts protected ln the Conventlon "must meet certaln substantlve condltlons
whlch depend upon the leeltlmacy of the ends that such restrlctlons are deslened to
accompllsh".
zc/
ln the same veln, the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts
has polnted out that:
"|c]rtirlc 11.2 |cf thc Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr] spcrifircllv prchibits crbitrcrv
cr cbsivc irtcrfcrcrrc with this richt. 1his prcvisicr irJirctcs thct ir cJJi-
ticr tc thc rcrJiticr cf lccclitv, whirh shclJ clwcvs bc cbscrvcJ whcr
c rcstrirticr is inpcscJ cr thc richts cf thc Ccrvcrticr, thc stctc hcs c
spcricl cbliccticr tc prcvcrt crbitrcrv cr cbsivc irtcrfcrcrrcs. 1hc rcticr
cf crbitrcrv irtcrfcrcrrc rcfcrs tc clcncrts cf irjstirc, rprcJirtcbilitv crJ
rrccscrcblcrcss".
zcS
o. 5exua| 0rientatien and Cender tdentity and the right te privacy
The scope of prlvacy may be oreanlsed as declslonal, relatlonal and zonal.
zc

0eclslonal prlvacy refers to lntlmate and personal cholces ln an lndlvldual's llfe
that are central to personal dlenlty and autonomy. kelatlonal prlvacy speaks to
the connectlons made throueh famlly, marrlaee or procreatlon, whlle zonal prlvacy
relates to actlvltles that occur wlthln the home. The uh human klehts Commlttee,
ln the case of 1ccrcr v. Astrclic, artlculated a declslonal theory of prlvacy, encom-
passlne an adult's lntlmate and prlvate declslon whether to eneaee ln sexual conduct
wlth a same-sex partner. The Commlttee ruled that "'l]n as far as artlcle 1/ 'of the
zcc. See for example, ludement of zu Aprll 1o, Case of hvic v. Frcrrc; ludement of zS lune 1Su, Case of
Ccnpbcll crJ Fcll v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn; ludement of 2 April 2cc2, Case of Prcttv v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn,
Appllcatlon ho. zu6]oz; and ludement of 1/ Aprll zoo, Case of ilncz v. Ccrncrv, Appllcatlon ho.
czSc].
zc6. Furopean Commlsslon on human klehts keport, 1//; 8rcccncrr crJ Srhctcr v. thc FcJcrcl kcpblir
cf Ccrncrv.
zc/. Advlsory 0plnlon 0C-c]Sc, Ccnplscrv Mcnbcrship ir cr Asscricticr PrcsrribcJ bv lcw fcr thc Prcrtirc
cf lcrrclisn (Artirlcs. 1 crJ 2 Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts|, 1 of hovember 1Sc, Serles A
ho. c, para. /.
zcS. keport ho. S]6 of 1c 0ctober 16, Case 1o.co6, Ms X v. (Arccrtirc), para. z.
zc. See Mary koblnson amlcus brlef ln lcwrcrrc v. 1cxcs at: http:]]hrw.ore]press]zoo]o/]amlcusbrlef.pdf
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw c
lCCPk] ls concerned, lt ls undlsputed that adult consensual sexual actlvlty ln prlvate
ls covered by the concept of 'prlvacy'".
z6o
The human klehts Commlttee reasoned
that the crlmlnallsatlon of homosexual practlces cannot be consldered a reasonable
means or proportlonate measure to achleve the alm of preventlne the spread of hlv]
Al0S and dlsmlssed the areument that the matters consldered were "moral lssues"
that were excluslvely of "domestlc concerns".
z61
Thls declslon has formed the basls
for protectlon of S00l wlthln the |urlsprudence and doctrlne of the uh human rlehts
system and especlally ln respect of decrlmlnallsatlon of laws crlmlnallslne homosex-
uallty.
z6z
The 1ccrcr case dld not however, address all aspects of declslonal prlvacy.
A broader scope of declslonal prlvacy was examlned ln A.k. Cccricl crJ M.A.k. Arik
v. 1hc NcthcrlcrJs when the human klehts Commlttee observed that:
"thc rcticr cf privcrv rcfcrs tc thc sphcrc cf c pcrscrs lifc ir whirh hc cr
shc rcr frcclv cxprcss his cr hcr iJcrtitv, bc it bv crtcrirc irtc rclcticrships
with cthcrs cr clcrc. 1hc Ccnnittcc is cf thc vicw thct c pcrscrs srrcnc
rcrstittcs cr inpcrtcrt rcnpcrcrt cf crcs iJcrtitv crJ thct thc prctcr-
ticr cccirst crbitrcrv cr rlcwfl irtcrfcrcrrc with crcs privcrv irrlJcs
thc prctcrticr cccirst crbitrcrv cr rlcwfl irtcrfcrcrrc with thc richt tc
rhccsc crJ rhcrcc crcs cwr rcnc".
z6
0omestlc courts have also developed notlons of declslonal prlvacy. The Constl-
tu tlonal Court of Colombla, conslderlne both the lCCPk and the Colomblan
Constltutlon, arrlved at a declslonal theory of prlvacy as reeards sexual orlenta-
tlon, holdlne that:
"|s]cxclitv, whcthcr hctcrcscxcl cr hcncscxcl, is cr csscrticl clcncrt cf
hncrs crJ thcir psvrhc crJ, thcrcfcrc, is irrlJcJ ir thc brccJcr frcnc-
wcrk cf scricbilitv. 1hc fll rcrstitticrcl prctcrticr cf thc irJiviJcl, ir
thc fcrn cf thc richts tc pcrscrclitv, crJ its frcc Jcvclcpncrt (Cclcnbicr
Ccrstitticr, Artirlcs 1o crJ 16| irrlJcs ir its csscrticl rcrc thc prcrcss
cf ctcrcncs cssnpticr crJ Jcrisicr rcccrJirc crcs cwr scxclitv.
lt wclJ bc scrsclcss if scxcl sclf-Jctcrnircticr wcrc tc rcncir ctsiJc
thc linits cf thc richts tc pcrscrclitv, crJ its frcc Jcvclcpncrt, civcr thct
iJcrtitv crJ scxcl rcrJrt crrpv ir thc Jcvclcpncrt cf thc pcrscr crJ
z6o. vlews of 1 March 1u, Case of Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v. Astrclic, Communlcatlon ho. uSS]1z, para. S.z, ln
uh 0oc. CCPk]C]co]0]uSS]1z of u Aprll 1u.
z61. lbiJ., para. S.u.
z6z. See lnternatlonal Commlsslon of lurlsts, lrtcrrcticrcl hncr kichts kcfcrcrrcs tc hncr kichts
viclcticrs cr thc CrcrJs cf Scxcl 0ricrtcticr crJ CcrJcr lJcrtitv at http:]]www.lc|.ore]news.php!ld_
artlcle=6S/&lane=en. See ln partlcular: See Country observatlons of the human klehts Commlttee (lCl
Compllatlon rd ed) (Concludlne observatlons on: 0reece, CCPk]C0]S]0kC, 1 March zooc, para. 1;
Kenya, CCPk]C0]S]KFh, zS March zooc, para. z/; hamlbla, CCPk]C0]S1]hAM, o luly zoou, para. zz;
Feypt, CCPk]C0]/6]F0, zS hovember zooz, para. 1; unlted Klnedom of 0reat 8rltaln and horthern lreland,
CCPk]C]/]Add.11, z/ March zooo, para. 1u; Poland CCPk]C]/]Add.11o, zluly 1, para. z; komanla
CCPk]C]/]Add.111, zS luly 1, para. 16; and Chlle, CCPk]C]/]Add.1ou, o March 1, para. zo).
z6. vlews of 1 0ctober 1u, Case of A.k. Cccricl crJ M.A.k. Arik v. 1hc NcthcrlcrJs, Communlcatlon ho.
uc]11, para. 1o.z.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u cu
ir thc rfclJirc cf his libcrtv crJ ctcrcnv srh c rcrtrcl crJ Jcrisivc
plcrc".
z6u
The South Afrlcan Constltutlonal Court has arrlved at a theory of prlvacy ln sexuallty
that lncludes both declslonal and relatlonal elements. lt states:
"|p]rivcrv rcrccriscs thct wc cll hcvc c richt tc c sphcrc cf privctc irtincrv
crJ ctcrcnv whirh cllcws s tc cstcblish crJ rrtrc hncr rclcticrships
withct irtcrfcrcrrc frcn thc ctsiJc rcnnritv. 1hc wcv ir whirh wc civc
cxprcssicr tc cr scxclitv is ct thc rcrc cf this crcc cf privctc irtincrv. lf,
ir cxprcssirc cr scxclitv, wc crt rcrscrscllv crJ withct hcrnirc crc
crcthcr, irvcsicr cf thct prcrirrt will bc c brccrh cf cr privcrv".
z6c
The lnter-Amerlcan system has not, as yet, been used to press any lssue of declslonal
prlvacy ln relatlon to sexual orlentatlon. however, the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon
on human klehts dld declare admlsslble a case that, whlle ultlmately not movlne
forward, declared that a law prohlbltlne same-sex partners from lntlmate prlson
vlslts, whlle allowlne heterosexual ones, "could lnvolve, irtcr clic, a vlolatlon
of Artlcle 11(z) of the Amerlcan Conventlon ln so far as they could constltute an
arbltrary or abuslve lnterference wlth 'a lesblan petltloner's] prlvate llfe".
z66
The
lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon has developed a broad vlew of the rleht to prlvate llfe,
notlne that:
"|t]hc rccircncrts cf Artirlc 11 |cf thc Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr
kichts] crrcnpcss c rcrcc cf fcrtcrs pcrtcirirc tc thc Jicritv cf thc irJi-
viJcl, irrlJirc, fcr cxcnplc, thc cbilitv tc prsc thc Jcvclcpncrt cf
crcs pcrscrclitv crJ cspircticrs, Jctcrnirc crcs iJcrtitv, crJ Jcfirc crcs
pcrscrcl rclcticrships".
z6/
The Furopean Court of human klehts ls the most developed human rlehts body on
the lssue of sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty vls--vls of the rleht to prlvacy.
z6S

The Furopean Court has utlllsed several opportunltles to reaffrm that "'t]here can be
z6u. ludement ho. C-oS]6 of / March 16 (0rlelnal ln Spanlsh, free translatlon). The |udement ls avallable at
http:]]www.unlllbrebaq.edu.co]html]provldenclas]C-oS-6.htm
z6c. ludement of 0ctober 1S, Ncticrcl Cccliticr cf Ccv 8 lcsbicr Fcclitv crJ Arcthcr v. Miristcr cf lstirc
crJ cthcrs, Ccsc CCT11]S, para. z.
z66. keport ho. /1] (Admlsslblllty) of u May 1, Case 11.6c6, Mcrtc lric lvcrcz CirclJc (Cclcnbic|, para.
z1.
z6/. keport ho. u]o1 of 1 lanuary zoo1, case 11.6zc, Mcric Fccric Mcrclcs Jc Sicrrc (Cctcnclc|, para. u6.
z6S. See irtcr clic: ludement of zz 0ctober 1S1, Case of 0Jcccr v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho.
/czc]/6; ludement of z6 0ctober 1SS, Case of Ncrris v. lrclcrJ, Appllcatlon ho. 1ocS1]S; ludement of zz
Aprll 1, Case of McJircs v. Cvprs, Appllcatlon ho. 1co/o]S; ludement of lanuary zoo, Case of S.l.
v. Astric, Appllcatlon ho. uco]; ludement of z/ September 1, Case of lstic-Prccr crJ 8crkctt v.
thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho. 1u1/]6 and z//]6; ludement of 1 February 1/, Case of lcskcv,
lccccrJ crJ 8rcwr v. uritcJ kircJcn, Applircticr Nc. 16z/], z1Sz6] and z1/u]; ludement on 11
luly zooz, Case of Christirc CccJwir v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho. zSc/]c; ludement of 1z lune
of zoo, Case of vcr kbrk v. Ccrncrv, Appllcatlon ho. c6S]/; and ludement of 16 0ecember 1z, Case
of Nicnictz v. Ccrncrv, Appllcatlon ho. 1/1o]SS.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw cc
no doubt that sexual orlentatlon and actlvlty concern an lntlmate aspect of prlvate
llfe".
z6
The case of 0Jcccr v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn typlfes the approach of the
Furopean Court of human klehts ln lts cases deallne wlth prlvacy and sexual orlenta-
tlon. 0udeeon was a c-year-old eay man who llved ln horthern lreland. The pollce
vlslted hls home on a drues lnvestleatlon concernlne a thlrd party and selzed eay
llterature and paraphernalla belonelne to hlm. Llable to prosecutlon under exlstlne
bueeery laws ln horthern lreland he challeneed the laws. The Furopean Court held
under Artlcle S of the Frcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts that the bueeery laws
constltuted an lnterference wlth a "most lntlmate part of prlvate llfe". ln the 0udeeon
case, the Court reasoned that:
"thc ncirtcrcrrc ir fcrrc cf thc inpcrcJ lccislcticr rcrstittcs c rcrtir-
irc irtcrfcrcrrc with thc cpplircrts richt tc rcspcrt fcr his privctc lifc
(whirh irrlJcs his scxcl lifc| withir thc nccrirc cf Artirlc 8. |.] |1]hc vcrv
cxistcrrc cf this lccislcticr rcrtircslv crJ Jircrtlv cffcrts |0Jcccrs]
privctc lifc: cithcr hc rcspcrts thc lcw crJ rcfrcirs frcn crcccirc - cvcr ir
privctc with rcrscrtirc nclc pcrtrcrs - ir prchibitcJ scxcl crts tc whirh
hc is JispcscJ bv rccscr cf his hcncscxcl tcrJcrrics, cr hc rcnnits srh
crts crJ thcrcbv bcrcncs licblc tc rrinircl prcscrticr".
z/o
The Court accordlnely found a breach of Artlcle S. The reasonlne ln 0Jcccr was
affrmed by the Furopean Court ln the later cases of Ncrris v. lrclcrJ
z/1
and McJircs
v. Cvprs.
z/z
The Furopean Court also found that there was a vlolatlon of the rleht
to prlvacy ln con|unctlon wlth the rleht aealnst dlscrlmlnatlon ln S.l. v. Astric,
z/

where the Court consldered the questlon of crlmlnal sanctlons and a hleher aee of
consent for male homosexuals.
The Furopean Court's conceptlon of the normatlve scope of prlvacy at frst seemed
hard-pressed to do more than trump bueeery laws and lncorporate protectlon of
the publlc manlfestatlons of prlvate llfe. The case of lstic-Prccr crJ 8crkctt v. thc
uritcJ kircJcn
z/u
(1S years after 0Jcccr), concernlne the rleht of eay persons
to serve ln the mllltary, marked a slenlfcant development ln the use of the prlvacy
concept to protect the sexual orlentatlon of persons ln not merely the lnner clrcle
of thelr prlvate llfe but ln professlonal or buslness aspects of llfe and relatlonshlps.
uslne Artlcle S of the Frcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts, the Court felled laws
that excluded eays and lesblans from the mllltary and opened an lnterpretatlon of
z6. ludement of zz 0ctober 1S1, Case of 0Jcccr v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho. /czc]/6, para. cz.
See also, ludement of 1 February 1/, Case of lcskcv, lccccrJ crJ 8rcwr v. uritcJ kircJcn, Applircticr
Nc. 16z/], z1Sz6] and z1/u], para. 6.
z/o. ludement of zz 0ctober 1S1, Case of 0Jcccr v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho. /czc]/6, para. u1.
z/1. ludement of z6 0ctober 1SS, Case of Ncrris v. lrclcrJ, Appllcatlon ho. 1ocS1]S.
z/z. ludement of zz Aprll 1, Case of McJircs v. Cvprs, Appllcatlon ho. 1co/o]S.
z/. ludement of lanuary zoo, Case of S l v. Astric, Appllcatlon ho. uco], para. 6.
z/u. ludement of z/ September 1, Case of lstic-Prccr crJ 8crkctt v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho.
1u1/]6 and z//]6.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u c6
prlvacy that envlsaeed eay llfe behlnd closed doors and lnto the publlc reaches of
the eay experlence. lt may be sald that the Court was slow ln developlne a compre-
henslve normatlve framework for the development of eay rlehts - and the scope of
prlvacy - beyond the decrlmlnallsatlon of bueeery.
ln relatlon to eender ldentlty, the Furopean Commlsslon on human klehts ruled
ln the case of 0. vcr 0cstcrwijk v. 8clcin, a case concernlne a transsexual who
wanted to have blrth certlfcate altered, that the rleht to respect for 'prlvate llfe' ls
the rleht to prlvacy, the rleht to llve as far as one wlshes, protected from publlclty. lt
also comprlses, to a certaln deeree, the rleht to establlsh and develop relatlonshlps
wlth other human belnes especlally ln the emotlonal feld, for the development and
fulflment of one's own personallty.
z/c
The Commlsslon found that the refusal of
8elelum to enable the reelsters of clvll status to refect lawful sex chanees vlolated
the rleht to respect for prlvate llfe ln Artlcle S of the FChk.
z/6
Thls heralded the
Furopean Court of human klehts' approach ln the 0udeeon, horrls and Modlnos
cases, whlch concretlzed the scope of declslonal prlvacy under the Frcpccr
Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts.
The lssues of eender ldentlty have been best advanced ln the |urlsprudence of the
Furopean Court under Artlcle S (the rleht to respect for prlvate and famlly llfe) of
the Furopean Conventlon. The exlstlne |urlsprudence refects the Court's assess-
ment of a "contlnulne lnternatlonal trend" ln favour of eender ldentlty recoenltlon.
lndeed, the Court has polnted out that lt, "attaches less lmportance to the lack of
evldence of a common Furopean approach to the resolutlon of the leeal and prac-
tlcal problems posed, than to the clear and uncontested evldence of a contlnulne
lnternatlonal trend ln favour not only of lncreased soclal acceptance of transsexuals
but of leeal recoenltlon of the new sexual ldentlty of post-operatlve transsexuals".
z//

As a result, the leadlne cases of Christirc CccJwir v. thc uritcJ kircJcn and vcr
kbrk v. Ccrncrv represent lmportant advances ln the appllcatlon of the rleht to
prlvacy ln the area of eender ldentlty and expresslon. lmportantly, both cases
follow the declslonal prlvacy trend ln 0Jcccr, deferrlne to notlons of "lntlmate
parts of prlvate llfe" and utlllslne laneuaee that speaks to personallty development
and "eender ldentlty". however, the requlrement that an appllcant must manlfest
z/c. Furopean Commlsslon on human klehts, Case of 0. vcr 0cstcrwijk v. 8clcin, Appllcatlon ho /6cu]/6,
1/.
z/6. See also ludement of 16 0ecember 1z, Case of Nicnictz v. Ccrncrv, Appllcatlon ho. 1/1o]SS, ln whlch
the Court noted that respect for prlvate llfe lncludes rleht to "establlsh and develop relatlonshlps", both
personal and professlonal, para. z.
z//. ludement on 11 luly zooz, Case of Christirc CccJwir v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho. zSc/]c,
para. Su.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw c/
"eender ldentlty" as a medlcal concern ln order to prove lts authentlclty,
z/S
as well
as to demonstrate the capaclty for heterosexual performance ln order to prove a
successful eender transltlon, remalns troublesome.
z/
ln the case of Christirc CccJwir v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, the appllcant was a uK
cltlzen and a post-operatlve male-to-female transsexual.
zSo
She had marrled a
woman and had four chlldren, but remalned wlth the convlctlon that her "braln
sex" dld not ft her body. She underwent eender reasslenment sureery at a hatlonal
health Servlce hospltal, provlded for and pald by the hatlonal health Servlce. The
appllcant dlvorced from her wlfe but contlnued to have a eood relatlonshlp wlth
her chlldren.
Almost lmmedlately, she beean to experlence a varlety of personal and bureaucratlc
challenees as a result of her eender reasslenment. She clalmed that between 1o
and 1z she was sexually harassed by colleaeues at work and was subsequently
dlsmlssed from her employment for reasons connected wlth her health, but alleeed
that the real reason was that she was a transsexual. She found a new |ob but, as the
0cpcrtncrt cf Scricl Scrritv (0SS) decllned to lssue her a new hatlonal lnsurance
number, her employer was able to use the old number to trace her old ldentlty, and
she beean to experlence problems at work. Colleaeues stopped speaklne to her and
she was the vlctlm of mallclous eosslp. ln addltlon, the 0SS Contrlbutlons Aeency
lnformed the appllcant that she would be lnellelble for a State penslon at the aee
of 6o, the aee of entltlement for women ln the unlted Klnedom. She was lnformed
that her penslon contrlbutlons would have to be contlnued untll the date at whlch
she reached the aee of 6c, belne the aee of entltlement for men. her fles at the
0SS were marked "sensltlve" to ensure that only an employee of a partlcular erade
had access to her fles, requlrlne her to make ln-person appolntments to address
even the most trlvlal matters, and 0SS correspondence contlnued to use her old
name. She also had to foreeo opportunltles condltlonal upon her produclne her
blrth certlfcate, lncludlne a loan condltlonal upon llfe lnsurance, a re-morteaee
offer and an entltlement to a wlnter fuel allowance from the 0SS. She remalned
oblleed to pay the hleher motor lnsurance premlums appllcable to men. She also
dld not report a theft to the pollce for fear that the lnvestleatlon would requlre her
to reveal her prlor ldentlty.
z/S. 0n thls lssue, the Furopean Court has consldered that "'l]t is rct cppcrcrt tc thc Ccrt thct thc rhrcnc-
scncl clcncrt, cncrcst cll thc cthcrs, nst ircvitcblv tckc cr Jcrisivc sicrifircrrc fcr thc prpcscs cf
lcccl cttribticr cf ccrJcr iJcrtitv fcr trcrsscxcls'.] 1hc Ccrt is rct pcrscJcJ thcrcfcrc thct thc stctc cf
ncJircl sricrrc cr sricrtifir krcwlcJcc prcviJcs crv Jctcrnirirc crcncrt cs rcccrJs thc lcccl rcrccriticr
cf trcrsscxcls." (ludement of 11 luly zooz, Case of Christirc CccJwir v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Jcr. rit., para.
S1.)
z/. For development of the ldea of that heterosexuallty eoes hand-ln-hand wlth the rleht to recoenltlon ln 'a]
new eender ln the |urlsprudence of the Furopean Court, see Susan Marks and Andrew Clapham, lrtcrrcticrcl
hncr kichts lcxircr, cp. rit., p. u.
zSo. ludement of 11 luly zooz, Case of Christirc CccJwir v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho. zSc/]c.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u cS
0escrlblne the nature of the lnterference to prlvate llfe, the Court sald:
"|t]hc strcss crJ clicrcticr crisirc frcn c JisrcrJcrrc bctwccr thc pcsi-
ticr ir scrictv cssncJ bv c pcst-cpcrctivc trcrsscxcl crJ thc stcts
inpcscJ bv lcw whirh rcfscs tc rcrccrizc thc rhcrcc cf ccrJcr rcrrct,
ir thc Ccrts vicw, bc rcccrJcJ cs c nircr irrcrvcricrrc crisirc frcn c
fcrnclitv. A rcrflirt bctwccr scricl rcclitv crJ lcw criscs whirh plcrcs thc
trcrsscxcl ir cr crcnclcs pcsiticr, ir whirh hc cr shc ncv cxpcricrrc
fcclircs cf vlrcrcbilitv, hnilicticr crJ crxictv.
"urJcr Artirlc 8 cf thc Ccrvcrticr ir pcrtirlcr, whcrc thc rcticr cf pcrscrcl
ctcrcnv is cr inpcrtcrt prirriplc rJcrlvirc thc irtcrprctcticr cf its
ccrcrtccs, prctcrticr is civcr tc thc pcrscrcl sphcrc cf ccrh irJiviJcl,
irrlJirc thc richt tc cstcblish Jctcils cf thcir iJcrtitv cs irJiviJcl hncr
bcircs |.] . lr thc twcrtv first rcrtrv thc richt cf trcrsscxcls tc pcrscrcl
Jcvclcpncrt crJ tc phvsircl crJ ncrcl scrritv ir thc fll scrsc crjcvcJ
bv cthcrs ir scrictv rcrrct bc rcccrJcJ cs c ncttcr cf rcrtrcvcrsv rccirirc
thc lcpsc cf tinc tc rcst rlccrcr licht cr thc isscs irvclvcJ".
zS1
ln the case of vcr kbrk v. Ccrncrv,
zSz
the appllcant was a male-to-female transsexual
whose lnsurance company had denled coveraee of medlcal expenses related to sex
reasslenment. 0erman courts consldered the appllcant's llfe hlstory - lncludlne a
perlod of mllltary servlce, marrlaee to a woman and an absence of transeender lden-
tlfcatlon durlne her youth - and concluded that the appllcant herself had caused
her transsexuallty and therefore the denlal of coveraee was leeltlmate.
zS
The Court's
declslon also expressed doubts about the medlcal valldlty and necesslty of sex
reasslenment.
zSu
Cltlne CccJwir amone other cases, the Furopean Court of human
klehts found that "the very essence of the Conventlon belne respect for human
dlenlty and human freedom, 'obllees that] protectlon ls elven to the rleht of transsex-
uals to personal development and to physlcal and moral securlty".
zSc
The Court went
on to fnd that thls entalls a posltlve oblleatlon ln addltlon to the oblleatlon to refraln
from lnterferlne ln prlvacy.
zS6
The Court concluded that "the lmpact of the court decl-
slons on the appllcant's rleht to respect for her sexual self-determlnatlon as one of
the aspects of her rleht to respect for her prlvate llfe" amounted to a "fall'ure] to
dlscharee the State's posltlve oblleatlons 'and the] burden placed on a person to
prove the medlcal necesslty of treatment, lncludlne lrreverslble sureery, ln one of
zS1. ludement of 11 luly zooz, Case of Christirc CccJwir v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Jcr. rit., paras. // and o.
zSz. ludement of 1z lune of zoo, Case of vcr kbrk v. Ccrncrv, Appllcatlon ho. c6S]/.
zS. lbiJ., para. uc.
zSu. lbiJ., para. c.
zSc. lbiJ., para. 6.
zS6. lbiJ., para. /o.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw c
the most lntlmate areas of prlvate llfe, appears dlsproportlonate."
zS/
Consequently
lt ruled a vlolatlon of Artlcle S of the Furopean Conventlon.
The Court has reaffrmed that the very essence of the Furopean Conventlon was
respect for human dlenlty and freedom and that protectlon ls elven to the rleht of
transsexuals to personal development and to physlcal and moral securlty. ln thls
feld, the Court noted that the concept of "prlvate llfe" ls a broad term not suscep-
tlble to exhaustlve defnltlon and that lt covers the physlcal and psycholoelcal
lnteerlty of a person.
zSS
Thls can also entall aspects of an lndlvldual's physlcal and
soclal ldentlty,
zS
such as eender ldentlfcatlon.
o.: Cemparative pub|ic |aw and the right te privacy
lustlce 8lackmun, ln hls dlssent ln the now-overruled case of 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk
zo

before the uS Supreme Court, oplned that the "rleht to be left alone" should be
seen not slmply as a neeatlve rleht to occupy a prlvate space free from eovernment
lntruslon (or zonal prlvacy), but as a rleht to eet on wlth one's llfe, express person-
allty and make fundamental declslons about one's lntlmate relatlonshlps wlthout
penallsatlon. ln dlscusslne thls notlon of prlvacy ln Ncticrcl Cccliticr cf Ccv crJ
lcsbicr Fcclitv v. Miristcr cf lstirc,
z1
lustlces ln the South Afrlcan Constltutlonal
Court explalned that "there ls no eood reason why the concept of prlvacy should, (as
was sueeested), be restrlcted slmply to seallne off from State control what happens
ln the bedroom, wlth the doleful sub-text that you may behave as blzarrely or shame-
fully as you llke, on the understandlne that you do so ln prlvate".
zz
lnstead, the
Court explalned that the scope of prlvacy recoenlses that we all have a rleht to a
sphere of prlvate lntlmacy and autonomy that allows us to establlsh and nurture
human relatlonshlps wlthout lnterference from the outslde communlty. The way ln
whlch we elve expresslon to our sexuallty, the Court reasoned, ls at the core of thls
area of prlvate lntlmacy. lf, ln expresslne our sexuallty, we act consensually and
wlthout harmlne one another, lnvaslon of that preclnct wlll be a breach of the rleht
to prlvacy.
lustlce 8lackmun also noted the contentlon that the concept of prlvacy dld not
contemplate a comprehenslve normatlve framework that addresses dlscrlmlnatlon
aealnst eays ln both the prlvate and publlc component of the llved experlence. The
South Afrlcan Constltutlonal Court however reasoned that these concerns were
based on an unnecessary and artlfclally constructed contest between prlvacy and
zS/. lbiJ., paras. /c, /S and Sz.
zSS. ludement of z6 March 1Sc, Case of X crJ v. thc NcthcrlcrJs, Appllcatlon ho. S/S]So, para. zz.
zS. ludement of / February zooz, Case of Miklir v. Crcctic, Appllcatlon ho. c1/6], para. c.
zo. uS Supreme Court, ludement of o lune 1S6 '8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk, u/S uS 1S6 (1S6)].
z1. ludement of 0ctober 1S, Ncticrcl Cccliticr cf Ccv 8 lcsbicr Fcclitv crJ Arcthcr v. Miristcr cf lstirc
crJ cthcrs, Ccsc CCT11]S.
zz. lbiJ., para. 116.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 6o
the equallty]non-dlscrlmlnatlon norm and a lack of appreclatlon of the normatlve
scope of prlvacy.
Flrstly, the South Afrlcan Constltutlonal Court addressed the matter by observlne
that equallty and prlvacy were belne vlolated slmultaneously by the antl-sodomy
laws. The rleht to equallty was lnfrlneed because of the lntruslon lnto prlvate llfe
based on dlsrespect for a person of homosexual orlentatlon, resultlne ln dlspenslne
unequal treatment. Secondly, the Court adopted the expanslve constructlon of
prlvacy remlnlscent of the dlssentlne oplnlon ln 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk,
z
that dld not
merely lmaelne the lndlvldual ln lsolatlon but ln the entlrety of hls llved experlence,
both publlc and prlvate and the protectlon of hls llfe cholces aealnst the conflctlne
whlm of the ma|orlty.
Thlrdly, the South Afrlcan Constltutlonal Court was of the vlew that the equallty
prlnclple was eneaeed by the ln|ury to hls dlenlty occasloned by antl-sodomy laws of
the class of persons called eays based on thelr sexual orlentatlon. The Constltutlonal
Court found that eays were a permanent mlnorlty who constltuted a "dlstlnct thoueh
lnvlslble" sectlon of the communlty and whose ldentlfylne characterlstlcs comblned
"all the anxletles produced by sexuallty wlth all the allenatlne effects resultlne from
dlfference". The ln|ury to dlenlty wroueht by the antl-sodomy laws resulted from the
dlsenfranchlsement from "full moral cltlzenshlp" and was evldenced by the talntlne
of the homosexual deslre and the attrlbutlon of perverslty and shame to sponta-
neous physlcal affectlon amone persons of homosexual orlentatlon.
Thls lnteerated notlon of equallty affrms the varlablllty of human belnes and
re|ects the areument that the ma|orlty sentlment ls the measure for what ls leeally
normatlve on the questlon of lndlvldual freedoms and potentlal conflct wlth soclal
control. vlolatlons of the rleht to prlvacy, aloneslde clalms of ln|ury to the dlenlty of
homosexual men, make prlvacy clalms stroneer and also strenethen areuments for
non-dlscrlmlnatlon and equallty before the law.
A varlety of supreme courts have found crlmlnal penaltles for homosexuallty to
vlolate both constltutlonal and lnternatlonal law euarantees of prlvacy and the rleht
to the unlversal en|oyment of fundamental human rlehts. The followlne ls a brlef
summary of a few of these declslons.
cuader: 1/ - Constltutlonal Court rullne that Artlcle c16 of the Crlmlnal Code (on
"homosexuallsm") vlolated constltutlonal and lnternatlonal law euarantees of the
equal en|oyment of fundamental rleht by all persons.
Ce|embia: 1u - Constltutlonal Court rullne that homosexuallty between adults
ls protected by the law; homosexuals are protected by the fundamental rule of
equal protectlon by the law and they have the same fundamental rlehts that hetero-
sexuals have; nothlne authorlses the dlscrlmlnatlon of homosexuals for thelr sexual
z. uS Supreme Court, ludement of o lune 1S6 '8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk, u/S uS 1S6 (1S6)].
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 61
orlentatlon (ludement ho. T-c-u of o hovember 1u, see also ho. T-uz/o and
T-uzcc).
Peru: zoou - Constltutlonal Trlbunal rullne erantlne eays ln the mllltary the freedom
to have sex, declarlne that a rule whlch had deemed such relatlons llleeal was uncon-
stltutlonal (ludement of lune zoou, Case ho. ooz-zoo-Al]TC).
China - Beng Keng: zoo6 - the Court of Appeal upheld a hleh Court rullne aealnst a
law provldlne that men youneer than z1 who eneaee ln sodomy would be |alled for
llfe. The panel of three Court of Appeal |udees upheld the orlelnal declslon lssued
by the lower court ln Aueust zooc. The laws were frst challeneed by wllllam koy
Leune, a then zo-year-old eay man who areued that he should be able to have a
sexual relatlonshlp wlthout the fear of lmprlsonment. ln the Aueust rullne, hleh
Court ludee Mlchael hartmann slded wlth Mr. Leune, saylne the laws aealnst sodomy
lnfrlneed on the rlehts of prlvacy and equallty for eay men. whlle eay men caueht
eneaelne ln sodomy when elther was under z1 faced llfe lmprlsonment, heterosexual
couples could leeally have sex at aee 16. ln thls declslon, of zo September, the Court
of Appeal dlsmlssed the eovernment's appeal.
kepa|: 0ecember zoo/, the Supreme Court ordered the eovernment to scrap laws
that dlscrlmlnated aealnst homosexuals. The court also ordered that sexual mlnorl-
tles should be euaranteed the same rlehts as other cltlzens. ln thelr rullne, two
Supreme Court |udees sald: "The eovernment of hepal should formulate new laws
and amend exlstlne laws ln order to safeeuard the rlehts of these people. Lesblan,
eay, blsexual, transsexual and lntersex are natural persons lrrespectlve of thelr
mascullne and femlnlne eender and they have the rleht to exerclse thelr rlehts and
llve an lndependent llfe ln soclety."
fiji: zooc - 0hlrendra hadan, z, and Thomas McCosker, cc, had been sentenced
to two years lmprlsonment ln Aprll zooc for "offences aealnst nature" and "eross
lndecency". The palr were unrepresented at thelr orlelnal trlal and pleaded eullty,
but they appealed aealnst the sentence. 0ecldlne on thelr appeal, hleh Court |udee
lustlce 0erard wlnter sald thelr convlctlons were lnvalld because they were lncon-
slstent wlth the 1/ Constltutlon's protectlon of prlvacy and equallty. Artlcle S of
the Fl|lan Constltutlon prohlblts dlscrlmlnatlon based on any "actual or supposed
personal characterlstlcs or clrcumstances, lncludlne '.] sexual orlentatlon" and
Artlcle / of the Constltutlon also protects the "rleht to personal prlvacy".
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 6z
Uganda: 0ecember zooS, the hleh Court of ueanda at Kampala (clvll 0lvlslon) ruled
that ueandan constltutlonal rlehts apply to lesblans, eays, blsexuals and transeen-
dered, reeardless of thelr sexual orlentatlon.
. tnterIerence with and restrictien eI the enjeyment eI the right te
privacy in the area eI sexua| erientatien and gender identity
The duty to protect the rleht to prlvacy ln relatlon to sexual orlentatlon ralses the
questlon of the unlawfulness and arbltrarlness of lnterference. The human klehts
Commlttee ln 1ccrcr v. Astrclic recalled that the:
"irtrcJrticr cf thc rcrrcpt cf crbitrcrircss is irtcrJcJ tc ccrcrtcc thct
cvcrv irtcrfcrcrrc prcviJcJ fcr bv thc lcw shclJ bc ir crrcrJcrrc with thc
prcvisicrs, cins crJ cbjcrtivcs cf thc Ccvcrcrt crJ shclJ bc, ir crv cvcrt,
rccscrcblc ir thc rirrnstcrrcs. |.] |1]hc rccircncrt cf rccscrcblcrcss
tc inplv thct crv irtcrfcrcrrc with privcrv nst bc prcpcrticrcl tc thc crJ
sccht crJ bc rcrcsscrv ir thc rirrnstcrrcs cf crv civcr rcsc."
zu
here the human klehts Commlttee has concluded that the crlmlnallsatlon of homo-
sexual practlces was both arbltrary and dlsproportlonate. Crlmlnallsatlon constltutes
an arbltrary lnterference wlth the rleht to prlvacy, whlch lncludes adult consensual
sexual actlvlty ln prlvate.
zc
The Commlttee noted that "the crlmlnallzatlon of homo-
sexual practlces cannot be consldered a reasonable means or proportlonate measure
to achleve the alm of preventlne the spread of Al0S]hlv"
z6
, especlally when "no
llnk has been shown between the contlnued crlmlnallzatlon of homosexual actlvlty
and the effectlve control of the spread of the hlv]Al0S vlrus."
z/
The current vlew reeardlne lnterference and restrlctlon of the rleht to prlvacy ln
the area of sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty was fundamentally developed
by the Furopean Court of human klehts, whlch has dealt wlth several cases durlne
the last decades. As early as 1/6, the Furopean Court declared ln lts hcrJvsiJc
|udement
zS
that, ln lnvestleatlne whether the protectlon of morals necessltated
the varlous measures taken, lt had to make an "assessment of the reallty of the
presslne soclal need lmplled by the notlon of 'necesslty' ln thls context" and stated
that "every 'restrlctlon' lmposed ln thls sphere must be proportlonate to the leeltl-
zu. vlews of 1 March 1u, Case of Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v. Astrclic, Communlcatlon ho. uSS]1z, para. S..
zc. lbiJ., para. S.z. ln the same llne, see irtcr clic, Concludlne observatlons of the human klehts Commlttee on:
Chlle, CCPk]C]/]Add.1ou of o March 1, para. zo; lamalca, CCPk]C0]S]KFh of z Aprll zooc, para.
z/; Poland, CCPk]C]/]Add.11o of z luly 1, para. z; and komanla, CCPk]C]/]Add.111 of zS luly 1
para. 16.
z6. lbiJ., para. S.c.
z/. lbiJ.
zS. ludement of / 0ecember of 1/6, Case of hcrJvsiJc v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho. cu]/z, paras.
u6, uS and u.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 6
mate alm pursued". lt confrmed thls approach ln the case of 0Jcccr,
z
ln whlch
the Court was of the oplnlon that slnce the case concerned a most lntlmate aspect
of prlvate llfe, there had to be partlcularly serlous reasons before lnterferences on
the part of the publlc could be leeltlmate for the purposes of paraeraph z of Artlcle
S of the Frcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts. The Court clted that prlnclples of
tolerance and broadmlndedness underplnned the defnltlon of a Conventlon rleht
and reasoned that the notlon of what was "necessary ln a democratlc soclety" was
only conslstent wlth a Conventlon rleht when lt was proportlonate to the leeltlmate
alm pursued. lt further clted that, notwlthstandlne the mareln of appreclatlon left
to the natlonal authorltles, lt fell to the Court to determlne whether the lnterference
complalned of was proportlonate to the soclal need clalmed for lt.
The Court also noted an lncreased tolerance of homosexual behavlour ln the ereat
ma|orlty of the Member States of the Councll of Furope and noted that lt was no
loneer consldered to be necessary or approprlate to crlmlnallse consensual homo-
sexual practlces. 0n the lssue of proportlonallty, the Court consldered that the
|ustlfcatlons for retalnlne the law ln force un-amended was outwelehed by the
detrlmental effects that the very exlstence of the leelslatlve provlslons ln questlon
could have had on the llfe of a person of homosexual orlentatlon llke the appllcant.
The Court has polnted out that, "'t]here can be no denlal that some deeree of reeu-
latlon of male homosexual conduct, as lndeed of other forms of sexual conduct, by
means of the crlmlnal law can be |ustlfed as 'necessary ln a democratlc soclety'.
The overall functlon served by the crlmlnal law ln thls feld ls '.] 'to preserve publlc
order and decency 'and] to protect the cltlzen from what ls offenslve or ln|urlous'.
Furthermore, thls necesslty for some deeree of control may even extend to consen-
sual acts commltted ln prlvate, notably where there ls call '.] to provlde suffclent
safeeuards aealnst exploltatlon and corruptlon of others".
oo
however, the Court
has underllned that, "althoueh members of the publlc who reeard homosexuallty
as lmmoral may be shocked, offended or dlsturbed by the commlsslon by others
of prlvate homosexual acts, thls cannot on lts own warrant the appllcatlon of penal
sanctlons when lt ls consentlne adults alone who are lnvolved".
o1
ln the case of Christirc CccJwir, the Court ln lts assessment noted that lt had ruled
ln an opposlte manner ln slmllar cases,
oz
but clted the fact that the Court must have
reeard to the chanelne condltlons wlthln the respondent State and wlthln Contractlne
States eenerally. lt also acknowledeed the need to respond to any evolvlne conver-
z. ludement of zz 0ctober 1S1, Case of 0Jcccr v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho. /czc]/6, paras. uS
ct scc.
oo. lbiJ., para. u.
o1. lbiJ., para. 6o.
oz. See ludement of 1/ 0ctober 1S6, Case of kccs v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Applircticr Nc. cz]S1; ludement of
z/ September 1, Case of Ccsscv v. thc uritcJ kircJcn |udement, Appllcatlon ho. 1oSu]Su ; ludement
of zz Aprll 1/, Case of X., . crJ Z. v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho./c]1c]cS1]66/ ; ludement
of o luly 1S, Case of ShcfficlJ crJ hcrshcn v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho. 1-z]1/]S1c-
S16]1o1S-1o1; ludement of zc March 1z, Case of 8 v. Frcrrc, Appllcatlon ho. 1u]S/.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 6u
eence as to the standards to be achleved and recoenlsed the serlous lnterference
wlth prlvate llfe that can arlse where the state of domestlc law conflcts wlth an
lmportant aspect of personal ldentlty.
o
The Court consldered lt most slenlfcant
that "transsexuallsm has wlde lnternatlonal recoenltlon as a medlcal condltlon for
whlch treatment ls provlded ln order to afford rellef. For example, the 0iccrcstir crJ
Stctistircl Mcrcl- fourth edltlon (0SM-lv) replaced the dlaenosls of transsexuallsm
wlth 'eender ldentlty dlsorder'; see also the lrtcrrcticrcl Clcssihrcticr cf 0isccscs,
tenth edltlon (lC0-1o))".
ou
The case of Mbllcr crJ 0thcrs v. SwitzcrlcrJ demonstrates that, ln the context of the
protectlon of morals, the Court contlnues to apply the same tests for determlnlne
what ls "necessary ln a democratlc soclety".
oc
ln that case, the Court, ln reachlne lts
declslon, examlned whether the contested measures, whlch pursued the leeltlmate
alm of protectlne morals, both answered a presslne soclal need and complled wlth
the prlnclple of proportlonallty.
o6
The reference to a predomlnant standard of tolerance towards homosexuallty ln
Furope ln the case of 0Jcccr, for example, areuably allenates the |udement ln lts
appllcablllty to some other forums. The use of Furope as a standard of reasonable
conduct ln the clrcumstances ls extremely problematlc elven the strone natlonallst
sentlments that prevall ln some parts of the world, as well as ln Furope ltself. A
correspondlne lack of tolerance at the slte ln questlon may be ralsed to areue the
lntentlon to retaln laws prohlbltlne bueeery. Thoueh the |udement welehs heavlly
ln the context of Furope, lt remalns unassallable that lts force emanates from
areuments concernlne the ln|ury to that "most lntlmate part of prlvate llfe" and a
favourable constructlon of the proportlonallty test. lt ls also noteworthy that the
force of the prlvacy areument ln decrlmlnallslne bueeery laws proved satlsfactory
for those purposes ln Furope, as lt overcame the strone soclal (rellelous) reslstance
of horthern lreland ln 0Jcccr, lreland ln Ncrris and Cyprus ln McJircs.
.: Cemparative pub|ic |aw and interIerence and restrictien eI the
right te privacy
The reasonlne offered by the ma|orlty of the uS Supreme Court ln the now over-ruled
case of 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk typlfes the rhetorlc employed ln the many countrles
whlch retaln antl-homosexual laws on the streneth of ma|orlty sentlment. ln denylne
the appllcant's constltutlonal challenee of the 0eorela sodomy laws, lustlce 8ryan of
the ma|orlty pronounced that the Federal Constltutlon dld not confer a fundamental
rleht upon homosexuals to eneaee ln sodomy. he clted the hlstorlcal orlelns of the
o. See 0Jcccr v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Jcr. rit., para. u1.
ou. ludement of 11 luly zooz, Case of Christirc CccJwir v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn, Applircticr Nc. zSc/]c,
para. S1.
oc. ludement of zu May 1SS, Case of Mbllcr crJ 0thcrs v. SwitzcrlcrJ, Appllcatlon ho. 1o//]Su, paras. 1-/
and uo-uu.
o6. lbiJ., paras. z, uo and u.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 6c
sodomy laws and found that lts prohlbltlon was "deeply rooted ln thls hatlon's
hlstory and tradltlon". he predlcated the ratlonal basls for sodomy laws on notlons
of morallty and the presumed bellef of the ma|orlty of the electorate ln 0eorela
that homosexual sodomy was lmmoral and unacceptable. The Court dld not re|ect
prevlous case law that had lnterpreted the Constltutlon ln ways that protected
prlvate relatlonshlps ln marrlaee and famlly, but nevertheless refused to extend
thls protectlon to homosexual relatlonshlps between consentlne adults.
lustlce 8lackmun, ln hls vleorous dlssent saw the lssue as the Constltutlonal "rleht
to be let alone". he areued that:
"|c]rlv thc ncst wilfl blirJrcss shclJ cbsrrc thc fcrt thct scxcl irtincrv
is c scrsitivc kcv rclcticrship cf hncr cxistcrrc |.] . 1hc fcrt thct irJi-
viJcls Jcfirc thcnsclvcs ir c sicrifircrt wcv thrcch thcir irtinctc scxcl
rclcticrships with cthcrs scccsts, ir c Ncticr cs Jivcrsc cs crs, thct thcrc
ncv bc ncrv richt wcvs cf rcrJrtirc thcsc rclcticrships, crJ thct nrh
cf thc rirhrcss cf c rclcticrship will rcnc frcn thc frccJcn cr irJiviJcl
hcs tc rhccsc thc fcrn crJ rctrc cf thcsc irtcrsclv pcrscrcl bcrJs."
o/
lustlce 8lackmun fayed the recourse to the antlqulty of the laws of the ma|orlty and
declared that the aee of laws dld not render them lnscrutable, especlally when the
erounds on whlch they were establlshed had now vanlshed. hls constructlon of the
rleht to prlvacy was not merely spatlal, but was expanslve enoueh to protect the
rleht to express personallty and develop lntlmate assoclatlons wlthout lnterference
by the State.
The eulf ln the ma|orlty and dlssentlne vlews of 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk refected the
dlfferent concepts of "hatlon" - or State oblleatlon - amone the |udees. The ma|orlty
vlew constructed the State ln monollthlc terms that speak vla the ma|orlty sentl-
ment whlle the dlssent saw the hatlon as a plural entlty that must have reeard for
the lndlvldual even where the ma|orlty stands ln opposltlon. Prlvacy ls envlsloned
as the buffer between State and lndlvldual. Professor Sheldon Leader areues that
the polnt of the Conventlon and the Constltutlon ls to test leelslatlon aealnst the
respectlve standards of both lnstruments.
oS
where declslons are made wholly on
account of the fact that they represent the ma|orlty vlew of the communlty, as was
the case wlth the ma|orlty ln 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk, the |udee has abdlcated thelr role
to ad|udlcate and made the communlty a |udee ln lts own cause.
The uS Supreme Court ln lcwrcrrc v. 1cxcs - whlch over-ruled 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk
- stated that desplte powerful volces that have condemned homosexuallty as
lmmoral ln the past, the Court's role was to defne llberty for all and not mandate
o/. uS Supreme Court, ludement of o lune 1S6 '8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk, u/S uS 1S6 (1S6)]. lustlce 8rennan,
lustlce Marshall and lustlce Stevens |olnt the dlssentlne of lustlce 8lackmun.
oS. Sheldon Leader, "The kleht to Prlvacy, the Fnforcement of Morals, and the ludlclal Functlon: An Areument", ln
Crrcrt lcccl Prcblcns, edltors: koeer kldeout & 8ob hepple, Sweet & Maxwell]Stevens]Stevens, 1o.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 66
lts own moral code.
o
The ma|orlty reasoned that laws and tradltlons of the past
half-century show "an emerelne awareness that llberty elves substantlal protectlon
to adult persons ln decldlne how to conduct thelr prlvate llves ln matters pertalnlne
to sex".
1o
Cruclally, the Court noted that to the extent that the 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk
declslon relled on shared values wlth the wlder clvlllzatlon, the case's reasonlne had
slnce been re|ected by the Furopean human klehts System, and that other natlons
had taken actlon conslstent wlth an affrmatlon of the protected rleht of homosexual
adults to eneaee ln lntlmate consensual conduct. Furthermore, the Court found that
there was no ureent or leeltlmate eovernmental lnterest ln clrcumscrlblne thls area
of personal cholce. The ma|orlty accepted the dlssent ln 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk whlch
areued that: (1) the fact that a State's eovernlne ma|orlty has tradltlonally vlewed a
partlcular practlce as lmmoral ls not a suffclent reason for upholdlne a law prohlb-
ltlne the practlce, and (z) lndlvldual declslons concernlne the lntlmacles of physlcal
relatlonshlps, even when not lntended to produce offsprlne, are a form of "llberty"
protected by due process. As the case lnvolved consent between adults, and there
was no evldence of ln|ury or coerclon, the Court declded that no leeltlmate eovern-
mental lnterest had been eneaeed to clrcumscrlbe the prlvacy of the lndlvldual.
The normatlve scope of the "rleht to prlvacy", acknowledees a eovernmental lnterest
eeared towards "protectlon". These llmltatlons are the usual publlc lnterest consld-
eratlons and the balanclne test or publlc pollcy lnterests are well stated. Some have
areued that there are three llmltlne prlnclples that may be dlscerned wlthln the |urls-
prudence of the Furopean Court of human klehts that apply to sex:
11
(a) the harm
prlnclple,
1z
(b) restrlctlon to acts amone consentlne adults
1
and c) wlthholdlne
the protectlon from commerclal sexual conduct, even lf lt occurs at home. A slmllar
eovernmental lnterest was noted ln South Afrlca ln the case of Ncticrcl Cccliticr cf
Ccv crJ lcsbicr Fcclitv v. Miristcr cf lstirc and was expressed as follows:
"|t]his ccvcrrncrtcl irtcrcst is crccccJ bcrcsc cf c pcrrcivcJ hcrn. lr
privctc rclcticrs, pcrscrs ncv bc pcrclizcJ fcr irtcr-ccrcrcticrcl, irtrc-
fcnilicl crJ rrcss spcrics scx ir pblir cr privctc. Scx irvclvirc viclcrrc,
o. uS Supreme Court, ludement of z6 lune zoo 'lcwrcrrc ct cl. v. 1cxcs (oz-1oz) c u.S. ccS (zoo)].
1o. lbiJ.
11. Mary koblnson amlcus brlef ln lcwrcrrc v. 1cxcs ( http:]]hrw.ore]press]zoo]o/]amlcusbrlef.pdf ) at p.
16.
1z. ln lts ludement of 1 February 1/, ln the case of lcskcv, lccccrJ crJ 8rcwr v. uritcJ kircJcn, Jcr. rit.,
the Court emphaslsed the harm prlnclple ln decllnlne to extend 0Jcccr to protect consensual, sado-
masochlstlc sexual actlvlty ln the home. The Court stressed "thct rct cvcrv scxcl crtivitv rcrricJ ct bchirJ
rlcscJ Jccrs rcrcsscrilv fclls withir thc srcpc cf Artirlc 8", para. 6.
1. ln 0Jcccr ltself, the Court acknowledeed that "scnc Jccrcc cf rcclcticr cf nclc hcncscxcl rcrJrt"
bv thc rrinircl lcw wcs jstificJ, cvcr with rcspcrt tc rcrscrscl crts rcnnittcJ ir privctc, "tc prcviJc
sffiricrt scfcccrJs cccirst cxplcitcticr crJ rcrrpticr cf cthcrs, pcrtirlcrlv thcsc whc crc spcricllv
vlrcrcblc bcrcsc thcv crc vcrc, wcck ir bcJv cr nirJ, ircxpcricrrcJ, cr ir c stctc cf spcricl phvsircl,
cffiricl cr crcrcnir JcpcrJcrrc".
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 6/
Jcrcpticr, vcvcrisn, irtrsicr cr hcrcssncrt is scnctincs prishcblc cr
ncJc crticrcblc, whcrcvcr thcv tckc plcrc".
1u
5ummary
Sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty are an essentlally prlvate manlfes- !
tatlon of human personallty and the rleht to prlvate llfe. lt ls undlsputed
that adult consensual sexual actlvlty, conducted ln prlvate, ls covered by the
concept of 'prlvacy' and that eender ldentlty, sexual orlentatlon and actlvlty
concern an lntlmate aspect of prlvate llfe;
The rleht to prlvate llfe ls a broad umbrella coverlne ! irtcr clic lnteerlty of
the home, body and famlly, and determlnatlon and development of one's
own personallty, personal ldentlty and lnter-personal relatlonshlps. The rleht
ls vlolated lf an lndlvldual's prlvacy ls lnterfered wlth elther unlawfully or
lawfully but arbltrarlly;
States have the lnternatlonal oblleatlon to euarantee the rleht to prlvate llfe. !
Thls lncludes the duty of non-lnterference wlth prlvate llfe and the oblleatlon
to prevent attacks by thlrd partles on prlvate llfe. The oblleatlon entalls both
posltlve and neeatlve dutles;
The rleht to prlvacy ls a non-absolute rleht and lt can be deroeated ln tlmes !
of emereency. 0eroeatlon does not mean obllteratlon of the rleht;
ln normal tlmes, the rleht to prlvacy may be sub|ect to restrlctlons or lnterfer- !
ence, whlch must be sub|ect to law and must be not arbltrary. lnterference
or restrlctlon may be permltted, but only lf they:
are essentlal ln the lnterests of soclety and are necessary ln a demo- !
cratlc soclety;
have leeltlmate alm and purpose; !
are reasonable ln the partlcular clrcumstances of the case; !
are provlded for by law, whlch speclfles ln detall the preclse clrcum- !
stances ln whlch such lnterference or restrlctlon ls to occur; and
compatlble and conslstent wlth lnternatlonal human rlehts law; !
Permlsslble llmltatlons on the rleht to prlvacy are the usual publlc lnterest !
conslderatlons, balanclne tests and publlc pollcy concerns. Some of these
lnclude the protectlon of the lndlvldual from harm, restrlctlon of acts to
1u. Constltutlonal Court of South Afrlca, ludement of 0ctober 1S, Ncticrcl Cccliticr cf Ccv 8 lcsbicr
Fcclitv crJ Arcthcr v. Miristcr cf lstirc crJ cthcrs, Ccsc CCT11]S.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 6S
consentlne adults and wlthholdlne protectlon from commerclal sexual
conduct, even lf lt occurs at home. The prlnclples of tolerance and broadmlnd-
edness are lmportant conslderatlons ln balanclne competlne conslderatlons
concernlne prlvacy of the lndlvldual.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 6
"1hc Jctcrticr cf |.] pcrscrs prcscrtcJ cr thc
crcrJs thct, bv thcir scxcl cricrtcticr, thcv irritcJ
scricl Jisscrticr rcrstittcs cr crbitrcrv Jcprivcticr
cf libcrtv, bcirc ir rcrtrcvcrticr cf thc prcvisicrs cf
crtirlc 2, pcrccrcph 1, cf thc urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cf
hncr kichts, crJ crtirlcs 2, pcrccrcph 1, crJ 26
cf thc lrtcrrcticrcl Ccvcrcrt cr Civil crJ Pclitircl
kichts."
-uh worklne 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon
1c
tv. Arbitrary 0eprivatien eI Liberty
:. Lega| kature and 5cepe
lnternatlonal law recoenlses and protects the rleht to llberty and the rleht not to
be arbltrarlly deprlved of llberty.
16
The concept of deprlvatlon of llberty assumes
dlfferent forms, lncludlne arrest
1/
and detentlon.
1S
lt also covers any klnd of deprl-
vatlon of llberty: pre-trlal detentlon, admlnlstratlve detentlon, pollcy custody,
lnternment and house arrest, amonest others. The "rleht to llberty" ls closely
connected wlth the "rleht to securlty of person"
1
, protected by Artlcle of the
urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cf hncr kichts. Furthermore the human klehts Commlttee
has polnted out that "Artlcle (1) of the 'lCCPk] protects the rleht to securlty of
person also outslde the context of formal deprlvatlon of llberty. An lnterpretatlon of
1c. worklne 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon, 0plnlon ho. /]zooz (Feypt), of z1 of lune zooz, para. zS, uh 0oc.
F]Ch.u]zoo]S]Add.1.
16. unlversal 0eclaratlon of human klehts (Artlcles and ), lnternatlonal Covenant on Clvll and Polltlcal klehts
(lCCPk) (Artlcle ), lnternatlonal Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klehts of All Mlerant workers and
Members of Thelr Famllles (Artlcle 16), Conventlon on the klehts of the Chlld (Artlcle /), lnternatlonal
Conventlon for the Protectlon of All Persons from Fnforced 0lsappearance (Artlcle 1/), 0eclaratlon on the
human rlehts of lndlvlduals who are not natlonals of the country ln whlch they llve (Artlcle c.1), Afrlcan
Charter on human and Peoples' klehts (Artlcle 6), Prlnclples and 0uldellnes on the rleht to a falr trlal and
leeal asslstance ln Afrlca (Prlnclple M), Amerlcan 0eclaratlon of the klehts and 0utles of Man (Artlcles l and
XXv), Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts (Artlcle /), Arab Charter on human klehts (Artlcle 1u) and
Furopean Conventlon on human klehts (Artlcle c).
1/. The uh 8ody of Prlnclples for the Protectlon of All Persons under Any Form of 0etentlon or lmprlsonment
provldes the followlne deflnltlon of 'arrest': "thc crt cf cpprchcrJirc c pcrscr fcr thc cllcccJ rcnnissicr
cf cr cffcrrc cr bv thc crticr cf cr cthcritv".
1S. '0etentlon' means the condltlon of persons deprlved of personal llberty except as a result of convlctlon
for an offence (uh 8ody of Prlnclples for the Protectlon of All Persons under Any Form of 0etentlon or
lmprlsonment, "use of Terms").
1. See human klehts Commlttee: vlews of zc 0ctober zooo, Case kcJccr Chcrcwc v. Zcnbic, Communlcatlon
ho. Sz1]1S, CCPk]C]/o]0]Sz1]1S; vlews of zo March zooo, Case Ccrlcs 0ics v. Arcclc, Communlcatlon
ho. /11]16, CCPk]C]6S]0]/11]16; and vlews of 1z luly 1o, Case willicn FJcrJc 0clccJc Pdcz v.
Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon ho. 1c]1Sc, CCPk]C]]0]1c]1Sc. See also the Furopean Court of human
klehts, ludements of 1z March zoo and c May zooc (0rand Chamber), Case of 0rclcr v. 1rkcv, Appllcatlon
ho. u6zz1]. Artlcle of the unlversal 0eclaratlon of human klehts refers to the rleht to llfe, the rleht to
llberty and the rleht to securlty of the person.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u /o
Artlcle whlch would allow a State party to lenore threats to the personal securlty
of non-detalned persons sub|ect to lts |urlsdlctlon would render totally lneffectlve
the euarantees of the Covenant".
zo
States have the oblleatlon to adopt and put
ln place leelslatlve or other measures to ensure the rleht to llberty and to prevent
arbltrary detentlon. To protect the rleht to llberty, lnternatlonal law has establlshed
numerous euarantees that seek to protect people from unlawful or arbltrary deten-
tlon or arrest.
Accordlne to appllcable lnternatlonal human rlehts treatles,
z1
the rleht to llberty
may be the sub|ect of deroeatlon ln tlmes of emereency. however, such deroea-
tlons must be conslstent wlth other oblleatlons under lnternatlonal law, lncludlne
lnternatlonal customary law, ln partlcular peremptory norms of lnternatlonal law that
extend beyond the express llst of non-deroeable provlslons establlshed ln human
rlehts treatles,
zz
and cannot deprlve detalnees of the safeeuards deslened to protect
non-deroeable rlehts. ln thls connectlon, the human klehts Commlttee has polnted
out that a state of emereency or state of war cannot be lnvoked as a |ustlfcatlon for
unacknowledeed detentlon, arbltrarlly deprlvlne people of thelr llberty, or denylne
anyone deprlved of thelr llberty the rleht to be treated wlth humanlty and respect
for the lnherent dlenlty of the human person.
z
z. 0eIining arbitrary deprivatien eI |iberty
ln the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cf hncr kichts, Artlcle states that "'n]o one shall be
sub|ected to arbltrary arrest, detentlon or exlle". The 0eclaratlon does not defne
"arbltrary". lt should be noted that the |urlsprudence of arrest and detentlon are
overlapplne but separate. whlle the |urlsprudence on arrest ls concerned wlth the
reasons advanced for detalnlne an lndlvldual, the |urlsprudence on detentlon ls also
concerned wlth addltlonal lssues related to keeplne an lndlvldual detalned over
tlme. The uh human klehts Commlttee has underllned that "for an arrest to be ln
compllance wlth Artlcle , paraeraph 1, 'of the lCCPk] lt must not only be lawful, but
also reasonable and necessary ln all the clrcumstances".
zu
lt has also stated that
"'p]re-trlal detentlon should be an exceptlon and as short as posslble".
zc
zo. vlews of 1z luly 1o, Case of willicn FJcrJc 0clccJc Pdcz v. Cclcnbic, Jcr. rit., para. S..
z1. The lCCPk (Artlcle u), Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts (Artlcle z/) and Furopean Conventlon on human
klehts (Artlcle 1c).
zz. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, Stctcs cf cncrccrrv, Artirlc o, para. 11.
z. lbiJ., paras. 11 and 1.
zu. vlews of c hovember 1, Case Accc Spcknc v. Ncrwcv, Communlcatlon ho 61]1c, para. 6., ln uh
0oc. CCPk]C]6/]0]61]1c, 11 hovember 1.
zc. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 8, kicht tc libcrtv crJ scrritv cf pcrscrs, Artirlc , para.
. See also, CcrrlJirc cbscrvcticrs cf thc hncr kichts Ccnnittcc: Arccrtirc, uh 0oc. CCPk]C0]/o]
Ak0, hovember zooo, para. 1o.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw /1
The human klehts Commlttee has consldered, ln the framework of a temporary or
pre-trlal detentlon of a |udlclal nature, that:
"|t]hc Jrcftirc histcrv cf crtirlc , pcrccrcph 1 |cf thc lCCPk], rcrfirns thct
crbitrcrircss is rct tc bc ccctcJ with cccirst thc lcw, bt nst bc irtcr-
prctcJ ncrc brccJlv tc irrlJc clcncrts cf ircpprcprictcrcss, irjstirc crJ
lcrk cf prcJirtcbilitv. 1his nccrs thct rcncrJ ir rstcJv prscrt tc lcwfl
crrcst nst rct crlv bc lcwfl bt rccscrcblc ir cll thc rirrnstcrrcs, |.]
fcr cxcnplc, tc prcvcrt flicht, irtcrfcrcrrc with cviJcrrc cr thc rcrrrcrrc
cf rrinc".
z6
Several eeneral crlterla of arbltrarlness can be ldentlfed from the human klehts
Commlttee's |urlsprudence, althoueh every klnd of deprlvatlon of llberty may requlre
addltlonal or speclfc crlterla. These lnclude leeallty, leeltlmacy, necesslty, propor-
tlonallty and preservatlon of other human rlehts, lncludlne irtcr clic the rleht to a
remedy and to securlty of person.
The Furopean Court of human klehts
z/
, the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human
klehts
zS
and the Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klehts
z
all follow
thls ratlonal: to avold arbltrarlness detentlon must be prescrlbed by law and that
domestlc law be ln conformlty wlth reelonal and lnternatlonal law.
z6. vlews of z luly 1o, Case hcc vcr Alphcr v. 1hc NcthcrlcrJs, Communlcatlon ho. oc]1SS, para. c.S,
CCPk]C]]0]oc]1SS of 1c Aueust 1o. See also vlews of c hovember 1, Case Accc v. Ncrwcv,
Communlcatlon ho. 61]1c, para. 6. (CCPk]C]6/]0]61]1c) ; vlews of z1 luly 1u, Case Albcrt
wcnch Mkcrc v. Ccncrccr, Communlcatlon ho. ucS]11, para. (S), (CCPk]C]c1]0]ucS]11);
vlews of Aprll 1/, Case A(rcnc JclctcJ| v. Astrclic, Communlcatlon ho c6o]1, para. .z (
CCPk]C]c]0]c6o]1).
z/. The Furopean Court of human klehts speclfles that deprlvatlon of llberty must protect lndlvlduals from
arbltrarlness ln conslstency wlth Artlcle c of the Conventlon, see ludement of 1c hovember 16, Case of
Chchcl v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn, para. 11S; ludement of 1z March zoo, Case of 0rclcr v. 1rkcv, para. S6;
ludement of 1S 0ecember 1S6, Case of 8czcrc v. Frcrrc, para. cu; and ludement of z/ September 1o,
Case of wcssirk v. thc NcthcrlcrJs, para. zu. Alone the same veln see also the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon
on human klehts keport on Terrorlsm and human klehts, cp. rit., para. 1z1.
zS. The lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts has stated that althoueh an arrest may be made ln accord-
ance wlth procedure - lf lt ls wlthout reasonable purpose then lt ls arbltrary, see keport ho.u]6, Case
11.uo, Ccrcrcl lcsc Frcrrisrc CcllcrJc kcJriccz (Mcxirc|, paras. 6c-/o. lt has also stated that domestlc
law must conflrm to the fundamental purposes underlylne Artlcle XXv, protectlne lndlvlduals from arbltrary
deprlvatlons of llberty; see keport ho. c1]o1, Case o, kcfccl Fcrrcr-Mczcrrc ct cl (unlted States), para.
z11.
z. The Afrlcan Commlsslon has outllned that, "1hcrcfcrc, crv Jcncstir lcw thct prpcrts tc viclctc this richt
shclJ rcrfcrn tc irtcrrcticrcllv lciJ Jcwr rcrns crJ stcrJcrJs. '.] Artirlc 6 cf thc Afrircr Chcrtcr frthcr
stctcs thct rc crc ncv bc crbitrcrilv crrcstcJ cr JctcircJ. Prchibiticr cccirst crbitrcrircss rccircs cncrc
cthcr thircs thct Jcprivcticr cf libcrtv shcll bc rJcr thc cthcritv crJ spcrvisicr cf pcrscrs prcrcJrcllv
crJ sbstcrtivclv rcnpctcrt tc rcrtifv it", Communlcatlon ho. zu1]zoo1, Case of Prchit crJ Mccrc / 1hc
Ccnbic, para. 6u-6c.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u /z
Farly ln 16z, a uh Commlttee conducted a "Study of the kleht of Fveryone to be
Free from Arbltrary Arrest, 0etentlon and Fxlle"
o
and concluded that "an arrest or
detentlon ls arbltrary lf lt ls (a) on erounds or ln accordance wlth procedures other
than those establlshed by law, or (b) under the provlslons of a law the purpose of
whlch ls lncompatlble wlth respect for the rleht to llberty and securlty of person".
1

ln conslderlne those crlterla, the uh worklne 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon has
developed three cateeorles of arbltrary detentlon:
when lt ls clearly lmposslble to lnvoke any leeal basls |ustlfylne the deprlva- !
tlon of llberty (Cateeory l);
when the deprlvatlon of llberty results from the exerclse of the rlehts or !
freedoms euaranteed by the Artlcles of the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cf hncr
kichts, such as freedom of expresslon and freedom of consclence (Cateeory
ll); and
when the total or partlal non-observance of the lnternatlonal norms relatlne !
to the rleht to a falr trlal, establlshed ln the unlversal 0eclaratlon of human
klehts and ln the relevant lnternatlonal lnstruments accepted by the States
concerned, ls of such eravlty as to elve the deprlvatlon of llberty an arbltrary
character (Cateeory lll).
z
. asic criteria Ier |awIu| deprivatien eI |iberty
Any deprlvatlon of llberty must meet the followlne crlterla to avold belne arbltrary:
procedural and substantlve leeallty, leeltlmacy of purpose, necessary, proportlonal
and human rlehts euaranteed.

The Furopean Court of human klehts has consldered that "|udlclal control of lnterfer-
ences by the executlve wlth the lndlvldual's rleht to llberty provlded for by artlcle c
'of the Furopean Conventlon on human klehts] ls lmplled by one of the fundamental
o. The Commlttee was set up by the former uh Commlsslon on human klehts ln 1c6 wlth the purpose of
carrylne out several studles. lts mandate to carry out the study on the rleht of everyone to be free from
arbltrary arrest, detentlon and exlle was endorsed ln resolutlon 6zu 8 (XXll) of the Fconomlc and Soclal
Councll.
1. StJv cf thc richt cf cvcrvcrc tc bc frcc frcn crbitrcrv crrcst, Jctcrticr crJ cxilc, uh 0oc. F]Ch.u]Sz6]
kev.1, p. /, para. z/ 16u).
z. See Fcrt Shcct Nc. 26: 1hc wcrkirc Crcp cr Arbitrcrv 0ctcrticr, Annex lv "kevlsed Methods of work",
para. S (http:]]wwwz.ohchr.ore]enellsh]about]publlcatlons]docs]fsz6.htm).
. See, amone others, the lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts (ludement of z1 lanuary 1u, Ccrccrcn
PcrJcv, paras. u6-u/; ludement of S luly zoou, Ccncz Pccivcri v. Pcr, para. S; ludement of z hovember
zoo, Mcritzc urrtic v. Cctcnclc, para. 6c; ludement of 1S September zoo, 8lcric v. Arccrtirc, para.
1zc; and ludement of / lune zoo, lcr hnbcrtc Sdrrhcz v. hcrJrcs, para. /S) and the Furopean Court of
human klehts (ludement of z6 May 1, 8rcrriccr crJ Mr8riJc v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn, para. uS; ludement
of z hovember 1SS, 8rcccr crJ cthcrs v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn, para. z; ludement of z/ September zoo1,
Cbrcv crJ cthcrs v. 1rkcv, para. zz; ludement of z6 hovember 1/, Mrct Sckik crJ cthcrs v. 1rkcv,
para. uu; and ludement of 1c hovember 16, Chchcl v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn, para. 11S).
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw /
prlnclples of a democratlc soclety, namely the rule of law".
u
They have further
declared that "the llst of exceptlons to the rleht to llberty secured ln Artlcle c.1 'of
the Furopean Conventlon] ls an exhaustlve one and only a narrow lnterpretatlon of
those exceptlons ls conslstent wlth the alm of that provlslon, namely to ensure that
no one ls arbltrarlly deprlved of hls or her llberty".
c
The Frcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts also requlres that ln addltlon to belne
reasonably |ustlfable wlth reference to Artlcle c.1, an arrest must be a measure
proportlonal to the sltuatlon lt purports to remedy. The Furopean Court consldered
that althoueh Artlcle c.1 of the Conventlon allows for the detentlon of persons "for
the preventlon of the spreadlne of lnfectlous dlseases", the arrest and detentlon of
an hlv-posltlve man for |ust that purpose was arbltrary because "less severe meas-
ures had not been consldered and found to be lnsuffclent to safeeuard the publlc
lnterest".
6
The Court reached lts declslon desplte notlne that the sub|ect of the
arrest order was often non-cooperatlve wlth hospltal staff and had a sexual prefer-
ence for teenaee boys. here the Court conducted a proportlonallty test: welehlne
the rlsks of the spread of hlv aealnst the severlty of the clrcumstances the arrest
and detentlon are lntended to remedy.
/
The lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts has clarlfed that as well as adherlne to
the procedures prescrlbed by law and ensurlne those laws are ln accordance wlth
the prlnclples establlshed ln the Conventlon, to ensure a detentlon ls not arbltrary
lt must not be "unreasonable, unforeseeable or lacklne ln proportlonallty."
S
.: Lega|ity
All the ma|or human rlehts treatles requlre that arrests or detentlon be made
accordlne to a procedure establlshed by law. The lCCPk says, "'n]o one shall be
deprlved of hls llberty except '.] ln accordance wlth such procedure as are estab-
llshed by law",

the Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts prohlblts arrests

"except '.] under the condltlons establlshed beforehand by the constltutlon of
the State Party concerned or by a law establlshed pursuant thereto",
uo
the Afrircr
u. ludement of z6 May1, Case of 8rcrriccr crJ Mr8riJc v. uritcJ kircJcn, para. uS. See also |udement
of z hovember 1SS, case 8rcccr crJ cthcrs v. uritcJ kircJcn, para. z; ludement of z/ September
zoo1, case Cbrcv crJ cthcrs v. 1rkcv, para. zz; and luedment of z6 hovember 1/, Case of Mrct Sckik
crJ cthcrs v. 1rkcv, para. uu.
c. ludement of 6 Aprll zooo, Case of lcbitc v. ltclv, para. 1/o. ln the same llne, see |udement of zz March 1c,
Case of 0irr v. Frcrrc, para. uz; and |udement of zc May 1S, case krt v. 1rkcv, para. 1zz.
6. ludement of zc lanuary zooc, Case of Frhcrr v. SwcJcr, Appllcatlon ho. c6cz]oo, para. cc.
/. lbiJ., para. uS.
S. ludement of z1 lanuary 1u, Case of Ccrccrcn PcrJcv, paras. u6-u/. See Also: ludement of S luly zoou,
Case of Ccncz Pccivcri v. Pcr, para. S; ludement of z hovember zoo, Case of Mcritzc urrtic v.
Cctcnclc, para. 6c; ludement of 1S September zoo, Case of 8lcric v. Arccrtirc, para. 1zc; and ludement
of / lune zoo, Case of lcr hnbcrtc Sdrrhcz v. hcrJrcs, para. /S.
. lnternatlonal Covenant on Clvll and Polltlcal klehts, Artlcle .1.
uo. Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts, Artlcle /.z.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u /u
Chcrtcr cr hncr crJ Pccplcs kichts requlres arrests to be made only "for '.]
condltlons prevlously lald down by law",
u1
the Frcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr
kichts requlres that arrests be made "ln accordance wlth a procedure prescrlbed
by law",
uz
and the Arcb Chcrtcr cr hncr kichts stlpulates that "no one shall be
arrested, held ln custody or detalned wlthout a leeal warrant and wlthout belne
broueht promptly before a |udee".
u
0eprlvatlon of llberty that does not meet these
procedural requlrements ls arbltrary.
Procedural arbltrary detentlons fall lnto two broad cateeorles: those where no proce-
dure ls followed, and those where the procedure ls lncorrectly followed. The frst
form, "when lt ls clearly lmposslble to lnvoke any leeal basls |ustlfylne the deprlva-
tlon of llberty" and consequently no procedure applles, ls the easlest to recoenlse.
For example, when the Furopean Court of human klehts found ln the case of 0crizri
crJ 0thcrs v. Cvprs where the pollce arrested nlne people and expelled them from
the country, "that no reason was elven for thelr arrest, that no court order or |ude-
ment was served on them and that there was no |udlclal warrant authorlslne thelr
arrest", lt was qulckly able to conclude that the arrest was arbltrary.
uu
The other type of procedural arbltrary arrest occurs when the arrestlne authorl-
tles fall to follow the leeal procedure establlshed for arrest under natlonal law. ln
the case of Csirskiv v. kssic, the buslnessman 0uslnskly had been arrested and
detalned for questlonlne ln the course of a crlmlnal lnvestleatlon lnto fraud he was
alleeed to have commltted.
uc
0uslnskly was the holder of State decoratlon; a few
weeks before 0uslnskly's arrest, the kusslan parllament had passed a law erantlne
to all holders of such decoratlons an amnesty from lmprlsonment of any duratlon
and from belne the sub|ect of crlmlnal lnvestleatlons. The Furopean Court of human
klehts reasoned that, slnce "fallure to comply wlth domestlc law entalls a breach
of the 'Furopean] Conventlon", the pollce's fallure to follow the amnesty law made
0uslnskly's arrest arbltrary. Another type of procedural lnvalldlty can occur when
the authorlty orderlne the deprlvatlon of llberty ls not competent to do so.
u6
The
lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts consldered the case of an Fcuadorlan arrested
subsequent to the lssue of an order by the natlonal pollce.
u/
As Fcuadorlan law
provldes that only a court may lssue a valld arrest warrant the pollce order was
leeally lnsuffclent to authorlze the arrest. Consequently, the Court consldered the
arrest llleeal and therefore arbltrary.
uS
u1. Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klehts, Artlcle 6.
uz. Furopean Conventlon on human klehts, Artlcle c.1.
u. Arab Charter on human klehts, Artlcle 1u.
uu. ludement of z May zoo1, Case of 0crizri crJ 0thcrs v. Cvprs, Appllcatlon ho. zc16-zcz1]u and
z/zo/]c, paras. S-.
uc. ludement of 11 0ctober zoou, Case of Csirskiv v. kssic, Appllcatlon ho. /oz/6]o1.
u6. See for example, lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts, keport ho. /]oo, Case 11./Su, Mcrrclirc
hcrriccz ct cl. (Arccrtirc|.
u/. ludement of 1z hovember 1/, Case of Sdrcz kcscrc para. u.
uS. lbiJ., paras. uu-uc.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw /c
.z Legitimate Purpese
Fven where an arrest ls made ln proper compllance wlth leeal procedure, lt ls arbl-
trary lf lt ls not made for a leeltlmate purpose. 8eyond compllance wlth domestlc law,
courts must also look to lnternatlonal human rlehts law, customary lnternatlonal law
and eeneral prlnclples of lnternatlonal law to determlne whether the stated purpose
of an arrest ls leeltlmate.
The uh worklne 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon conslders arbltrary any deprlvatlon
of llberty resultlne from the exerclse of the rlehts or freedoms euaranteed by the
artlcles of the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cf hncr kichts. For example, the worklne
0roup has consldered arbltrary the detentlon of persons "for havlne peacefully
exerclsed thelr rleht to freedom of oplnlon and expresslon, as euaranteed under
Artlcles 1S, 1 and zo of the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cf hncr kichts and Artlcles 1S,
1, z1 and zz of the lrtcrrcticrcl Ccvcrcrt cr Civil crJ Pclitircl kichts".
u
Slmllarly,
the human klehts Commlttee has determlned that, whlle Artlcle 1. of the lCCPk
allows for pursulne the "leeltlmate ob|ectlve of safeeuardlne and lndeed streneth-
enlne natlonal unlty under dlffcult polltlcal clrcumstances, 'lt] cannot be achleved
by attemptlne to muzzle advocacy of multl-party democracy, democratlc tenets and
human rlehts".
co
The Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klehts and the
lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts have also consldered that when the
law ls used for an llleeltlmate purpose, such as prosecutlne the polltlcal opposltlon
or sllenclne human rlehts advocates, any deprlvatlon of llberty under such laws
would be arbltrary.
c1
o. 0eprivatien eI |iberty en greunds eI 5exua| 0rientatien and
Cender tdentity
Frequently, L08T persons are deprlved of thelr llberty solely on the erounds of thelr
sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty. Thls klnd of deprlvatlon of llberty can lnclude
|udlclal prosecutlon and trlal, admlnlstratlve detentlon, deprlvatlon of llberty on
medlcal erounds and arrest for the purposes of harassment, amone others. lt has
already been shown that slnce sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty are part of the
rleht to prlvate llfe and erounds of non-dlscrlmlnatlon, the deprlvatlon of llberty on
u. worklne 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon: 0plnlon ho. o]zoo1 (lslamlc kepubllc of lran), of u 0ecember zoo1,
para. 11, ln uh 0oc. F]Ch.u]zoo]S]Add.1.
co. vlews of z1 luly 1u, Case of Albcrt wcnch Mkcrc v. Ccncrccr, Communlcatlon ho. ucS]11, para. ./,
ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C]c1]0]ucS]11.
c1. See irtcr clic: Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klehts, Communlcatlons ho. 1uo]u, 1u1]u and
1uc]c, Case of Ccrstitticrcl kichts Prcjcrt, Civil libcrtics 0rccriscticr crJ McJic kichts AccrJc/Niccric;
Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klehts, Communlcatlon ho. zu1]zoo1, Case of Prchit crJ
Mccrc / 1hc Ccnbic; lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts, keport ho.u]6, Case 11.uo, Ccrcrcl
lcsc Frcrrisrc CcllcrJc kcJriccz (Mcxirc|; lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts, kesolutlon ho.
]Sz, Case /Szu (8ollvla).
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u /6
sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty erounds can amount to an arbltrary deprlva-
tlon of llberty.
The exlstence of laws crlmlnallslne certaln manlfestatlons of sexual orlentatlon or
eender ldentlty, even ln clrcumstances where these laws are not actlvely enforced,
wlll reduce the scope of llberty for persons of homosexual orlentatlon or trans-
eender ldentlty.
cz
States consequently have an oblleatlon to ellmlnate these laws,
for reason that they necessarlly lead to arbltrary deprlvatlon of llberty. For example,
bueeery laws, even thoueh technlcally lmpllcatlne all consentlne adults eneaelne
ln anal lntercourse, are prlmarlly assoclated wlth male homosexuallty; thelr appll-
catlon therefore dlsproportlonately affects eay men. The tareets of these laws
are frequently men of homosexual orlentatlon, reeardless of whether they have
commltted the physlcal act of bueeery ltself. The State-sponsored lmposltlon of an
aura of crlmlnallty on homosexual men throueh these laws marks the entlre commu-
nlty wlth a badee of perverslty.
c
ln accordance wlth thls vlew, lustlce Sachs of the
Constltutlonal Court of South Afrlca notes ln Ncticrcl Cccliticr cf Ccv crJ lcsbicr
Fcclitv v. Miristcr cf lstirc:
"|i]t is inpcrtcrt tc stcrt thc crclvsis bv cskirc whct is rccllv bcirc prishcJ
bv thc crti-scJcnv lcws. ls it cr crt, cr is it c pcrscr? 0tsiJc cf rcclc-
tcrv rcrtrcl, rcrJrt thct Jcvictcs frcn scnc pblirlv cstcblishcJ rcrn is
scllv crlv prishcblc whcr it is viclcrt, Jishcrcst, trccrhcrcs cr ir scnc
cthcr wcv Jistrbirc cf thc pblir pccrc cr prcvcrctivc cf irjrv. lr thc rcsc
cf nclc hcncscxclitv hcwcvcr, thc pcrrcivcJ Jcvicrrc is prishcJ sinplv
bcrcsc it is Jcvicrt. lt is rcprcsscJ fcr its pcrrcivcJ svnbclisn rcthcr thcr
bcrcsc cf its prcvcr hcrn. lf prccf wcrc rcrcsscrv, it is cstcblishcJ bv
thc fcrt thct rcrscrscl crcl pcrctrcticr cf c fcnclc is rct rrinirclizcJ.
1hs, it is rct thc crt cf scJcnv thct is JcrcrrcJ bv thc lcw, bt thc
sc-rcllcJ scJcnitc whc pcrfcrns it; rct crv prcvcr scricl Jcnccc, bt thc
thrcct thct scnc-scx pcssicr ir itsclf is sccr cs rcprcscrtirc tc hctcrcscxcl
hcccncrv".
cu
Leeal provlslons that cause loss of llberty because of sexual orlentatlon or eender
ldentlty may occur more lndlrectly. 0etentlon or prosecutlon may be ostenslbly
based on reasons other than one's ldentlty or status, but these reasons may merely
be a pretext for taklne actlon aealnst one's sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty.
0etentlons made under laws whlch deem consensual homosexual sex or expres-
slons of eender ldentlty to be mental lllnesses requlrlne compulsory hospltallzatlon
cz. kyan 0oodman, "8eyond the Fnforcement Prlnclple: Sodomy Laws, Soclal horms and Soclal Panoptlcs", ln
Cclifcrric lcw kcvicw, ho. S, zoo1, p. 6u .
c. See K Thomas "8eyond the Prlvacy Prlnclple" ln Aftcr lJcrtitv; edltors, 0 0anlelson and K Fnele, koutledee,
hew ork, 1c.
cu. ludement of 0ctober 1S, Ncticrcl Cccliticr cf Ccv 8 lcsbicr Fcclitv crJ Arcthcr v. Miristcr cf lstirc
crJ cthcrs, Case CCT11]S, para. 1oS.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw //
are arbltrary.
cc
vaeue morallty codes and laws clrcumscrlblne publlc heath, morallty
and publlc decency are often also deployed to affect arbltrary detentlons on the
erounds of sexual orlentatlon, or eender ldentlty or expresslon.
The questlon of arbltrary deprlvatlon of llberty and sexual orlentatlon was frst
broueht before the uh worklne 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon (w0A0) ln an oplnlon
concernlne the arrest of cc men ln Calro, Feypt, durlne a pollce rald on a dlscotheque
ln zoo1.
c6
The w0A0 consldered lnformatlon charelne that pollce tareeted men
who appeared to them to have been homosexuals or who were not accompanled by
women. ln lts defence, the Feyptlan eovernment areued that Feyptlan law dld not
provlde for the prosecutlon of a person on account of hls or her sexual orlentatlon.
kather, other crlmlnal charees had been levled, lncludlne "contempt of rellelon" and
"habltually eneaelne ln lmmoral acts wlth men". The 0overnment areued that the
crlmlnal offence of each detalnee was hls perpetratlon of lmmoral acts and offences
aealnst publlc decency, and that eender or sexual orlentatlon were not elements of
the offences.
ln the lleht of the above lnformatlon, the w0A0 consldered the case ln two staees.
Flrst, lt consldered whether the alleeed prosecutlon or convlctlon of the persons
accused on erounds of sexual orlentatlon was |ustlfed and, lf so, whether those
erounds constltuted dlscrlmlnatlon under Artlcle z, paraeraph 1, of both the
urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cf hncr kichts and the lCCPk, whlch would confer an arbl-
trary character on thelr detentlon. Thls lnqulry soueht to ascertaln whether there
had been a Cateeory ll deprlvatlon of llberty.
The w0A0 concluded that the men were ln fact prosecuted on charees of homo-
sexuallty. The worklne 0roup reasoned that the leeal examlnatlon ordered by the
Procurator's 0ffce, lncludlne an "anal examlnatlon", was ln fact an lnqulry lnto
sexual orlentatlon, to determlne whether the arrestees were homosexuals, and
therefore llable for havlne commltted the offence of "soclal dlssenslons" under
Artlcle S, paraeraph 1, of the Feyptlan Penal Code.
The w0A0 then consldered whether dlscrlmlnatlon on the erounds of sexual orlen-
tatlon was covered by the lCCPk, to whlch Feypt ls a party, and thus prohlblted
under appllcable lnternatlonal law. Speclfcally, the w0A0 consldered whether the
reference to "sex" ln the lCCPk could be reearded as coverlne "sexual orlentatlon
or affllatlon". lf so, the detentlon of the defendants could be consldered arbltrary
on the erounds that lt was ordered on the basls of a domestlc leelslatlon provl-
slon, namely Artlcle S, paraeraph 1, of the Feyptlan Penal Code, not ln accordance
wlth the lnternatlonal standards set forth ln Artlcle z, paraeraph 1, of the urivcrscl
cc. ln lts Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 8, kicht tc libcrtv crJ scrritv cf pcrscrs (Artirlc |, the human klehts Commlttee
"pcirts ct thct pcrccrcph 1 is cpplircblc tc cll Jcprivcticrs cf libcrtv, whcthcr ir rrinircl rcscs cr ir cthcr
rcscs srh cs, fcr cxcnplc, ncrtcl illrcss, vccrcrrv, Jrc cJJirticr, cJrcticrcl prpcscs, innicrcticr
rcrtrcl, ctr." (para. 1).
c6. 0plnlon ho /]zooz (Feypt), of z1 lune zooz, ln uh 0oc. F]Ch.u]zoo]S]Add.1.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u /S
0crlcrcticr cf hncr kichts and Artlcles z, paraeraph 1, and z6 of the lCCPk. The
w0A0 declded that the approach adopted by uh human klehts Treaty 8odles
c/
and
the 0ffce of the unlted hatlons hleh Commlssloner for kefueees
cS
wlth reeard to
thls questlon would areue ln favour of an affrmatlve answer. The w0A0 found that
the detentlon of the men prosecuted for lncltlne "soclal dlssenslon" constltuted an
arbltrary deprlvatlon of llberty. Thls was consldered to be a prosecutlon and deten-
tlon on the basls of sexual orlentatlon, whlch was ln contraventlon of the provlslons
of Artlcle z, paraeraph 1, of the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cf hncr kichts, and Artlcles
z, paraeraph 1, and z6 of the lCCPk.
c
ln a later case lnvolvlne Cameroon,
6o
the w0A0 applled a llne of reasonlne slmllar
to lts earller oplnlon concernlne Feypt. 0ne notable dlfference was that the rleht to
prlvacy ln Artlcle 1/ of the lCCPk was presented as a Cateeory ll arbltrary detentlon
uslne the worklne 0roup's formulatlon. Thoueh the w0A0 also based the case for
dlscrlmlnatlon under Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk, the extenslon of the scope of Cateeory
ll to lnclude the rleht to prlvacy ls noteworthy.
ln the Cameroon case, 11 men had been arrested ln a bar reputed to be a meetlne
place for homosexuals. The men were accused of vlolatlne Artlcle u/ (8ls) of the
Crlmlnal Code prescrlblne a punlshment of detentlon from 6 months to c years and
a fne for whoever has sexual relatlons wlth someone of the same sex.
The w0A0 reasoned that the exlstence of laws crlmlnallslne prlvate homosexual
relatlonshlps between consentlne adults, as well as the appllcatlon of penaltles
aealnst these persons, vlolates the protectlon of prlvate llfe and the rleht of non-
dlscrlmlnatlon establlshed by the lCCPk. As a consequence, lt was consldered that
the crlmlnallsatlon of homosexuallty establlshed ln the Cameroonlan penal leelsla-
tlon was lncompatlble wlth Artlcles 1/ and z6 of the lCCPk. The w0A0 concluded
that the deprlvatlon of llberty applled ln the case was arbltrary.
61
c/. The w0A0 refers to the human klehts Commlttee (vlews of 1 March 1u, Case of Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v.
Astrclic, Communlcatlon ho. uSS]1z, para. S./- u.h. 0oc CCPk]C]co]0]uSS]1z- and CcrrlJirc
0bscrvcticrs cf thc hncr kichts Ccnnittcc: PclcrJ, CCPk]C]/]Add.11o, para. z); the Commlttee on
Fconomlc, Soclal and Cultural klehts, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1o (zooo), para. 1S; and the Commlttee on the
Fllmlnatlon of 0lscrlmlnatlon aealnst women (Concludlne observatlons on Kyreyzstan (A]cuS), paras. 1z/
and 1zS).
cS. The 0fflce of the unlted hatlons hleh Commlssloner for kefueees, conslderlne "persecutlon on account of
one's sexual orlentatlon", has stated:"'w]hcrc hcncscxclitv is illcccl ir c pcrtirlcr scrictv, thc inpcsi-
ticr cf scvcrc rrinircl pcrcltics fcr hcncscxcl rcrJrt rclJ cncrt tc pcrscrticr, jst cs it wclJ fcr
rcfsirc tc wccr thc vcil bv wcncr ir scnc scrictics. Fvcr whcrc hcncscxcl prcrtircs crc rct rrinirclizcJ,
c rlcincrt rclJ still cstcblish c vcliJ rlcin whcrc thc Stctc rcrJcrcs cr tclcrctcs Jisrrinirctcrv prcrtircs
cr hcrn pcrpctrctcJ cccirst hin cr hcr, cr whcrc tc prctcrt cffcrtivclv thc rlcincrt cccirst srh hcrn."
(0uldellnes on lnternatlonal Protectlon: eender-related persecutlon wlthln the context of Artlcle 1 A (z) of
the 1c1 Conventlon and lts 16/ Protocol relatlne to the Status of kefueees, hCk]0lP]oz]o1, para. 1/, of
/ May zooz).
c. 0plnlon ho. /]zooz, Jcr. rit., para. zS.
6o. 0plnlon ho zz]zoo6 (Cameroon) of 1 Aueust zoo6, ln uh 0oc. A]hkC]u]uo]Add.1.
61. lbiJ., para. zz.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw /
under Artlcle c of the Frcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts persons of "unsound
mlnd" may lawfully be detalned ln accordance wlth law. 0ays and lesblans have
hlstorlcally been sub|ected to forced "medlcal" treatment to chanee thelr sexual
orlentatlon wlth methods of electrlc shock, other forms of "averslon therapy" or the
use of psychotroplc drues.
6z
The contlnulne treatment of homosexual and trans-
eender ldentltles as mental lllnesses ralses serlous questlons about deprlvatlons
of llberty that are |ustlfed for reasons of mental health.
Accordlne to the establlshed |urlsprudence of the Furopean Court of human klehts,
three mlnlmum condltlons must be satlsfed for an lndlvldual to be consldered of
"unsound mlnd" and deprlved of llberty:
"|f ]irstlv, hc nst rclicblv bc shcwr tc bc cf rscrJ nirJ; scrcrJlv,
thc ncrtcl JiscrJcr nst bc cf c kirJ cr Jccrcc wcrrcrtirc rcnplscrv
rcrfircncrt; thirJlv, thc vcliJitv cf rcrtircJ rcrfircncrt JcpcrJs pcr
thc pcrsistcrrc cf srh c JiscrJcr".
6
The opportunlty to lnvestleate whether one's sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty ls
the real basls for deprlvatlon of llberty arlses ln an evldentlary lnqulry of whether a
person ls ln fact of unsound mlnd. The Furopean Court of human klehts has clarlfed
that, "the very nature of what has to be establlshed before the competent natlonal
authorlty - that ls, a true mental dlsorder - calls for ob|ectlve medlcal expertlse".
6u

The overwhelmlne rellance on medlcal knowledee ln establlshlne proof ln these
questlons has hlstorlcally been problematlc. however, one notes the proeresslve
advancements ln ceaslne to treat homosexual orlentatlon and transeender ldentl-
tles as mental dlsorders.
The w0A0 has also expressed concern for the sltuatlon of vulnerable persons such
as the dlsabled, drue addlcts and people sufferlne from Al0S who are held ln deten-
tlon on health erounds.
6c
lt recommended that, "wlth reeard to persons deprlved
of thelr llberty on health erounds, the worklne 0roup conslders that ln any event
all persons affected by such measures must have |udlclal means of challenelne
thelr detentlon".
66
Thls faclllty would avall ltself to persons who are detalned on
account of thelr sexual orlentatlon, eender ldentlty or eender expresslon, thoueh
the formal reasons chareed are "health" or "mental lnstablllty". The w0A0 has not
6z. Amnesty lnternatlonal, 8rcckirc thc Silcrrc: hncr kichts viclcticrs bcscJ cr scxcl cricrtcticr, London,
1c; See eenerally, 0oodman, kyan, "The lncorporatlon of lnternatlonal human klehts Standards lnto
sexual orlentatlon asylum clalms: cases of lnvoluntary "medlcal" lnterventlon", ln clc lcw lcrrcl, vol.
1oc, 1c.
6. ludement of c 0ctober zooo, Case of vcrbcrcv v. 8lccric, Appllcatlon ho. 16c]6, para. uc.
6u. ludement of zu 0ctober 1/, Case of wirtcrwcrp v. thc NcthcrlcrJs, Appllcatlon ho. 6o1]/, para. .
6c. kcpcrt cf thc wcrkirc Crcp cr Arbitrcrv 0ctcrticr, uh 0oc. F]Ch.u]zoou], of 1c 0ecember zoo, para.
/u.
66. lbiJ., para. S/.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u So
dealt wlth thls type of sltuatlon and oplnes
6/
that each scenarlo would have to be
dealt wlth on a "case by case basls" and not "ln the abstract". lt has stated that ln
the conslderatlon of lndlvldual communlcatlons under lts mandate:
"0crisicrs cr psvrhictrir Jctcrticrs shclJ cvciJ ctcnctircllv fcllcwirc
thc cxpcrt cpiricr cf thc irstitticr whcrc thc pcticrt is hclJ cr thc rcpcrt
crJ rcrcnncrJcticrs cf thc cttcrJirc psvrhictrist. Ccrirc cJvcrscricl
prcrcJrc shcll bc rcrJrtcJ, whcrc thc pcticrt crJ/cr his lcccl rcprcscrtc-
tivc crc civcr thc cppcrtritv tc rhcllcrcc thc rcpcrt cf thc psvrhictrist;
|crJ] psvrhictrir Jctcrticr shcll rct bc scJ tc jccpcrJizc scnccrcs
frccJcn cf cxprcssicr rcr tc prish, Jctcr cr JisrrcJit hin cr crrcrt cf
his pclitircl, iJcclccircl, cr rclicics vicws, rcrvirticrs cr crtivitv".
6S
These select euldellnes evlnce an appreclatlon of the publlc pollcy elements that
are lnherent ln detentlon on erounds of mental health, whlle slmultaneously belne
vlellant to protect those detalned from any form of dlscrlmlnatlon.
As ls the sltuatlon where laws crlmlnallslne adult same-sex practlce are found to elve
rlse to arbltrary deprlvatlon of llberty, lt ls also areuable that detentlons premlsed
on homosexual or transeender ldentltles belne "mental dlsorders" are "arbltrary"
and a vlolatlon of the rleht to llberty. The basls of thls assertlon ls that such laws
or provlslons are based on un|ustlfable dlscrlmlnatlon on the erounds of sexual
orlentatlon or eender ldentlty.
. 5pecia| cencerns regarding LC1 persens |awIu||y deprived eI
their |iberty
A detentlon based solely on sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty erounds can
amount to an arbltrary detentlon, however L08T persons can be lawfully deprlved of
thelr llberty, for example when they have commltted a crlme. ln any case, deprlvatlon
of llberty must meet the followlne crlterla to avold belne arbltrary: procedural and
substantlve leeallty, leeltlmacy of purpose, necesslty, proportlonallty and human
rlehts euaranteed. L08T persons deprlved of thelr llberty must have the same rlehts
and euarantees of the other detalnees, such as: the rleht to be lnformed of the
reasons for the arrest and of any charees aealnst hlm]her; the rleht to be lnformed
about hls]her rlehts and how to avall hlmself or herself of these rlehts; the rleht to a
|udlclal remedy to challenee the lawfulness of hls detentlon and order hls release lf
the detentlon ls not lawful; the rleht to be broueht promptly before a |udee or other
6/. 0clibcrcticr Nc. ; cr isscs rclctcJ psvrhictrir Jctcrticr, ln keport of the worklne 0roup on Arbltrary
0etentlon, uh 0oc. F]Ch.u]zooc]6, of 1 0ecember zoou.
6S. lbiJ., para. cS.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw S1
|udlclal offcer; the rleht to prompt access to a lawyer; the rleht to have access to the
outslde world; and the rleht to humane treatment durlne detentlon.
6
Sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty shall not be lnvoked to deny or restrlct
these rlehts and safeeuards. The prohlbltlon of dlscrlmlnatlon has been clearly
expressed by the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts, ln lts Prirriplcs
crJ 8cst Prcrtircs cr thc Prctcrticr cf Pcrscrs 0cprivcJ cf libcrtv ir thc Ancrircs:
"'u]nder no clrcumstances shall persons deprlved of llberty be dlscrlmlnated aealnst
for reasons of '..] sexual orlentatlon '.]. Therefore, any dlstlnctlon, excluslon, or
restrlctlon that ls elther deslened to or has the effect of undermlnlne or lmpedlne
the recoenltlon, en|oyment, or exerclse of the lnternatlonally recoenlsed rlehts of
persons deprlved of llberty, shall be prohlblted."
/o
The uh human klehts Commlttee
has also noted that states of emereency cannot be used to |ustlfy deroeatlon from
the prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon.
/1
L08T persons detalned, as well as every person deprlved of hls]her llberty, must
"be treated wlth humanlty and wlth respect for the lnherent dlenlty of the human
person".
/z
Thls rleht applles to any one deprlved of llberty under the laws and
authorlty of the State who ls held ln prlsons, hospltals - partlcularly psychlatrlc
hospltals - detentlon camps or correctlonal lnstltutlons or elsewhere.
/
The duty
to protect and preserve thls rleht lmposes on States a posltlve oblleatlon towards
persons who are partlcularly vulnerable because of thelr status as persons deprlved
of llberty.
/u
States have the oblleatlon to oreanlse thelr system of detentlon and
penltentlary servlces ln order to protect detalnees from any klnd of threats and acts
of torture, cruel, lnhuman, or deeradlne treatment or punlshment, sexual vlolence,
corporal punlshment, collectlve punlshment, forced lnterventlon or coerclve treat-
6. The Standard Mlnlmum kules for the Treatment of Prlsoners (kule ), the 8ody of Prlnclples for the
Protectlon of All Persons under Any Form of 0etentlon or lmprlsonment (Prlnclples 1/ and 1S), the uh
8aslc Prlnclples on the kole of Lawyers (Prlnclples 1, c, 6, / and S), the lnternatlonal Conventlon for the
Protectlon of All Persons from Fnforced 0lsappearance (Artlcle 1/), Prlnclples on the Fffectlve Preventlon and
lnvestleatlon of Fxtra-leeal, Arbltrary and Summary Fxecutlon (Prlnclple 6) and the Prlnclples and 0uldellnes
on the rleht to a falr trlal and leeal asslstance ln Afrlca (Prlnclple M.z). See also human klehts Commlttee,
Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2c, cp. rit. zu, para. 11.
/o. Prlnclple ll of the Prlnclples and 8est Practlces on the Protectlon of Persons 0eprlved of Llberty ln the
Amerlcas. These Prlnclples was approved by the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts durlne lts
11st reeular perlod of sesslons, held ln March zooS.
/1. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, Jcr. rit., para. S.
/z. See Artlcle 1o (1) of the lCCPk; Artlcle 1/ (1) of the lnternatlonal Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klehts
of All Mlerant workers and Members of Thelr Famllles; Artlcle / (c) of the Conventlon of the klehts of the
Chlld; Artlcle c (c) of the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts; Artlcle c of the Afrlcan Charter on human
and Peoples' klehts; and Artlcle zo of the Arab Charter on human klehts.
/. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 21, hncrc trcctncrt cf pcrscrs JcprivcJ cf thcir libcrtv,
Artirlc 1c, para. z.
/u. lbiJ., para. ; Furopean Court of human klehts, ludement of 1u lune zooz, Case of Pcl crJ AJrcv FJwcrJs
v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho. u6u//]; and lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts, ludement of
z September zoou, Case of lvcrilc kc-cJrcticr lrstittc v. Pcrcccv, para. 1cS.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u Sz
ment, and from any method lntended to obllterate thelr personallty or to dlmlnlsh
thelr physlcal or mental capacltles.
/c
The uh human klehts Commlttee has polnted out that states of emereency cannot
be used to |ustlfy deroeatlon of the rleht to be treated wlth humanlty durlne the
deprlvatlon of llberty.
/6
ln certaln countrles, L08T detalnees are held under a reelme
of proloneed total lsolatlon. The human klehts Commlttee has found the proloneed,
total lsolatlon of a detalnee from hls or her famlly to "constltute lnhuman treatment
wlthln the meanlne of Artlcle / and 'be] lnconslstent wlth the standards of human
treatment requlred under Artlcle 1o, paraeraph 1, of the 'lCCPk]".
//
Two uh Speclal
kapporteurs on Torture have noted that "lncommunlcado detentlon should be made
llleeal and ls the most lmportant determlnlne factor as to whether an lndlvldual ls at
rlsk of torture".
/S
The human klehts Commlttee, the Commlttee aealnst Torture and
the lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts have all noted that the proloneed solltary
confnement or lncommunlcado detentlon of a detalned or lmprlsoned person may
amount to prohlblted acts such as torture or lll-treatment.
/
Prlnclple / of the uh 8csir Prirriplcs cr thc kclc cf lcwvcrs stlpulates that "all
persons arrested or detalned, wlth or wlthout crlmlnal charee, shall have prompt
access to a lawyer, and ln any case not later than forty-eleht hours from the tlme
of arrest or detentlon". The human klehts Commlttee stated that "all persons who
are arrested must lmmedlately have access to counsel"
So
and that "the use of
proloneed detentlon wlthout any access to a lawyer or other persons of the outslde
world vlolates artlcles of the Covenant (Artlcles /, , 1o and 1u, para. .b)".
S1

The Commlttee has recommended "that no one 'be] held for more than uS hours
wlthout access to a lawyer"
Sz
and that all detalnees, lncludlne those belne held ln
/c. See irtcr clic: human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 21, Jcr. rit.; Prlnclple l of the Prlnclples
and 8est Practlces on the Protectlon of Persons 0eprlved of Llberty ln the Amerlcas; Prlnclple M (/) of the
Prlnclples and 0uldellnes on the kleht to a Falr Trlal and Leeal Asslstance ln Afrlca; lnter-Amerlcan Court of
human klehts, ludement of z September zoou, Case of lvcrilc kc-cJrcticr lrstittc v. Pcrcccv.
/6. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, Jcr. rit., para. 1(a). ln the same llne, see Prlnclple l
of the Prlnclples and 8est Practlces on the Protectlon of Persons 0eprlved of Llberty ln the Amerlcas.
//. vlews of 6 hovember 1/, Communlcatlon ho c//]1u, Case of virtcr AlfrcJc Pclcv Ccnpcs v. Pcr, para.
S.6, CCPk]C]61]0]c//]1u, lanuary 1S.
/S. keports of the Speclal kapporteur A]c/]1/, z luly zooz, para. 16, F]Ch.u]zoou]c6, para. /, and A]c/]1/,
z luly zooz, para. 16.
/. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2c, Prchibiticr cf tcrtrc, cr cthcr rrcl, irhncr cr
JccrcJirc trcctncrt cr prishncrt, Artirlc ;, para. 6; Commlttee aealnst Torture (keports A]cu]uu, paras.
1z1 and 1u6; A]c]uu, para. 1c; and A]cc]uu, para. 1Sz) and lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts,
ludement z luly 1SS, Case of vclcsccz kcJriccz (para. 1c6) and ludement of 1z hovember 1/, Case
of Scrcz kcscrc (paras. o-1).
So. CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc hncr kichts Ccnnittcc: Cccrcic, CCPk]C]/]Add./c, c May 1/, para.
z/.
S1. CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc hncr kichts Ccnnittcc: lsrccl, CCPk]C0]/S]lSk, para. 1.
Sz. lbiJ.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw S
admlnlstratlve detentlon, be eranted prompt access to a lawyer.
S
The uh Speclal
kapporteur on Torture has polnted out that "ln accordance wlth lnternatlonal law,
and as confrmed by States' practlce, the followlne baslc leeal safeeuards should
remaln ln fact ln any leelslatlon relatlne to arrest and detentlon, lncludlne any type
of antl-terrorlst leelslatlon: '.] the rleht to have access to a lawyer wlthln zu hours
from the tlme of arrest".
Su
To facllltate access to lawyers, as to allow communlca-
tlon wlth famlly members and other persons, detalnees must be held ln offclal
places of detentlon and the authorltles must keep a record of thelr ldentltles.
Sc

0lsappearances are absolutely prohlblted, as are proloneed lncommunlcado deten-
tlon and proloneed solltary confnement.
The rleht to have prompt access to medlcal personnel and medlcal asslstance ls
recoenlsed unlversally.
S6
The lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts has
made clear that thls rleht ls so fundamental for the protectlon of detalnees that
lt cannot be suspended even ln sltuatlons allowlne emereency deroeatlon.
S/
The
fallure to provlde adequate medlcal care can constltute a vlolatlon of a State's obll-
eatlon to refraln from torture or cruel, lnhuman or deeradlne treatment.
SS
Fxperlence demonstrates that, lf L08T persons are ln a posltlon of vulnerablllty ln
a soclety, when they become detalnees thelr vulnerablllty dramatlcally lncreases.
lndeed, detalnees percelved to be eay, lesblan, blsexual, or transeendered are at
ereater rlsk for vlolence, rape and sexual assault than the eeneral populatlon ln
detentlon.
S
Thls ls due to a varlety of factors: hatred of and pre|udlce aealnst such
people, soclal stlema that renders them less able to form personal relatlonshlps
S. CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc hncr kichts Ccnnittcc on: lsrccl, CCPk]C0]/S]lSk, para. 1, and
SwitzcrlcrJ, CCPk]C]/]Add./o, para. z6; and vlews of z/ luly 1, Communlcatlon ho z6]1SS, Case
of hcrrv kclcrcc v. Zcnbic, CCPk]C]uS]0]z6]1SS, para. 6..
Su. keport of the Speclal kapporteur, A]c/]1/, z luly zooz, para. 1S. See also: F]Ch.u]zoou]c6, para. z.
Sc. Artlcle 1o.1 of the 0eclaratlon on the Protectlon of All Persons from Fnforced 0lsappearances, Artlcle 1/
of lnternatlonal Conventlon for the Protectlon of All Persons from Fnforced 0lsappearance, kule / of the
Standard Mlnlmum kules for the Treatment of Prlsoners, Prlnclples zo and z of the 8ody of Prlnclples for
the Protectlon of All Persons under Any Form of 0etentlon or lmprlsonment, Prlnclple 6 of the Prlnclples
on the Fffectlve Preventlon and lnvestleatlon of Fxtra-leeal, Arbltrary and Summary Fxecutlon, Artlcle Xl of
the lnter-Amerlcan Conventlon on Forced 0lsappearance of Persons, kules / and S of the Furopean Prlson
kules, and Prlnclple M(6) of the Prlnclples and euldellnes on the rleht to a falr trlal and leeal asslstance ln
Afrlca.
S6. The 8ody of Prlnclples for the Protectlon of All Persons under Any Form of 0etentlon or lmprlsonment
(Prlnclple zu), the 0eclaratlon on the Protectlon of all Persons from Fnforced 0lsappearance (Artlcle 1o)
and the Standard Mlnlmum kules for the Treatment of Prlsoners (kules / and z).
S/. kcpcrt cr 1crrcrisn crJ hncr kichts, cp. rit., paras. 1z/ and 1 and kecommendatlon ho. /.
SS. For example, lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts, ludement of / September zoou, Case of 1ibi v.
FrcJcr, para. 1c1; Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klehts, Case of lrtcrrcticrcl Pcr v. Niccric,
Communlcatlons hos. 1/]u, 1]u, 1cu]6 and 161]/ (1S), para. So; lnter-Amerlcan Court of human
klehts, ludement of z/ hovember zoo, Case of Mcritzc urrtic v. Cctcnclc, paras. //-/S.
S. For example, Furopean Commlttee for the Preventlon of Torture, visit kcpcrt Ccrncrv 2cc<, CPT]lnf (zoo/)
1S, para. 1o; kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr thc ccsticr cf tcrtrc crJ cthcr rrcl, irhncr cr
JccrcJirc trcctncrt cr prishncrt, F]Ch.u]zooz]/6]Add.1, 1u March zooz, para. Sz; kcpcrt cf thc
Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr thc ccsticr cf tcrtrc crJ cthcr rrcl, irhncr cr JccrcJirc trcctncrt cr prish-
ncrt, irtcrin rcpcrt, A]c6]1c6, luly zoo1.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u Su
that euard aealnst such acts, and the perceptlon - often made real by offclal and
extra-offclal dlscrlmlnatlon - that perpetrators of such vlolence wlll not face conse-
quences.
o
lustlce system offclals are oblleed to take measures to reduce the rlsk
of thls vlolence.
1
The Furopean Commlttee for the Preventlon of Torture (CPT), after vlsltlne a 0erman
prlson ln whlch "homosexuals appeared to be partlcularly at rlsk of belne assaulted
by other prlsoners", observed that the "prlson authorltles' duty of care lncludes the
responslblllty to protect lnmates from other lnmates who mleht wlsh to cause them
harm. Thls ls all the more lmportant where a eroup ls partlcularly vulnerable".
z

The uS Supreme Court, conslderlne the case of a male-to-female transsexual who
was raped two weeks after belne transferred to a hleh-securlty men's prlson, has
ruled that prlson offclals' duty to provlde "humane condltlons of confnement"
lncludes taklne reasonable measures to abate any substantlal rlsk of rape or sexual
assault that offclals know lnmates face.

Fallure to take such preventatlve steps,

whlch may be evldenced by lndlfference to a pattern of repeated rapes and sexual
assaults ln detentlon facllltles, may vlolate several lnternatlonal human rlehts norms,
lncludlne the prohlbltlons on torture and cruel, lnhuman or deeradlne treatment,
and slavery.
u
5ummary
The rleht to personal llberty and the rleht not to be arbltrarlly deprlved of !
llberty are unlversally recoenlsed and protected by lnternatlonal human
rlehts law;
L08T persons deprlved of thelr llberty have the same rlehts and euarantees !
of other detalnees, such as: the rleht to be lnformed of the reasons for the
arrest and of any charees aealnst hlm]her; the rleht to be lnformed about
hls]her rlehts and how to avall hlmself or herself of these rlehts; the rleht
to a |udlclal remedy to challenee the lawfulness of hls detentlon and order
hls release lf the detentlon ls not lawful; the rleht to be broueht promptly
before a |udee or other |udlclal offlcer, the rleht to prompt access to a lawyer;
o. Furopean Commlttee for the Preventlon of Torture, visit kcpcrt ukrcirc 2ccc, CPT]lnf (zooz) z, para. 6c;
and CcrrlJirc cbscrvcticrs cf thc Ccnnittcc cccirst 1crtrc: 8rczil, A]c6]uu, 16 May zoo1, para. 11;
kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr thc ccsticr cf tcrtrc crJ cthcr rrcl, irhncr cr JccrcJirc trcctncrt
cr prishncrt, irtcrin rcpcrt, A]c6]1c6, luly zoo1, para. z.
1. Furopean Commlttee for the Preventlon of Torture, visit kcpcrt Ccrncrv 2cc<, CPT]lnf (zoo/) 1S, para. 11z;
Furopean Commlttee for the Preventlon of Torture, visit kcpcrt ukrcirc 2ccc, CPT]lnf (zooz) z, para. 6c;
Fcrncr v. 8rcrrcr, c11 u.S. Supreme Court, Szc, Su/ (1u).
z. Furopean Commlttee for the Preventlon of Torture, visit kcpcrt Ccrncrv 2cc<, CPT]lnf (zoo/) 1S, paras.
1o, 1z.
. Fcrncr v. 8rcrrcr, c11 u.S. Supreme Court, Szc, Su/ (1u).
u. lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts, ludement of z September zoou, Case of lvcrilc kccJrcticr lrstittc
v. Pcrcccv; Furopean Court of human klehts, ludement of 1u lune zooz, Case of Pcl crJ AJrcv FJwcrJs
v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho. u6u//].
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw Sc
the rleht to have access to the outslde world; the rleht to humane treatment
durlne detentlon and the rleht to have prompt access to medlcal personnel
and medlcal asslstance. Sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty shall be not
lnvoked to deny or restrlct these rlehts and safeeuards;
0eprlvatlon of llberty based only on sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty !
erounds can amount to an arbltrary detentlon. States have an oblleatlon to
ellmlnate laws and leeal practlces that crlmlnallse certaln manlfestatlons of
sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty, for reason that they necessarlly lead
to arbltrary deprlvatlon of llberty. Thls lncludes the use of vaeue "morallty"
provlslons and admlnlstratlve practlces that are ostenslbly deslened,
lncludlne under deflnltlons of mental health;
The concept of deprlvatlon of llberty assumes dlfferent forms, lncludlne !
arrest, detentlon, pre-trlal detentlon, admlnlstratlve detentlon, pollcy
custody, lnternment, house arrest, amonest others;
The rleht to llberty may be the sub|ect of deroeatlon ln tlmes of emereency. !
however, such deroeatlons must be conslstent wlth other oblleatlons under
lnternatlonal law;
The notlon of "arbltrarlness" ls not to be equated wlth "aealnst the law", but !
must be lnterpreted more broadly to lnclude elements of lnapproprlateness,
ln|ustlce and lack of predlctablllty;
For a deprlvatlon of llberty to avold belne arbltrary, lt must observe the !
followlne crlterla: procedural and substantlve leeallty, leeltlmacy of purpose,
necesslty, proportlonallty and observance of human rlehts, ln partlcular the
rleht to a remedy and to securlty of person;
L08T persons can lawfully be deprlved of thelr llberty, but thelr deprlvatlon !
of llberty must meet the above crlterla to avold belne arbltrary;
A deprlvatlon of llberty ls arbltrary when: !
lt ls clearly lmposslble to lnvoke any leeal basls |ustlfylne the deprlva- !
tlon of llberty;
the deprlvatlon of llberty results from the exerclse of the rlehts or !
freedoms euaranteed by the artlcles of the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cf
hncr kichts and the lCCPk; or
the total or partlal non-observance of the lnternatlonal norms relatlne !
to the rleht to a falr trlal ls of such eravlty as to elve the deprlvatlon
of llberty an arbltrary character;
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u S6
States have the leeal duty to protect detalnees from any klnd of threats and !
acts of torture, lll-treatment or punlshment, sexual vlolence, corporal punlsh-
ment, and other lnhuman acts.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw S/
"|t]hc sprcnc richt cf thc hncr bcirc".
-human klehts Commlttee
c
v. 1he Right te LiIe
:. Lega| nature and scepe
The rleht to not be arbltrarlly deprlved of llfe ls a unlversal rleht protected by several
lnternatlonal lnstruments
6
and lts exerclse ls essentlal for all other human rlehts.
lf lt ls not respected all other rlehts lack meanlne.
/
All the lnternatlonal human
rlehts lnstruments emphaslse the fundamental nature of the rleht to llfe. The uh
human klehts Commlttee has polnted out that "'l]t ls the supreme rleht from whlch
no deroeatlon ls permltted even ln tlme of publlc emereency whlch threatens the llfe
of the natlon".
S
The lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts, has further emphaslsed
"'t]he fundamental rleht to llfe lncludes, not only the rleht of every human belne not
to be deprlved of hls llfe arbltrarlly, but also the rleht that he wlll not be prevented
from havlne access to the condltlons that euarantee a dlenlfed exlstence".

The
Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klehts conslders the rleht to llfe as "the
fulcrum of all other rlehts 'and] the fountaln throueh whlch other rlehts fow".
uoo
The rleht to llfe must always be lnterpreted ln an expanslve way and any of lts llml-
tatlons must be approached wlth a restrlctlve lnterpretatlon. The lnter-Amerlcan
Court stlpulates that "'b]ecause of lts lnherent nature, any restrlctlve approach to
thls rleht ls lnadmlsslble".
uo1
8y referrlne to lts llmltatlons, the Furopean Court of
c. human klehts Commlttee, vlews of 1 March 1Sz, Case of Scrcz Jc Ccrrcrc v. Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon
ho. uc]1/, para. 1.1.
6. Artlcle of the unlversal 0eclaratlon of human klehts; Artlcle 6 of the lCCPk; Artlcle of the lnternatlonal
Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klehts of All Mlerant workers and Members of Thelr Famllles; Artlcle
6 of the Conventlon on the klehts of the Chlld; Artlcle 1o of the Conventlon on the klehts of Persons wlth
0lsabllltles; Prlnclple 1 of the Prlnclples on the Fffectlve Preventlon and lnvestleatlon of Fxtra-leeal, Arbltrary
and Summary Fxecutlons; Artlcle / of the unlted hatlons 0eclaratlon on the klehts of lndleenous Peoples;
and Artlcle c of the 0eclaratlon on the human klehts of lndlvlduals who are not hatlonals of the Country
ln whlch They Llve; Artlcle u of the Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klehts; Artlcle c of the Afrlcan
Charter on the klehts and welfare of the Chlld; Artlcle l of the Amerlcan 0eclaratlon on the klehts and 0uty of
Man; Artlcle u of the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts; Artlcle c of the Arab Charter on human klehts;
Artlcle z of the Furopean Conventlon on human klehts; Artlcle z of the Charter of fundamental rlehts of the
Furopean unlon.
/. ludement of 1 hovember 1, Case of the "Strcct ChilJrcr" (villccrcr-Mcrclcs ct cl.| v. Cctcnclc, para.
1uu.
S. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 6: 1hc richt tc lifc (Artirlc 6|, para. 1 and Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt
Nc. 1o: Nrlccr wccpcrs crJ thc richt tc lifc (Artirlc 6|, para. 1.
. ludement of 1 hovember 1, Case of the "Strcct ChilJrcr" (villccrdr-Mcrclcs ct cl.| v. Cctcnclc, para.
1uu.
uoo. Case of Fcrn cf Ccrsricrrc v. Sicrrc lccrc, Communlcatlon ho. zz]S (zooo), para. 1.
uo1. ludement of 6 Aprll zoo6, Case of 8clJccr-Ccrric v. Pcr, para. Sz. See also, Case of the "Strcct ChilJrcr"
(villccrcr-Mcrclcs ct cl.| v. Cctcnclc, Jcr. rit., para. 1uu.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u SS
human klehts declded that they must be "strlctly construed".
uoz
Accordlne to the
human klehts Commlttee, "'t]he expresslon 'lnherent rleht to llfe' cannot properly
be understood ln a restrlctlve manner".
uo
z. 5tates' eb|igatien te pretect the right te |iIe
under lnternatlonal human rlehts law, the oblleatlon of protectlon ln relatlon to the
rleht to llfe ls absolute and ls lncluded amone the oblleatlons from whlch a State
cannot deroeate under any clrcumstances.
uou
Accordlnely, a State may not, even ln
tlme of war, publlc daneer or other emereency
uoc
that threatens lts lndependence
or securlty, take measures suspendlne the oblleatlon to protect the rleht to llfe. The
absolute protectlon of the rleht to llfe applles to every lndlvldual under the |urls-
dlctlon of the State and, accordlnely, "the actlvltles of the lndlvldual ln questlon,
however undeslrable or daneerous cannot be a materlal conslderatlon".
uo6
The rleht to llfe not only presumes that no person shall be deprlved of thelr llfe arbl-
trarlly (neeatlve oblleatlon), but also requlres States to take all necessary measures
to protect and preserve the rleht to llfe (posltlve oblleatlon). The lnter-Amerlcan
Court of human klehts has polnted out that the State must "adopt any and all
necessary measures to protect and preserve the rleht to llfe of the lndlvlduals under
thelr |urlsdlctlon. '.] States must adopt all the necessary measures to create a leeal
framework that deters any posslble threat to the rleht to llfe; to establlsh an effectlve
leeal system to lnvestleate, punlsh, and redress deprlvatlon of llfe by State offclals
and prlvate lndlvlduals; and euarantee the rleht to unlmpeded access to condltlons
for a dlenlfed llfe".
uo/
The duty to protect the rleht to llfe lmplles the prohlbltlon to return, deport, extra-
dlte, expel, transfer or otherwlse send anyone to a country where he or she faces
a real rlsk of arbltrary deprlvatlon of llfe.
uoS
ln partlcular, States that have already
uoz. ludement of z/ September 1c, Case of MrCcrr crJ 0thcrs v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho.
1/]1u]u6u]cuc, para. 1u/.
uo. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 6, 1hc kicht tc lifc (Artirlc 6|, Jcr. rit., para. c.
uou. Artlcle u of the lCCPk; Artlcle 1c of the Furopean Conventlon on human klehts; Artlcle z/ of the Amerlcan
Conventlon on human klehts; and Artlcle c of the Arab Charter on human klehts. The Afrlcan Charter on
human and Peoples' klehts does not contaln any provlslon allowlne for deroeatlons ln tlmes of emereency.
ln the absence of such a clause all rlehts enshrlned ln the Afrlcan Charter are consldered non-deroeable
and llmltatlons on those rlehts can never be |ustlfled by emereencles or speclal clrcumstances. See Afrlcan
Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klehts, Case of McJic kichts AccrJc crJ Ccrstitticrcl kichts Prcjcrt
v. Niccric, Communlcatlons ho. 1oc], 1zS]u, 1o]u and 1cz]6), 1S, paras. 6/-6S.
uoc. Furopean Court of human klehts, MrCcrr crJ 0thcr v. uritcJ kircJcn, Jcr. rit., para. 1u/; and ludement
of 1u 0ecember zooo, Case of Cbl v. 1rkcv Appllcatlon ho. zz6/6]), para. /S. See also hncr kichts crJ
thc Ficht cccirst lrtcrrcticrcl 1crrcrisn, 1hc Ccrril cf Frcpc CiJclircs, March zooc, 0uldellne Xv.
uo6. See, ntctis ntcrJis, ludement of zc 0ctober 16, Case of Chchcl v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon
ho. zzu1u], para. So.
uo/. ludement of 6 Aprll zoo6, Case of 8clJccr-Ccrric v. Pcr, paras. Sz-Sc.
uoS. See irtcr clic: the uh Prlnclples on the Fffectlve Preventlon and lnvestleatlon of Fxtra-leeal, Arbltrary and
Summary Fxecutlons (Prlnclple c) and the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts (Artlcle zz.S).
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw S
abollshed the death penalty have an oblleatlon both not to lmplement lt and not "to
expose a person to the real rlsk of lts appllcatlon".
uo
The uh human klehts Commlttee has stated that "'t]he protectlon aealnst arbltrary
deprlvatlon of llfe, whlch ls expllcltly requlred by the thlrd paraeraph of Artlcle 6.1 'of
the lCCPk] ls of paramount lmportance. The Commlttee conslders that States partles
should take measures not only to prevent and punlsh deprlvatlon of llfe by crlmlnal
acts, but also to prevent arbltrary kllllne by thelr own securlty forces. The deprlvatlon
of llfe by the authorltles of the State ls a matter of utmost eravlty. Therefore, the law
must strlctly control and llmlt the clrcumstances ln whlch a person may be deprlved
of hls llfe by such authorltles".
u1o
The rleht to llfe further requlres that States take reasonable measures to protect thelr
cltlzens from belne arbltrarlly deprlved of llfe. These lnclude, at the level of publlc
pollcy, the oblleatlon to combat vlolent crlme, and at the level of actlon by securlty
forces, the oblleatlon to act to prevent speclfc foreseeable acts of vlolence.
An lndlvldual's rleht to llfe ls also vlolated ln cases where "the authorltles knew or
oueht to have known '.] of a real and lmmedlate rlsk to the llfe of an ldentlfed lndl-
vldual '.] from the crlmlnal acts of a thlrd party and '.] falled to take measures '.]
to avold that rlsk".
u11
ln a case ln whlch a mentally lll prlsoner, Chrlstopher Fdwards,
was kllled by hls cell mate, klchard Llnford, whom the prlson authorltles knew to be
a vlolent paranold schlzophrenlc, the Court dld fnd a vlolatlon of the State's obllea-
tlon to protect Fdwards' llfe, slnce "lnformatlon was avallable whlch ldentlfed '.]
Llnford as '.] a real and serlous rlsk to '.] Chrlstopher Fdwards, when placed ln hls
cell".
u1z
The FJwcrJs case also hlehllehted the State's lncreased oblleatlon to protect
the rleht to llfe of people who are unlquely unable to defend the rleht themselves.
u1

These lnclude prlsoners, the mentally lll and chlldren. lt ls areuable whether thls
cateeory could be extended to sexual mlnorltles.
People ln detentlon are unlquely dependent on the State to safeeuard thelr rlehts;
therefore the State has an enhanced oblleatlon to protect them. The lnter-Amerlcan
Court has noted that the State has an oblleatlon to "keep to an absolute mlnlmum"
"collateral" restrlctlons on human rlehts resultlne from the lawful deprlvatlon of
uo. human klehts Commlttee, vlews of c Aueust zoo, Case of kcccr lJcc v. CcrcJc, Communlcatlon ho.
Sz]1S, para. 1o.u, and vlews of zS luly 1/, Case of A.k.l. v Astrclic, Communlcatlon ho. 6z]16,
para. 6.11, uh. 0oc. CCPk]C/6o]0]6z]16.
u1o. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 6, Jcr. rit., para. .
u11. Furopean Court of human klehts, ludement of zu 0ctober zooz, Case of Mcstrcncttcc v. ltclv, Appllcatlon
ho. //o]/, para. 6S. See also, Furopean Court of human klehts: ludement of zS 0ctober 1S, Case
of 0sncr v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho. zucz]u, para. 116; ludement of 1u lune zooz, Case of
Pcl crJ AJrcv FJwcrJs v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho. u6u//], para. cc, and ludement of z
hovember 1, Case of 8rcnilcv v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho./u/]6.
u1z. ludement of 1u lune zooz, Case of Pcl crJ AJrcv FJwcrJs v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho.
u6u//], para. 6o.
u1. lbiJ., para. c6.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u o
llberty.
u1u
Thus, a State vlolated |uvenlle prlsoners' rleht to llfe when they were kept
ln a prlson lacklne fre alarms, extlneulshers and evacuatlon plans, and perlshed
ln a fre.
u1c
. Arbitrary deprivatien eI |iIe and death threats
vlolatlons of the rleht not to be arbltrarlly deprlved of llfe can be erouped lnto three
cateeorles:
summary executlons: the basls of thls concept ls the appllcatlon of death !
penalty ln condltlons prohlblted by lnternatlonal law;
arbltrary executlons: these are those deprlvatlons of llfe due to the exces- !
slve or llleeal use of force by law enforcement offlclals, ln condltlons that are
contrary to those prescrlbed by lnternatlonal law; and
extra|udlclal executlons: they are related wlth the cateeory of murder or !
lntentlonal homlclde ln crlmlnal law. For example, the polltlcal assasslnatlons
and the deaths caused by attacks or the kllllnes perpetrated by State securlty
forces, paramllltary eroups, death squads or other prlvate forces cooperatlne
wlth the eovernment or tolerated by lt enter lnto thls deflnltlon.
The prohlbltlon of extra|udlclal, arbltrary or summary executlon ls a peremptory
norm of lnternatlonal law (js rcccrs).
u16
.: xtrajudicia| executien
Fxtra|udlclal executlons are a eross human rlehts vlolatlon
u1/
and constltute a crlme
under lnternatlonal customary law.
u1S
Thus, a 0uatemalan "soclal cleanslne" opera-
tlon ln whlch street chlldren were kldnapped and murdered by out-of-unlform pollce
u1u. lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts, ludement of z September zoou, Case of the "lvcrilc kccJrcticr
lrstittc" v. Pcrcccv, paras. 1cz and 1cu.
u1c. lbiJ., para. 1/S.
u16. Slxth uh Coneress on the Preventlon of Crlme and the Treatment of 0ffenders (1So), kesolutlon ho. c on
Fxtraleeal Fxecutlons, paras. z and c, uh document A]C0hF.S/]1u]kev.1 (1S1); lnter-Amerlcan Court of
human klehts, ludement of 1u March zoo1, Case of 8crrics Altcs (Chnbipnc Acirrc ct cl. v. Pcr|; lnter-
Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts, kcrcnncrJcticr cr Asvln crJ lrtcrrcticrcl Crincs, zo 0ctober
zooo; and hleel kodley, 1hc 1rcctncrt cf Priscrcrs rJcr lrtcrrcticrcl lcw, Clarendon Press, 0xford, 1,
Second Fdltlon, p. 1z.
u1/. See irtcr clic, human klehts Commlttee: vlews of z March 1Sz, Communlcatlon ho. o]1/S, Case of 8lcicr
lcwhcff v vclic Jc 8lcicr v. urccv; vlews of 1 March 1Sz, Communlcatlon ho. uc]1/, Case PcJrc
Pcblc Ccrncrcc v. Cclcnbic; and Flnal 0bservatlons on 8urundl, of Aueust 1u, CCPk]C]/]Add.u1,
para. .
u1S. See irtcr clic: 0eflnltlon "8. Scrics rrincs rJcr irtcrrcticrcl lcw " of the uh upJctcJ Sct cf prirri-
plcs fcr thc prctcrticr crJ prcncticr cf hncr richts thrcch crticr tc rcnbct inpritv ( ln uh 0oc.F]
Ch.u]zooc]1oz]Add.1, S February zooc), . The updated Set of prlnclples was recommended by the former
uh Commlsslon on human klehts, resolutlon F]Ch.u]kFS]zooc]S1 of z1 Aprll zooc) and lnter-Amerlcan
Commlsslon on human klehts, kecommendatlon on asylum and lnternatlonal crlmes, of zo 0ctober zooo.
See also, hleel kodley, 1hc 1rcctncrt cf Priscrcrs rJcr lrtcrrcticrcl lcw, cp. rit., p. 1z.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1
ls a clear example of a vlolatlon of the rleht.
u1
The prohlbltlon of extra|udlclal execu-
tlons by the State also lncludes kllllnes commltted by non-State actors actlne at
the State's behest or acqulescence.
uzo
For example, the lnter-Amerlcan Court has
found that where Colomblan paramllltarles eneaeed ln kllllnes of clvlllans wlth the
"acqulescence or tolerance" of the State, even ln the absence of dlrect orders or
speclfc knowledee that the kllllnes would occur, the Colomblan eovernment vlolated
the rleht to llfe.
uz1
.z Arbitrary executien
lnternatlonal human rlehts law permlts lmpllcltly or expllcltly for the use of lethal
force by law enforcement offclals, thoueh under lmperatlve restrlctlons. The ma|orlty
of treatles fnd the ratlonale ln the prohlbltlon of the "arbltrary" taklne of llves. Thls
ls the reasonlne used ln the lCCPk, the Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts,
the Afrircr Chcrtcr cr hncr crJ Pccplcs kichts and the Arcb Chcrtcr cr hncr
kichts. An exceptlon ls the Frcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts that expressly
states the cases ln whlch force can be used only when "absolutely necessary": "(a)
ln defence of any person from unlawful vlolence; (b) ln order to effect a lawful arrest
or to prevent the escape of a person lawfully detalned; (c) ln actlon lawfully taken
for the purpose of quelllne a rlot or lnsurrectlon".
uzz
The uh 8csir Prirriplcs cr thc usc cf Fcrrc crJ Firccrns bv lcw Frfcrrcncrt
0fhricls provlde clear lndlcatlon about the leeltlmate use of force and the crlterla
to establlsh when a deprlvatlon of llfe can be arbltrary. ln addltlon, the |urlspru-
dence provldes several crlterla to assess the leeltlmacy of the use of force and
the arbltrarlness of deprlvatlon of llfe. For example, the human klehts Commlttee
polnts out that the use of lethal force must be taken wlth preventlve warnlne and by
elvlne the vlctlms the opportunlty to surrender and lt must be necessary for "thelr
own defence or that of others or '.] to effect the arrest or prevent the escape of the
persons concerned".
uz
The Furopean Court of human klehts has upheld that the
only permlsslble erounds of use of force are those envlsaeed by the Conventlon
and that "a strlcter and more compelllne test of necesslty must be employed from
that normally appllcable when determlnlne whether State actlon ls 'necessary to a
democratlc soclety'. '.] ln partlcular, the force used must be strlctly proportlonate
to the achlevement of the alms"
uzu
set out ln the Furopean Conventlon.
u1. ludement of 1 hovember 1, Case of the "Strcct ChilJrcr" (villccrdr-Mcrclcs ct cl.| v. Cctcnclc, paras.
1/-1u/.
uzo. ludement of zc hovember zoo, Case of Mvrrc Mcrk Chcrc v. Cctcnclc, para. 1 and ludement of 1 luly
zoo6, Case of the ltcrcc Mcsscrrcs v. Cclcnbic, para. 1z.
uz1. See Case of the ltcrcc Mcsscrrcs v. Cclcnbic, Jcr. rit.
uzz. Furopean Conventlon on human klehts, Artlcle z(z).
uz. vlews of 1 March 1Sz, Case of Scrcz Jc Ccrrcrc v. Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon ho. uc]1/, paras. 1.1
and 1.z, ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C]1c]0]uc]1/.
uzu. Case of MrCcrr crJ 0thcrs v. uritcJ kircJcn, Jcr. rit., paras. 1uS-1u.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u z
. 5ummary executien and the death pena|ty
Fven thoueh lnternatlonal human rlehts law establlshes the non-deroeable nature
of the rleht to be not arbltrarlly deprlved of the llfe, lt admlts the phenomenon
of capltal punlshment under preclse and restrlctlve condltlons. The lCCPk and the
Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts both restrlct the death penalty to "the most
serlous crlmes"
uzc
and there ls lncreaslne aereement that thls standard constltutes
customary lnternatlonal law.
uz6
The uh ScfcccrJs ccrcrtccirc prctcrticr cf
thc richts cf thcsc fcrirc thc Jccth pcrcltv stlpulates that: "capltal punlshment
may be lmposed only for the most serlous crlmes, lt belne understood that thelr
scope should not eo beyond lntentlonal crlmes wlth lethal or other extremely
erave consequences".
uz/
The human klehts Commlttee has noted that crlmes of an
economlc nature, of corruptlon, adultery, or crlmes that do not result ln loss of llfe,
apostasy, commlttlne a thlrd homosexual act, and embezzlement by offclals, amone
others, cannot be characterlsed as the "most serlous crlmes".
uzS
The former uh
Commlsslon on human klehts has stated that "the notlon of "most serlous crlmes"
does not eo beyond lntentlonal crlmes wlth lethal or extremely erave consequences
and that the death penalty ls not lmposed for non-vlolent acts such as fnanclal
crlmes, rellelous practlce or expresslon of consclence and sexual relatlons between
consentlne adults nor as a mandatory sentence".
uz
The lmposltlon and executlon of
the death penalty for crlmes, whlch are not the "most serlous crlmes", can amount
to a summary executlon and vlolate the rleht to llfe.
The human klehts Commlttee has polnted out that Artlcle 6 of the lCCPk "also refers
eenerally to abolltlon ln terms whlch stronely sueeest '.] that abolltlon ls deslrable.
'.] 'A]ll measures of abolltlon should be consldered as proeress ln the en|oyment of
the rleht to llfe".
uo
The lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts has stated that "the
conventlonal rules concernlne the death penalty should be lnterpreted as lmposlne
restrlctlons deslened to dellmlt strlctly lts appllcatlon and scope, ln order to reduce
the appllcatlon of the death penalty to brlne about lts eradual dlsappearance".
u1

The Ccrvcrticr cr thc kichts cf thc ChilJ (Artlcle / (a)) and the Afrircr Chcrtcr
cr thc kichts crJ wclfcrc cf thc ChilJ (Artlcle c.) prohlblt capltal punlshment for
uzc. See Artlcle 6 of the lCCPk and Artlcle u of the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts. See also Arab Charter
on human klehts, Artlcles c, 6 and /.
uz6. See for example, uh00, hncr kichts Ccrril 0isrsscs thc 0ccth Pcrcltv, lrstitticr 8ilJirc crJ 0thcr
lsscs, Press kelease, z March zoo/ (remarks by Slovenla, the unlted States and Slneapore); Frank 0affney,
kicht cf kcplv cr thc 0ccth Pcrcltv, Statement by the u.S. Mlsslon to the 0SCF, 0ctober zoo.
uz/. Artlcle 1 of the uh Safeeuards euaranteelne protectlon of the rlehts of those faclne the death penalty.
uzS. See irtcr clic., CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc hncr kichts Ccnnittcc: lslcnir kcpblir cf lrcr, uh 0oc.
CCPk]C]/]Add.zc, Aueust 1, para. S and CcrrlJirc cbscrvcticrs cf thc hncr kichts Ccnnittcc:
SJcr, ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C]/]Add.Sc, 1 hovember 1/, para. S.
uz. kesolutlon ho. zooc]c, 1hc ccsticr cf thc Jccth pcrcltv, of zo Aprll zooc, para. 6.f.
uo. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 6, Jcr. rit, para. 6.
u1. ludement of z1 lune zooz, Case of hilcirc, Ccrstcrtirc crJ 8crjcnir ct cl. v. 1ririJcJ crJ 1cbccc, para.
. See also, Advlsory 0plnlon 0C-]S, kcstrirticrs tc thc 0ccth Pcrcltv (Artirlcs o(2| crJ o(o| Ancrircr
Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts|, of S September 1S, para. c/.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw
offences commltted by persons below 1S years of aee. Flrmly establlshed ln the
treaty systems at both unlversal
uz
and reelonal
u
levels, prohlbltlon of the death
penalty ls eradually becomlne a part of eeneral lnternatlonal law.
lnternatlonal standards and |urlsprudence requlre that penaltles can only be carrled
out pursuant to a fnal |udement rendered by an lndependent, lmpartlal and compe-
tent trlbunal after a falr trlal wlth the observance of all the |udlclal euarantees,
lncludlne the rleht to appeal. The human klehts Commlttee has polnted out that
"'t]he procedural euarantees thereln prescrlbed must be observed, lncludlne the
rleht to a falr hearlne by an lndependent trlbunal, the presumptlon of lnnocence, the
mlnlmum euarantees for the defence, and the rleht to revlew by a hleher trlbunal".
uu

0n the euarantees to be afforded to people faclne the death penalty, the uh
ScfcccrJs ccrcrtccirc prctcrticr cf thc richts cf thcsc fcrirc Jccth pcrcltv
uc
are
an lmportant euldellne ln declaratory law. ln addltlon, certaln cateeorles of people
are excluded from the appllcatlon of the death penalty accordlne to lnternatlonal
law: persons who, at the tlme of the commlsslon of the crlmlnal offence were below
1S years of aee, preenant women, new mothers or the mentally lnsane.
u6
.o 0eath threats
0eath threats not only undermlne the rleht to llfe but also the rleht to securlty of
persons provlded by Artlcle of the lCCPk and Artlcle of the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr
cf hncr kichts. ln relatlon to death threats, the uh human klehts Commlttee has
observed that:
"Althcch ir thc Ccvcrcrt thc crlv rcfcrcrrc tc thc richt cf scrritv cf
pcrscr is tc bc fcrJ ir crtirlc , thcrc is rc cviJcrrc thct it wcs irtcrJcJ
tc rcrrcw thc rcrrcpt cf thc richt tc scrritv crlv tc sitcticrs cf fcrncl
Jcprivcticr cf libcrtv. |..] lt rcrrct bc thc rcsc thct, cs c ncttcr cf lcw,
Stctcs rcr icrcrc krcwr thrccts tc thc lifc cf pcrscrs rJcr thcir jris-
Jirticr, jst bcrcsc thct hc cr shc is rct crrcstcJ cr cthcrwisc JctcircJ.
uz. Second 0ptlonal Protocol to the lCCPk and the Conventlon on the kleht of the Chlld (Artlcle /).
u. wlthln the Councll of Furope context, see Protocols 6 and 1 to the Frcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts,
and |urlsprudence from the Furopean Court of human klehts (l.e: ludement of 1z March zoo, Case of 0rclcr
v. 1rkcv, Appllcatlon ho. u6zz1]). wlthln the Fu context, see Artlcle z of the Charter of Fundamental
klehts of the Furopean unlon. As far as the lnter-Amerlcan system ls concerned, see the Amerlcan Conventlon
on human klehts (Artlcle u.1) and the Protocol to the Amerlcan Conventlon Abollshlne the 0eath Penalty.
Already back ln 16 when the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts was adopted, fourteen out of the
nlneteen deleeatlons present declared thelr "firn hcpc cf sccirc thc cpplircticr cf thc Jccth pcrcltv crcJi-
rctcJ" (0AS document 0FA]Ser.K]Xvl]1.z, p. u6/ - The deslrable state of affalrs ln the hemlsphere).
uu. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 6, 1hc kicht tc lifc (Artirlc 6|, para. /.
uc. Safeeuards euaranteelne protectlon of the rlehts of those faclne death penalty, approved by Fconomlc and
Soclal Councll kesolutlon 1Su]co of zc May 1Su.
u6. See irtcr clic: lCCPk (Artlcle 6.c); Conventlon on the klehts of the Chlld (Artlcle /.a); uh Safeeuards euar-
anteelne protectlon of the rlehts of those faclne death penalty (Artlcle ); Amerlcan Conventlon on human
klehts (Artlcle u,c); Afrlcan Charter on the klehts and welfare of the Chlld (Artlcle c,); and Protocol to the
Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klehts on the klehts of women ln Afrlca (Artlcle u).
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u u
Stctcs pcrtics crc rJcr cr cbliccticr tc tckc rccscrcblc crJ cpprcprictc
nccsrcs tc prctcrt thcn. Ar irtcrprctcticr cf crtirlc whirh wclJ cllcw
c Stctc pcrtv tc icrcrc thrccts tc thc pcrscrcl scrritv cf rcr-JctcircJ
pcrscrs withir its jrisJirticr wclJ rcrJcr tctcllv ircffcrtivc thc ccrcr-
tccs cf thc Ccvcrcrt".
u/
The human klehts Commlttee and the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts
have concluded that the lnactlon of State vls--vls of death threats constltute a
vlolatlon of the rleht to llfe.
uS
o. 5exua| 0rientatien and Cender tdentity and the right te |iIe
lt ls axlomatlc that the State should not deprlve a person of llfe based on sexual
orlentatlon or eender ldentlty erounds. The lmposltlon of capltal punlshment for
commlttlne a thlrd homosexual act or sexual relatlons between consentlne adults
or extra|udlclal executlons or kllllnes for reasons of the sexual orlentatlon or eender
ldentlty of the vlctlm are a faerant vlolatlon of the rleht to llfe.
u
The uh 0eneral
Assembly has repeatedly reaffrmed the oblleatlon of the States "to ensure the
protectlon of the rleht to llfe of all persons under thelr |urlsdlctlon" and has called
all States "concerned to lnvestleate promptly and thorouehly all cases of kllllnes
'.] commltted for any dlscrlmlnatory reason, lncludlne sexual orlentatlon '.] and
to brlne those responslble to |ustlce before a competent, lndependent and lmpar-
tlal |udlclary and ensure that such kllllnes, lncludlne kllllnes commltted by securlty
forces, paramllltary eroups or prlvate forces, are nelther condoned nor sanctloned
by eovernment offclals or personnel."
uuo
u/. uh human klehts Commlttee, vlews of luly 1z, 1o, Case of willicn FJcrJc 0clccJc Pdcz v. Cclcnbic,
Communlcatlon ho 1c]1Sc, para. c.c ln uh. 0oc. CCPk]C]]0]1c]1Sc. See also, vlews of zo
March zooo, Case of Ccrlcs 0ics v. Arcclc, Communlcatlon ho. /11]16, para. S., ln uh 0oc. CCPk]
C]6S]0]/11]16; vlews of zc 0ctober zooo, Case of kcJccr Chcrcwc v. Zcnbic, Communlcatlon ho.
Sz1]1S, para. c., ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C]/o]0]Sz1]1S ; and vlews of zc March zooz, Case of lis AsJrbcl
lincrcz vcrc v. Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon ho. Sc]1, para. /.1.
uS. human klehts Commlttee, vlews of zc March zooz, Case of lis AsJrbcl lincrcz vcrc v. Cclcnbic,
Communlcatlon ho. Sc]1, para. /. and lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts, keport ho.
z]o, Case 1o.zzz (Peru).
u. See irtcr clic, human klehts Commlttee, CcrrlJirc cbscrvcticrs cf thc hncr kichts Ccnnittcc: SJcr,
ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C]/]Add.Sc, 1 hovember 1/, para. S; Former uh Commlsslon on human klehts,
kesolutlon ho. zooc]c, 1hc ccsticr cf thc Jccth pcrcltv, of zo Aprll zooc, para. 6.f and kesolutlon
zoo]6/, 1hc ccsticr cf thc Jccth pcrcltv, of zu Aprll zoo, para. u.d; uh 0eneral Assembly, kesolutlons
on "Fxtra|udlclal, summary or arbltrary executlons" ho. 61]1/ of 1 0ecember zoo6, ho. c]1/ of zo
0ecember zoou and ho. c/]z1u of 1S 0ecember zooz; kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr FxtrcjJiricl,
snncrv cr crbitrcrv cxcrticrs, Mr. Philip Alstcr, AJJcrJn: Missicr tc Niccric, ln uh 0oc, F]
Ch.u]zoo6]c]Add.u of / lanuary zoo6; kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr cxtrcjJiricl, snncrv cr
crbitrcrv cxcrticrs, Mr. Philip Alstcr, AJJcrJn: Missicr tc Cctcnclc, A]hkC]u]zo]Add.z, 1 February
zoo/; kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr FxtrcjJiricl, Snncrv crJ Arbitrcrv Fxcrticrs, F]Ch.u]zooo],
zc lanuary zooo, para. 116.
uuo. 0eneral Assembly, kesolutlon c/]z1u, FxtrcjJiricl, snncrv cr crbitrcrv cxcrticrs, of 1S 0ecember zooz,
para. 6. See also resolutlon 61]1/, FxtrcjJiricl, snncrv cr crbitrcrv cxcrticrs, 16 0ecember zoo6, para.
c(b).
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw c
lt merlts repeatlne that under Artlcle 6 of the lCCPk and the Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr
hncr kichts, death sentences may only be lmposed for the most serlous crlmes,
a stlpulatlon whlch excludes matters of sexual orlentatlon. The human klehts
Commlttee has affrmed that homosexual acts cannot be characterlsed as the "most
serlous crlmes",
uu1
and the former uh Commlsslon on human klehts has stated
that the death penalty should not lmposed for sexual relatlons between consentlne
adults.
uuz
The uh Speclal kapporteur on extra|udlclal, summary or arbltrary execu-
tlons has expllcltly stated that lmposltlon of the death sentence for a prlvate sexual
practlce, such as sodomy, ls a vlolatlon of lnternatlonal law.
uu
The rleht to llfe establlshes a neeatlve leeal duty on the State to prevent actlons
by lts aeents that deprlve a person of llfe based on hls or her sexual orlentatlon or
eender ldentlty. Fqually, the leeal duty ls a posltlve one and obllees States to take all
approprlate measures to deter, prevent and punlsh perpetrators as well as address
any attltudes or condltlons ln soclety whlch encouraee or facllltate such crlmes
from elther aeents of the State or thlrd partles. Thls would lnclude puttlne ln place
effectlve crlmlnal law provlslons to deter the commlsslon of offences aealnst the
person, backed up by law-enforcement machlnery for the preventlon, suppresslon
and punlshment of breaches of such provlslons.
uuu
Thls posltlve oblleatlon should not be neelected as a laree part of the vlolatlons
of the rleht to llfe ln relatlon to sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty occurs not
|ust ln the actlon of aeents of the State, but also ln thelr lnactlon or fallure to take
posltlve steps to secure llfe.
The lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts, has further defned that:
"1his crtivc prctcrticr cf thc richt tc lifc bv thc Stctc irvclvcs rct crlv its
lccislctcrs, bt clsc cll Stctc irstitticrs crJ thcsc whc shclJ prctcrt scr-
ritv, whcthcr thcv crc its pclirc cr its crncJ fcrrcs. Ccrscccrtlv, thc Stctc
nst cJcpt thc rcrcsscrv nccsrcs, rct crlv ct thc lccislctivc, cJniristrc-
tivc crJ jJiricl lcvcls bv thc issc cf pcrcl rcrns crJ thc cstcblishncrt
cf c jstirc svstcn tc prcvcrt, clinirctc crJ prish thc Jcprivcticr cf
lifc cs c rcslt cf rrinircl crts, bt clsc tc prcvcrt crJ prctcrt irJiviJcls
uu1. See irtcr clic, CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc hncr kichts Ccnnittcc: lslcnir kcpblir cf lrcr, uh 0oc.
CCPk]C]/]Add.zc, Aueust 1, para. S and CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc hncr kichts Ccnnittcc:
SJcr, uh 0oc. CCPk]C]/]Add.Sc, 1 hovember 1/, para. S.
uuz. kesolutlon ho. zooc]c, 1hc ccsticr cf thc Jccth pcrcltv, of zo Aprll zooc, para. 6.f.
uu. kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr cxtrcjJiricl, snncrv cr crbitrcrv cxcrticrs, Mr. Philip Alstcr,
AJJcrJn: Missicr tc Niccric, uh 0oc, F]Ch.u]zoo6]c]Add.u of / lanuary zoo6, para. /.
uuu. Furopean Court of human klehts, ludement of z6 luly zoo/, Case of Arcclcvc crJ llicv v. 8lccric,
Appllcatlon ho. cccz]oo, para. ; and ludement of zS 0ctober 1S, Case of 0sncr v. 1hc uritcJ
kircJcn, Appllcatlon ho. S/]1/]S/1]1oS, para. 11c. lt ls thus accepted by those appearlne before
the Court that Artlcle z of the Conventlon may also lmply ln certaln well-deflned clrcumstances a posltlve
oblleatlon on the authorltles to take preventlve operatlonal measures to protect an lndlvldual whose llfe ls
at rlsk from the crlmlnal acts of another lndlvldual.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 6
frcn thc rrinircl crts cf cthcr irJiviJcls, crJ irvcsticctc srh sitcticrs
cffcrtivclv".
uuc
There ls also a requlrement that thls type of actlon should be pursued wlth prompt-
ness and reasonable expedltlon.
uu6
Addresslne lssues of the rleht to llfe ln respect
of sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty obllees States to embark on leelslatlve,
|urldlcal and admlnlstratlve measures accordlnely. Thls also necessltates a polltlcal
commltment to euarantee both the exlstence of these measures and thelr effcacy.
ln order to euarantee the rleht to llfe, the uh Speclal kapporteur on extra|udlclal,
summary or arbltrary executlons has polnted out that: "Acts of murder and death
threats should be promptly and thorouehly lnvestleated 'by the authorltles], reeard-
less of the sexual orlentatlon of the person or persons concerned. Measures should
lnclude pollcles and proerammes eeared towards overcomlne hatred and pre|u-
dlce aealnst homosexuals, and sensltlzlne publlc offclals and the eeneral publlc to
crlmes and acts of vlolence dlrected aealnst members of sexual mlnorltles."
uu/
Pre|udlce aealnst persons based on thelr sexual orlentatlon and]or eender ldentlty
has been ldentlfed as a basls for soclal stlematlzatlon.
uuS
L08T persons and sexual
mlnorltles are more vulnerable to vlolence and human rlehts abuses, lncludlne death
threats and vlolatlons of the rleht to llfe, whlch are often commltted ln a cllmate
of lmpunlty. The uh Speclal kapporteur on extra|udlclal, summary and arbltrary
executlons has noted that persons of homosexual orlentatlon were classlfed as
belonelne to a cateeory of vlctlms who are partlcularly vulnerable, by vlrtue of thelr
sexual orlentatlon, of belne dlrectly tareeted for extra|udlclal executlon or exposed
to extra|udlclal executlons and death threats.
uu
Sensatlonallst medla coveraee of
lssues concernlne sexual orlentatlon contrlbutes to pre|udlce and creates an atmos-
phere of lmpunlty and lndlfference about crlmes commltted aealnst members of
sexual mlnorltles. lmpunlty could be the result of a weak and lnadequate |ustlce
system, whlch ls elther reluctant or unable to lnvestleate and prosecute cases of
human rlehts vlolatlons, lncludlne vlolatlons of the rleht to llfe.
uco
uuc. lnter Amerlcan Court of human klehts, ludement of 1 luly zoo6, Case of 1hc ltcrcc Mcsscrrcs v. Cclcnbic,
para. 11.
uu6. lnter Amerlcan Court of human klehts, ludement of z hovember zoo6, Case of lc Ccrttc v. Pcr.
uu/. kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr cxtrcjJiricl, snncrv cr crbitrcrv cxcrticrs, F]Ch.u]zooz]/u,
lanuary zooz, para. 1uS. See also kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr cxtrcjJiricl, snncrv cr crbitrcrv
cxcrticrs, F]Ch.u]zoo1], 11 lanuary zoo1, para. 11S.
uuS. kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr cxtrcjJiricl, snncrv crJ crbitrcrv cxcrticrs, F]Ch.u]zoo1], 11
lanuary zoo1, para. co.
uu. kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr cxtrcjJiricl, snncrv crJ crbitrcrv cxcrticrs, F]Ch.u]zooz]/u,
lanuary zooz.
uco. kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr cxtrcjJiricl, snncrv crJ crbitrcrv cxcrticrs, F]Ch.u]zooo], zc
lanuary zooo, paras. c/, S and 116.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw /
The uh Speclal kapporteur on extra|udlclal, summary and arbltrary executlons has
concluded that:
"Jcrrinirclizirc ncttcrs cf scxcl cricrtcticr wclJ crcctlv rcrtribtc tc
cvcrrcnirc thc scricl sticnctizcticr cf ncnbcrs cf scxcl nircritics, crJ
thcrcbv rrb inpritv fcr hncr richts viclcticrs JircrtcJ cccirst thcsc
pcrscrs. Mcttcrs cf scxcl cricrtcticr shclJ rJcr rc rirrnstcrrcs bc
prishcblc bv Jccth."
uc1
5ummary
A person must not be deprlved of llfe for reasons of hls]her sexual orlenta- !
tlon or eender ldentlty;
The rleht to llfe and to not be arbltrary deprlved of llfe ls unlversally recoe- !
nlsed and protected by lnternatlonal human rlehts law. The scope of
protectlon of the rleht to llfe must be lnterpreted ln an expanslve way and
lts llmltatlons approached wlth a restrlctlve lnterpretatlon;
The lmposltlon of capltal punlshment for commlttlne a homosexual act or !
sexual relatlons between consentlne adults ls a flaerant vlolatlon of the rleht
to llfe and can amount to a summary executlon;
States' oblleatlon to protect the lndlvldual's rleht to not be arbltrarlly !
deprlved of llfe ls absolute and ls lncluded amone the oblleatlons from whlch
States cannot deroeate under any clrcumstances;
The rleht to llfe not only presumes that no person shall be deprlved of thelr !
llfe arbltrarlly (neeatlve oblleatlon), but also requlres States to take all neces-
sary measures to protect and preserve the rleht to llfe (posltlve oblleatlon)
lncludlne from acts by non-State actors;
States have an oblleatlon to take reasonable and approprlate steps to protect !
persons from death threats;
The duty to protect the rleht to llfe lmplles the prohlbltlon on returnlne, !
deportlne, extradltlne, expelllne, transferrlne or otherwlse sendlne anyone
to a country where he or she faces a real rlsk of arbltrary deprlvatlon of llfe,
lncludlne when the deprlvatlon of llfe ls based on erounds of hls]her sexual
orlentatlon or eender ldentlty.
uc1. kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr cxtrcjJiricl, snncrv crJ crbitrcrv cxcrticrs, F]Ch.u]zooo], zc
lanuary zooo, para. 116.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw
"|1]hc cbscltc rctrc cf thc prchibiticr cf tcrtrc,
rrcl, irhncr cr JccrcJirc trcctncrt |.] ir rc
rirrnstcrrcs rcr bc JcrccctcJ frcn. Srh trcctncrts
rcr rcvcr bc jstificJ cr thc bcsis cf c bclcrrc tc bc
fcrJ bctwccr scrictvs irtcrcst crJ thc irJiviJcls
richts".
-human klehts Commlttee
ucz
vt. 1erture and t||-1reatment
:. kature and scepe eI the prehibitien eI terture and i||-treatment
The urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cf hncr kichts states that "'n]o one shall be sub|ected
to torture or to cruel, lnhuman or deeradlne treatment or punlshment". All human
rlehts treatles, both lnternatlonal and reelonal, prohlblt absolutely torture and cruel,
lnhuman or deeradlne treatment or punlshment.
uc
ln addltlon, several lnternatlonal
standards relterate thls prohlbltlon.
ucu
ucz. CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc hncr kichts Ccnnittcc: CcrcJc, CCPk]C]CAh]C0]c, zo Aprll zoo6, para.
1c.
uc. lnternatlonal Covenant on Clvll and Polltlcal klehts (Artlcle /), the Conventlon aealnst Torture and 0ther
Cruel, lnhuman or 0eeradlne Treatment or Punlshment, the Conventlon on the klehts of the Chlld (Artlcle
/a), the lnternatlonal Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klehts of All Mlerant workers and Members
of Thelr Famllles (Artlcle 1o) the Conventlon on the klehts of Persons wlth 0lsabllltles (Artlcle 1c.1), the
Furopean Conventlon on human klehts (Artlcle ), the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts (Artlcle c),
the lnter-Amerlcan Conventlon to Prevent and Punlsh Torture, the lnter-Amerlcan Conventlon on Preventlon,
Punlshment and Fradlcatlon of vlolence aealnst women (Artlcle u,c), the Arab Charter ln human klehts
(Artlcle S), the Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klehts (Artlcle c), the Afrlcan Charter on the klehts
and welfare of the Chlld (Artlcle 16), and Protocol to the Afrlcan Charter on human and People's klehts on
the klehts of women ln Afrlca (Artlcle u).
ucu. The uh 0eclaratlon on the Protectlon of All Persons from 8elne Sub|ected to Torture and 0ther Cruel,
lnhuman or 0eeradlne Treatment or Punlshment; the uh 8ody of Prlnclples for the Protectlon of All Persons
under Any Form of 0etentlon or lmprlsonment (Prlnclple 6); Prlnclples of Medlcal Fthlcs relevant to the kole
of health Personnel, partlcularly Physlclans, ln the Protectlon of Prlsoners and 0etalnees aealnst Torture
and 0ther Cruel, lnhuman or 0eeradlne Treatment or Punlshment; Prlnclples on the Fffectlve lnvestleatlon
and 0ocumentatlon of Torture and 0ther Cruel, lnhuman or 0eeradlne Treatment or Punlshment; Code of
Conduct for Law Fnforcement 0fflclals (Artlcle c); The 0uldellnes on the kole of Prosecutors (0uldellne 16);
the 0eclaratlon on the human klehts of lndlvlduals who are not hatlonals of the Country ln whlch They Llve
(Artlcle 6); the uh 0uldlne Prlnclples on lnternal 0lsplacement (Prlnclple 11); the Charter of Fundamental
klehts of the Furopean unlon (Artlcle u); Prlnclples and 0uldellnes on 0uldellnes on the rleht to a falr trlal
and leeal asslstance ln Afrlca (Prlnclple M./) ; the 0uldellnes of the Commlttee of Mlnlsters of the Councll of
Furope on human rlehts and the fleht aealnst terrorlsm (0uldellne lv); the Prlnclples and 8est Practlces on
the Protectlon of Persons 0eprlved of Llberty ln the Amerlcas (Prlnclple 1); and the 0uldellnes and Measures
for the Prohlbltlon and Preventlon of Torture, Cruel, lnhuman or 0eeradlne Treatment or Punlshment ln Afrlca
(kobben lsland 0uldellnes, zooz).
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 1oo
The prohlbltlon of torture and cruel, lnhuman or deeradlne treatment or punlsh-
ment (lll-treatment) are absolute and must not be deroeated from at any tlme.
ucc

The absolute nature of the prohlbltlon on torture and lll-treatment, under treaty
law and customary lnternatlonal law, ls beyond all doubt.
uc6
The uh Commlttee
Aealnst Torture has stated that "'t]he oblleatlons contalned ln artlcles z 'of the
Ccrvcrticr cccirst 1crtrc crJ 0thcr Crcl, lrhncr cr 0ccrcJirc 1rcctncrt
cr Prishncrt] (whereby 'no exceptlonal clrcumstances whatsoever '.] may be
lnvoked as a |ustlfcatlon of torture'), 1c (prohlbltlne confesslons extorted by torture
belne admltted ln evldence, except aealnst the torturer), and 16 (prohlbltlne cruel,
lnhuman or deeradlne treatment or punlshment) are three such provlslons and
must be observed ln all clrcumstances".
uc/
The Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and
Peoples' klehts has slmllarly stated that "the rleht to freedom from torture and
cruel, lnhuman and deeradlne treatment cannot be deroeated from for any reason,
ln whatever clrcumstances".
ucS
The prohlbltlon of torture ls a js rcccrs norm,
uc
as
the lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts has underscored "'t]he absolute prohlbl-
ucc. See irtcr clic: lCCPk (Artlcle u.z); Common Artlcle of the 0eneva Conventlons; Furopean Conventlon on
human klehts (Artlcle 1c.z); Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts (Artlcle z/.z); and the Arab Charter on
human klehts (Artlcle S).
uc6. See irtcr clic: lCCPk (Artlcle u and /); Conventlon aealnst Torture and 0ther Cruel, lnhuman or 0eeradlne
Treatment or Punlshment (Artlcle z); Conventlon on the klehts of the Chlld (Artlcle /); lnternatlonal
Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klehts of All Mlerant workers and Members of thelr Famllles (Artlcle
1o); Standard Mlnlmum kules for the Treatment of Prlsoners (kule 1); 8ody of Prlnclples for the Protectlon
of All Persons under Any Form of 0etentlon or lmprlsonment (Prlnclple 6); 0eclaratlon on the Fllmlnatlon of
vlolence aealnst women (Artlcle ); Code of Conduct for Law Fnforcement 0fflclals (Artlcle c); 0eclaratlon
on the human klehts of lndlvlduals who are not hatlonals of the Country ln whlch They Llve (Artlcle 6);
0uldellnes on the kole of Prosecutors (Prlnclple 16); human klehts Commlttee, CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs
cf thc hncr kichts Ccnnittcc: CcrcJc, uh 0oc. CCPk]C]CAh]C0]c, zo Aprll zoo6, para. 1c; uh 0eneral
Assembly kesolutlon A]kFS]c]1S; uh Commlsslon on human klehts kesolutlon F]Ch.u]kFS]zooc];
and the uh Speclal kapporteur on Torture (uh document F]Ch.u]1S6]1c, para. , 1 February 1S6; F]
Ch.u]zooz]1/, z6 February zooz, para. S). See also: Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klehts (Artlcle
c); Afrlcan Charter on the klehts and welfare of the Chlld, (Artlcle 16); Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts
(Artlcles c & z/); lnter-Amerlcan Conventlon to Prevent and Punlsh Torture (Artlcle 1 & c); lnter-Amerlcan
Conventlon on the preventlon, punlshment and eradlcatlon of vlolence aealnst women (Artlcle u); Furopean
Conventlon on human klehts (Artlcle ) and 0uldellnes of the Commlttee of Mlnlsters of the Councll of
Furope on human rlehts and the fleht aealnst terrorlsm (lv). See also: Common Artlcle of the 0eneva
Conventlons; lll 0eneva Conventlon (Artlcles u, cz, S/(), S, /); lv 0eneva Conventlon (Artlcles uo, c1,
c, 6, 1oo, 11); Protocol l of the 0eneva Conventlons (Artlcle /c) and Protocol ll of the 0eneva Conventlon
(Artlcle u).
uc/. 0eclaratlon of the Commlttee Aealnst Torture, adopted the zz hovember zoo1, uh 0oc. CAT]C]XXvll]Mlsc./.
See also Commlttee aealnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, lnplcncrtcticr cf Artlcle 2 bv Stctcs Pcrtics,
para. 6.
ucS. Communlcatlon z/c ] zoo, Case of Artirlc 1 v. 1hc Stctc cf Fritrcc, para. .
uc. Commlttee aealnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, para. 1. See lnternatlonal Crlmlnal Trlbunal for the
Former ueoslavla: ludement of 1o 0ecember 1S, Case of 1hc Prcscrtcr v. Artc FrrJzijc, ho. lT-c-
1/]1-T, para. 1cu; ludement of 16 hovember 1S, Case of 1hc Prcscrtcr v. 0clclir crJ cthcrs, lT-6-z1-T,
para. ucu; and ludement of zz February zoo, Case of Prcscrtcr v. krcrcr, kcvcr crJ vkcvir, lT-6-z-T
and lT-6-z]1-T. See also lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts (ludement of / September zoou, 1ibi r.
FrcJcr, para. 1u; ludement of S luly zoou, hcrncrcs Ccncz Pccivcri r. Pcr, para. 11z; ludement
of z/ hovember zoo, Mcritzc urrtic r Cctcnclc, para. z; and ludement of 1S Aueust zooo, Ccrtcrcl
8crcviJcs r. Pcr, paras. 1oz and 1o), uh Speclal kapporteur on Torture (uh 0oc. F]Ch.u]zoo6]6, para.
1/) and lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts (kcpcrt cr 1crrcrisn crJ hncr kichts, Jcr. rit.,
para. 1cc).
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1o1
tlon of torture, both physlcal and mental, ls currently part of the lnternatlonal js
rcccrs".
u6o
z. 1erture and i||-treatment
z.: 1erture: scepe eI deIinitien and sexua||y metivated crimes
under lnternatlonal law, dlfferent defnltlons of torture have been offered. lndeed,
the uh 0crlcrcticr cr thc Prctcrticr cf All Pcrscrs frcn 8circ SbjcrtcJ tc
1crtrc crJ 0thcr Crcl, lrhncr cr 0ccrcJirc 1rcctncrt cr Prishncrt,
u61
the
uh Ccrvcrticr cccirst 1crtrc crJ 0thcr Crcl, lrhncr cr 0ccrcJirc 1rcctncrt
cr Prishncrt,
u6z
the kcnc Stcttc cf thc lrtcrrcticrcl Crinircl Ccrt
u6
and the
lrtcr-Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr tc Prcvcrt crJ Prish 1crtrc
u6u
provlde dlfferent defnl-
tlons of torture. At the same tlme, lnternatlonal humanltarlan law prohlblts torture
but does not provlde a defnltlon of lt.
The lnternatlonal Crlmlnal Trlbunal for the Former ueoslavla (lCT), ln outllnlne
lts scope of |urlsdlctlon examlned torture, as a crlme commltted ln a systematlc
way (crlmes aealnst humanlty) and as a crlme commltted ln an armed conflct (war
crlmes), wlthln the "defnltlon of torture under customary lnternatlonal law".
u6c

Prlmarlly, the lCT consldered that the defnltlon contalned ln the uh Ccrvcrticr
cccirst 1crtrc crJ 0thcr Crcl, lrhncr cr 0ccrcJirc 1rcctncrt cr Prishncrt
"refects a consensus whlch the Trlal Chamber conslders to be representatlve of
customary lnternatlonal law".
u66
Later, the lCT clarlfed thelr posltlon that, under
customary law, three elements characterlze torture: a) the lnflctlon, by act or omls-
slon, of severe paln or sufferlne, whether physlcal or mental; b) the act or omlsslon
must be lntentlonal; and c) the act must be lnstrumental to another purpose, ln the
sense that the lnflctlon of paln must be almed at reachlne a certaln eoal.
u6/
The lCT
further concluded that "'t]here ls no requlrement under customary lnternatlonal
law that the conduct must be solely perpetrated for one of the prohlblted purposes
'under the uh Conventlon aealnst Torture]. '.]the prohlblted purpose must slmply
u6o. lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts, ludement of 11 March zooc, Case of Cccscr v. 1ririJcJ crJ 1cbccc,
para. z/1.
u61. Artlcle 1 (1). See also the Commentary of Artlcle c of the uN CcJc cf CcrJrt fcr lcw Frfcrrcncrt
0ffiricls.
u6z. Artlcle 1 (1).
u6. Artlcle / (z, e).
u6u. Artlcle z.
u6c. Trlal Chamber, ludement of zz February zoo1, Prcscrtcr v. krcrcr, kcvcr crJ vkcvir, Case lT-6-z-T &
lT-6-z]1-T, para. u6S. See also prevlous |udements: Prcscrtcr v. FrrJzijc, 1o 0ecember 1S, lT-c-
1/]1-T, and Prcscrtcr v. 0clclir crJ 0thcrs, 16 hovember 1S, ho. lT-6-z1-T.
u66. ludement of 16 hovember 1S, Case of Prcscrtcr v. 0clclir crJ 0thcrs, Case lT-6-z1-T, para. uc. See
also ludement of 1o 0ecember 1S, Case of Prcscrtcr v. FrrJzijc, Case lT-c-1/]1-T, paras. 16o-161.
u6/. ludement of zz February zoo1, Prcscrtcr v. krcrcr, kcvcr crJ vkcvir, Case lT-6-z-T and lT-6-z]1-T,
para. uS and Appeals Chamber, ludement of 1z lune zooz, Prcscrtcr v. krcrcr, kcvcr crJ vkcvir, Case
lT-6-z-T and lT-6-z]1-T para. 1uS.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 1oz
be part of the motlvatlon behlnd the conduct and need not be the predomlnatlne
or sole purpose."
u6S
ln thls leeal context, the lCT stated that "'s]exual vlolence necessarlly elves rlse
to severe paln or sufferlne, whether physlcal or mental, and ln thls way |ustlfes lts
characterlsatlon as an act of torture."
u6
The lCT "holds that, even lf the perpetra-
tor's motlvatlon ls entlrely sexual, lt does not follow that the perpetrator does not
have the lntent to commlt an act of torture or that hls conduct does not cause severe
paln or sufferlne, whether physlcal or mental, slnce such paln or sufferlne ls a llkely
and loelcal consequence of hls conduct. ln vlew of the defnltlon, lt ls lmportant to
establlsh whether a perpetrator lntended to act ln a way whlch, ln the normal course
of events, would cause severe paln or sufferlne, whether physlcal or mental, to hls
vlctlms."
u/o
ln response to the areument that the purpose of sexual eratlfcatlon ls
not llsted ln the defnltlon of torture, the lCT concluded that "acts need not have
been perpetrated solely for one of the purposes prohlblted by lnternatlonal law. lf
one of the prohlblted purposes ls fulfled by the conduct, the fact that such conduct
was also lntended to achleve a non-llsted purpose (even one of a sexual nature) ls
lmmaterlal."
u/1
The Furopean Court of human klehts and Commlsslon on human klehts has also
concluded that a rape can amount to torture.
u/z
The Furopean Court noted that
"rape of a detalnee by an offclal of the State must be consldered to be an especlally
erave and abhorrent form of lll-treatment elven the ease wlth whlch the offender
can explolt the vulnerablllty and weakened reslstance of hls vlctlm 'ln thls case the
rape of a 1/-year-old elrl]".
u/
These conslderatlons of the lCT, the Furopean Court and the lnter-Amerlcan
Commlsslon are partlcularly relevant for sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty
lssues, taklne lnto account that L08T persons are frequently vlctlms of rape and
sexual vlolence, especlally when they are deprlved of thelr llberty, elther by State
offclals or by thlrd partles often due to lnactlon by the State.
The uh Conventlon aealnst Torture descrlbes "'torture' 'as] any act by whlch severe
paln or sufferlne, whether physlcal or mental, ls lntentlonally lnflcted '.] for any
u6S. ludement of zz February zoo1, Prcscrtcr v. krcrcr, kcvcr crJ vkcvir, Case lT-6-z-T and lT-6-z]1-T,
para. uS6. See also ludement of 16 hovember 1S, Case of Prcscrtcr v. 0clclir crJ 0thcrs, lT-6-z1-T,
para. u/o.
u6. Appeals Chamber, ludement of 1z lune zooz, Prcscrtcr v. krcrcr, kcvcr crJ vkcvir, Case lT-6-z-T
and lT-6-z]1-T para. 1co.
u/o. lbiJ., para. 1c.
u/1. lbiJ., para. 1cc.
u/z. Furopean Court of human klehts, ludement of zc September 1/, Case of AvJir v. 1rkcv, Appllcatlon ho.
c/]16]6/6]S66 and Commlsslon on human klehts, keport ho. c]6 of 1 March 16, Case ho. 1o./o,
kcccl Mcrtir Jc Mcjic v. Pcr.
u/. Case of AvJir v. 1rkcv, Jcr. rit., para. S1.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1o
reason based on dlscrlmlnatlon of any klnd '.]".
u/u
Thls aspect of the defnltlon ls
relevant for sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty lssues, and the uh Commlttee
aealnst Torture notes thls posslblllty wlth respect to a draft of dlscrlmlnatlon
erounds, lncludlne sexual orlentatlon.
u/c
z.z Crue|, inhuman er degrading treatment er punishment
Althoueh no absolute defnltlon exlsts the uh CcJc cf CcrJrt fcr lcw Frfcrrcncrt
0fhricls provldes an lmportant lnterpretatlon as follows: "'t]he term 'cruel, lnhuman
or deeradlne treatment or punlshment' '..] should be lnterpreted so as to extend the
wldest posslble protectlon aealnst abuses, whether physlcal or mental".
u/6
ln fact,
lll-treatment seems fundamentally defned by neeatlon ln relatlon to torture. These
manlfests as acts whlch fall short of the defnltlon of torture ln the uh Conventlon
Aealnst Torture because of the absence of elements of lntent or whlch are not carrled
out for the speclfc purposes outllned.
u//
Acts that have been deemed as lll-treat-
ment by lnternatlonal |urlsprudence and]or lnternatlonal bodles lnclude: proloneed
lncommunlcado detentlon;
u/S
repeated solltary confnement; submlsslon to cold;
perslstent relocatlon to a new cell;
u/
women prlsoners hanelne naked from hand-
cuffs
uSo
and certaln "technlques" of lnterroeatlon.
uS1
The uh Speclal kapporteur on
Torture has consldered that dlsproportlonate exerclse of pollce powers
uSz
and the
powerlessness of the vlctlm
uS
are lnherent elements of lll-treatment.
u/u. Artlcle 1.1 of the uh Ccrvcrticr cccirst 1crtrc crJ 0thcr Crcl, lrhncr cr 0ccrcJirc 1rcctncrt cr
Prishncrt.
u/c. Commlttee Aealnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, Jcr. rit. para. zz.
u/6. Commentary (para. c.) to the Artlcle c of the CcJc cf CcrJrt cf lcw Frfcrrcncrt 0ffiricls.
u//. uh Speclal kapporteur on Torture, uh 0oc. F]Ch.u]zoo6]6, para. c. ln the same llne, see hleel kodley,
1hc trcctncrt cf priscrcrs rJcr irtcrrcticrcl lcw, Clarendon Press, 0xford, znd Fdltlon, 1, p. S and
ft.1z.
u/S. See irtcr clic, human klehts Commlttee: Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2c, Jcr. rit., para. c and 6; CcrrlJirc
0bscrvcticrs: uritcJ Stctcs cf Ancrirc, CCPk]C]uSA]C0]]kev.1 of 1S 0ecember zoo6, para. 1z; vlews
of u luly zoo6, Case of Ali McJjrcrc v. Alccric, Communlcatlon ho. 1z/]zoou; vlews of zc March 16,
Case of Cclis lcrccrc v. Pcr Communlcatlon ho. cuo]1; vlews of zu luly 1u, Case of Mkcrc v.
Ccncrccr Communlcatlon ucS]11; vlews of z March 1u, Case of Fl-Mccrcisi v. libvcr Arcb lcnchirivc,
Communlcatlon uuo]1o. See also, uh former uh human klehts Commlsslon, kesolutlons ho. 1/]S
(para. 1o) and ho. zooc] (para. ); lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts, |udement of z luly 1SS, Case
of vclcsccz kcJriccz (para. 1c6) and |udement of 1z hovember 1/, Case of Scrcz kcscrc (paras. o
and 1).
u/. human klehts Commlttee: vlews of 1/ luly 1Sc, Case of Ccrtcris v. urccv, Communlcatlon ho.
1]1S.
uSo. See human klehts Commlttee: vlews of z/ March 1S1, Case of lscricrc Jc 8ctcr v. urccv, Communlcatlon
ho. /]1/S and vlews of 1 hovember 1Sc, Case of Arzccc Cilbcc v. urccv, Communlcatlon ho.
1u/]1S.
uS1. For example, see CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc hncr kichts Ccnnittcc: uritcJ Stctcs cf Ancrirc,
CCPk]C]uSA]C0]]kev.1 of 1S 0ecember zoo6, para. 1, and lnter-Amerlcan on human klehts, kcpcrt cr
1crrcrisn crJ hncr kichts, 0AS 0oc. 0FA]Ser.L]v]ll.116, 0oc. c rev. 1 corr, paras. z11 and z1.
uSz. uh 0oc F]Ch.u]zoo6]6, para. S.
uS. lbiJ., para. .
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 1ou
The prohlbltlon of cruel, lnhuman or deeradlne treatment has been used to llmlt the
appllcatlon of the death penalty ln a varlety of clrcumstances. The Furopean Court
of human klehts has ruled that exposlne a prlsoner to "death row phenomenon"
uSu

constltutes cruel, lnhuman or deeradlne treatment, effectlvely prohlbltlne extradl-
tlons where a sentence of death upon convlctlon ls posslble.
uSc
The human klehts
Commlttee has ruled that repeated last-mlnute stays of executlon constltute cruel
and lnhuman treatment.
uS6
. 5tates' eb|igatiens
States have the oblleatlon to prevent, lnvestleate and punlsh torture and lll-treat-
ment under lnternatlonal law. They have three posltlve oblleatlons reeardlne both
torture and lll-treatment: a) they must take steps such as tralnlne law enforce-
ment personnel to ensure that the prohlbltlons aealnst torture and lll-treatment
are enforced; b) they must promptly and competently lnvestleate any reasonable
alleeatlons that torture or lll-treatment have taken place ln thelr terrltorles, pros-
ecute the alleeed perpetrators, and, lf found eullty by an lndependent, lmpartlal and
competent trlbunal punlsh them wlth approprlate penaltles taklne lnto account thelr
erave nature; and c) they must provlde an effectlve remedy and reparatlon to the
vlctlms of such acts.
uS/
The Commlttee Aealnst Torture has noted that thls oblleatlon
extends to requlrlne "posltlve measures to ensure that prlvate persons or entltles do
not lnflct torture or cruel, lnhuman or deeradlne treatment or punlshment on others
wlthln thelr power."
uSS
whlle all forms of prohlblted treatment requlre affrmatlve
steps to prevent, punlsh, and remedy, the prohlbltlon of torture requlres States to
fulfl two addltlonal oblleatlons: an crcc cnrcs oblleatlon to extradlte or prosecute
alleeed torturers and the oblleatlon of rcr-rcfclcncrt.
The absolute prohlbltlon of torture and lll-treatment lmposes the oblleatlon on
the State to not use methods of lnterroeatlon, condltlons of detentlon or punlsh-
ment, whlch can amount to these prohlblted acts. Corporal punlshment - physlcal
punlshment lnvolvlne blows to the body or mutllatlon, such as foeelne, cannlne,
uSu. ln essence, the deeradatlon of mental well-belne that results from lndeflnlte detentlon endlne ln expected
executlon.
uSc. Furopean Court of human klehts, ludement of / luly 1S, Case of Sccrirc v. thc uritcJ kircJcn, Appllcatlon
ho. 1uoS]SS.
uS6. vlews of / Aprll 1S, Case of Prctt crJ Mcrccr v. lcncirc, Communlcatlons hos. z1o]1S6 and zzc]1S/,
para. 1./.
uS/. See irtcr clic, Commlttee aealnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, lnplcncrtcticr cf Artirlc 2 bv Stctc
Pcrtics, paras. zu & /; human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1, 1hc Nctrc cf thc Ccrcrcl lcccl
0bliccticr lnpcscJ cr Stctcs Pcrtics tc thc Ccvcrcrt, para. 16; and the upJctcJ Sct cf Prirriplcs fcr thc
prctcrticr crJ prcncticr cf hncr richts thrcch crticr tc rcnbct inpritv (F]Ch.u]zooc]1oz] Add.1, S
February zooc), recommended by the Commlsslon on human klehts resolutlon zooc]S1 of z1 Aprll . For a
more detalled explanatlon on these lssues, see lnternatlonal Commlsslon of lurlsts, 1hc kicht tc c kcncJv
crJ tc kcpcrcticr fcr Crcss hncr kichts viclcticrs: A Prcrtiticrcrs CiJc, Practltloners 0ulde ho. z, lCl
0eneva, zoo6.
uSS. Commlttee aealnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, Jcr. rit., para. 11.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1oc
whlpplne, amputatlon and brandlne - lmposed by |udlclal order or as an admlnls-
tratlve sanctlon ls prohlblted by lnternatlonal standards.
uS
ln several countrles,
laws punlsh consensual same-sex relatlonshlps and transeendered behavlour by
corporal punlshment.
keeardlne the duty to prosecute the alleeed perpetrators of lll-treatment, the
Commlttee Aealnst Torture, "emphaslzes that lt would be a vlolatlon of the
Conventlon to prosecute conduct solely as lll-treatment where the elements of
torture are also present".
uo
The Commlttee aealnst Torture has relterated that ln
cases of lll-treatment, States have a duty to conduct a crlmlnal lnvestleatlon.
u1
ln
the same veln, the human klehts Commlttee has stated that "States Partles must
ensure that those responslble are broueht to |ustlce. As wlth fallure to lnvestleate,
fallure to brlne to |ustlce perpetrators of such vlolatlons could ln and of ltself elve
rlse to a separate breach of the Covenant."
uz
States must not expose lndlvlduals to the daneer of torture or lll-treatments upon
return to another country by way of thelr extradltlon, expulslon or rcfclcncrt. The
prlnclple of rcr-rcfclcncrt, prohlbltlne States to return, deport, extradlte, expel,
transfer or otherwlse send anyone to a country where he or she faces a real rlsk of
eross human rlehts vlolatlons, lncludlne torture and lll-treatment, ls one of the most
fundamental prlnclples of eeneral lnternatlonal law. lt has lts orlelns ln refueee law
u

and lnternatlonal reeulatlons on extradltlon
uu
and ls now an lnteeral part of human
rlehts law, appllcable to all lndlvlduals. lt ls frmly establlshed ln several unlversal
and reelonal leeal lnstruments
uc
as well as ln the lnternatlonal customary law that
ls blndlne on all States. Althoueh the lCCPk contalns no expllclt provlslon on the
sub|ect, the human klehts Commlttee conslders the prlnclple of rcr-rcfclcncrt
uS. See, irtcr clic, kesolutlon zoo1]6z of zc Aprll zoo1, para. c, of the former uh Commlsslon on human
klehts.
uo. Commlttee aealnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, lnplcncrtcticr cf Artlcle 2 bv Stctcs Pcrtics, uh doc.
CAT]C]0C]z]CkP.1]kev.u; para. 1o.
u1. vlews of 1u May 1S, Case of Frrcrrcricr 8lcrrc AbcJ v. Spcir, Communlcatlon ho. c]16; vlews of z1
hovember zooz, Case of hcjrizi 0zcncjl ct cl. v. ccslcvic, Communlcatlon ho. 161]zooo.
uz. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1, 1hc Nctrc cf thc Ccrcrcl lcccl 0bliccticr lnpcscJ
cr Stctc Pcrtics tc thc Ccvcrcrt, para. 1S.
u. The 1c1 Conventlon relatlne to the Status of kefueees (Artlcle ), the 0AS Conventlon on Terrltorlal Asylum
(Artlcle lv) and the 0reanlzatlon of Afrlcan unlty's Conventlon 0overnlne the Speclflc Aspects of kefueee
Problems ln Afrlca (Artlcle ll ()).
uu. See, amone others, the lnternatlonal Conventlon aealnst Taklne hostaees (Artlcle ), Furopean Conventlon on
Fxtradltlon (Artlcle ), Furopean Conventlon on the Suppresslon of Terrorlsm (Artlcle c), the lnter-Amerlcan
Conventlon on Fxtradltlon (Artlcle u) and the uh Model Treaty on Fxtradltlon (Artlcle ).
uc. See, amone others, the Conventlon Aealnst Torture and Cruel, lnhuman or 0eeradlne Treatment or Punlshment
(Artlcle .1), the lnternatlonal Conventlon for the Protectlon of All Persons from Fnforced 0lsappearance
(Artlcle 16), the 0eclaratlon on Terrltorlal Asylum (Artlcle .1), the 0eclaratlon on the Protectlon of All Persons
from Fnforced 0lsappearances (Artlcle S), the Prlnclples on the Fffectlve Preventlon and lnvestleatlon of
Fxtra-leeal, Arbltrary and Summary Fxecutlons (Prlnclple c), the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts
(Artlcle zz.S), the lnter-Amerlcan Conventlon to Prevent and Punlsh Torture (Artlcle 1.u), the Arab Charter
on human klehts (Artlcle zS) and the Furopean Conventlon of human klehts (Artlcle ).
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 1o6
to be lnherent ln Artlcle /.
u6
Thls has also been endorsed by varlous unlversal and
reelonal human rlehts bodles.
u/
The human klehts Commlttee has remlnded States that "the absolute nature of the
prohlbltlon of torture, cruel, lnhuman or deeradlne treatment '.] ln no clrcumstances
can be deroeated from. ho person, wlthout any exceptlon, even those suspected
of presentlne a daneer to natlonal securlty or the safety of any person, and even
durlne a state of emereency, may be deported to a country where he]she runs the
rlsk of belne sub|ected to torture or cruel, lnhuman or deeradlne treatment".
uS
The
prlnclple of rcr-rcfclcncrt ls a js rcccrs norm and ls absolute ln nature, and lt
cannot be sub|ect to deroeatlon or restrlctlon under any clrcumstances.
u
The dlfference between the varlous forms of prohlblted treatment (torture and cruel,
lnhuman or deeradlne treatment) ls not relevant here: elven that the prohlbltlon on
all of them ls absolute and non-deroeable, the prlnclple of rcr-rcfclcncrt applles
to them all wlthout dlstlnctlon.
coo
The Commlttee Aealnst Torture has also polnted
out that the rlsk of torture may come from non-State actors who are, Jc fcrtc, exer-
clslne functlons that normally belone to the authorltles.
co1
The prlnclple of rcr-rcfclcncrt applles whenever there ls a rlsk of a serlous vlola-
tlon of human rlehts. lt ls thls rlsk whlch ls the focus of attentlon, and the nature of
the removal or the actlvltles of the person concerned are not lmportant. The prln-
clple covers any lnvoluntary removal of an lndlvldual from one country to another,
whatever form lt takes or name lt ls elven (deportatlon, expulslon, return, extradl-
tlon, transfer, etc) and reeardless of whether the proceedlnes followed were leeal
(l.e., Jc fcrtc or Jc jrc). The tradltlonal dlstlnctlon made ln publlc lnternatlonal
u6. See the human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2c, Jcr. rit., para. . See also, irtcr clic, vlews
of the human klehts Commlttee ln the cases: Chitct Nc v. CcrcJc, Communlcatlon u6]11; MchcnncJ
Alzcrv v. SwcJcr, Communlcatlon ho. 1u16]zooc; Ccx v. CcrcJc, Communlcatlon c]1; and C.1. v.
Astrclic. Communlcatlon /o6]16.
u/. Commlttee aealnst Torture, vlews of zo May zooc, Case of AhncJ hsscir Mstcfc kcnil Acizc v. SwcJcr,
Communlcatlon ho. z]zoo, CAT]C]u]0]z]zoo, khcr v. CcrcJc, Ccnnrircticr Nc. 1</1o, u.N.
0cr. A/<c/oo ct o6 (1o|; Furopean Court of human klehts, ludements ln the cases Sccrirc v. 1hc uritcJ
kircJcn, Crz vcrcs crJ cthcrs v. SwcJcr, vilvcrcjch crJ cthcrs v. 1hc uritcJ kircJcn, Alcr v. SwitzcrlcrJ,
Acnci v. SwitzcrlcrJ, Mtcnbc v. SwitzcrlcrJ, 1clc v. SwcJcr, Fclckcflcki v. SwcJcr, A v. NcthcrlcrJs, Avcs
v. SwcJcr, hcvJir v. SwcJcr, crJ h.0. v. SwitzcrlcrJ; and the Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples'
klehts, Communlcatlon ho./], McJissc v. 8ctswcrc.
uS. CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc hncr kichts Ccnnittcc: CcrcJc, CCPk]C]CAh]C0]c, zo Aprll zoo6, para.
1c.
u. See, amone others, the kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr tcrtrc, Mr. 1hcc vcr 8cvcr, uh document. F]
Ch.u]zooz]1/ of z6 February zooz, para. 1u, and the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts, Arrcl
kcpcrt cf thc lrtcr-Ancrircr Ccnnissicr cr hncr kichts, 18o-18<, 0AS document 0FA]Ser.L]v]ll.66,
0oc. 1o rev. 1, 1 0ctober 1Sc.
coo. See the human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2c, cp. rit. 1z, ln whlch the human klehts Commlttee
expllcltly acknowledees the appllcatlon of the prlnclple ln the case of "tcrtrc cr rrcl, irhncr cr JccrcJirc
trcctncrt cr prishncrt" (para. ).
co1. 0eclslon of 1u May 1, Case of ScJic Shck Flnir, Australla, Communlcatlon ho. 1zo]1S,
CAT]C]zz]0]1zo]1S, zc May 1, para. 6.c.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1o/
law between extradltlon, expulslon, return, etc, ls not relevant here.
coz
unllke the
Ccrvcrticr rclctirc tc thc Stcts cf kcfcccs, any balanclne test that would allow
appllcatlon of the prlnclple to be curtalled for reasons such as natlonal securlty can
never be used here.
o. 1erture and i||-treatment en greunds eI sexua| erientatien and
gender identity
o.: 1erture and i||-treatment arising Irem prejudice and
discriminatien
As a mlnorlty eroup, L08T persons are placed ln a posltlon of vulnerablllty ln soclety
whlch ln turn lncreases thelr susceptlblllty to torture. The uh Speclal kapporteur
on torture has noted that attltudes and bellefs stemmlne from myths and fears
assoclated wlth eender, sexuallty and hlv]Al0S, contrlbutlne to the stlema and
dlscrlmlnatlon aealnst them. hls report cataloeues eraphlc manlfestatlons of lll-
treatment speclfcally arlslne from hostlllty towards a partlcular sexual orlentatlon
and eender ldentlty, "male-to-female transsexual women have been beaten lnten-
tlonally on thelr breasts and cheek-bones whlch had been enhanced by slllcone
lmplants, causlne the lmplants to burst and as a result releaslne toxlc substances
lnto thelr bodles. lll-treatment aealnst sexual mlnorltles ls belleved to have also
been used, irtcr clic, to force sex workers to leave certaln areas, ln so-called 'soclal
cleanslne' campalens, or to dlscouraee sexual mlnorltles from meetlne ln certaln
places, lncludlne clubs and bars".
co
The uh Speclal kapporteur on Torture has concluded that systemlc dlscrlmlna-
tlon aealnst members of sexual mlnorltles lncreases thelr vulnerablllty to torture.
The Speclal kapporteur noted that "'f ]or some years 'he] has recelved lnformatlon
reeardlne a number of cases ln whlch the vlctlms of torture and other cruel, lnhuman
or deeradlne treatment or punlshment have been members of sexual mlnorltles. he
notes that a conslderable proportlon of the lncldents of torture carrled out aealnst
members of sexual mlnorltles sueeests that they are often sub|ected to vlolence
of a sexual nature, such as rape or sexual assault ln order to 'punlsh' them for
coz. See, amone others, the Commlttee aealnst Torture, vlews of c lune zooo, Case of lcs Arkcz Arcrc v.
Frcrrc, Communlcatlon ho. o6]1/, and Ccrrlsicrs crJ kcrcnncrJcticrs cf thc Ccnnittcc Accirst
1crtrc: uritcJ kircJcn, uh document CAT]C]Ck]], zc hovember zoou, para. c(e). See also the kcpcrt
cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr tcrtrc crJ cthcr rrcl, irhncr cr JccrcJirc trcctncrt cr prishncrt, uh
document A]c]zu, 1 September zoou, para. u.
co. kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr thc ccsticr cf tcrtrc crJ cthcr rrcl, irhncr cr JccrcJirc trcctncrt
cr prishncrt, irtcrin rcpcrt, uh 0oc. A]c6]1c6, luly zoo1, para. 1S.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 1oS
transeresslne eender barrlers or for challenelne predomlnant conceptlons of eender
role."
cou
The uh Speclal kapporteur noted that:
"ncnbcrs cf scxcl nircritics crc Jisprcpcrticrctclv sbjcrtcJ tc tcrtrc
crJ cthcr fcrns cf ill-trcctncrt, bcrcsc thcv fcil tc rcrfcrn tc scricllv
rcrstrrtcJ ccrJcr cxpcrtcticrs. lrJccJ, Jisrrinircticr cr crcrJs cf
scxcl cricrtcticr cr ccrJcr iJcrtitv ncv cftcr rcrtribtc tc thc prcrcss
cf thc Jchncrizcticr cf thc virtin, whirh is cftcr c rcrcsscrv rcrJiticr fcr
tcrtrc crJ ill-trcctncrt tc tckc plcrc. |.] ncnbcrs cf scxcl nircritics crc
c pcrtirlcrlv vlrcrcblc crcp with rcspcrt tc tcrtrc ir vcrics rcrtcxts
crJ |.] thcir stcts ncv clsc cffcrt thc rcrscccrrcs cf thcir ill-trcctncrt
ir tcrns cf thcir crrcss tc rcnplcirt prcrcJrcs cr ncJircl trcctncrt ir
stctc hcspitcls, whcrc thcv ncv fccr frthcr virtinizcticr, cs wcll cs ir tcrns
cf lcccl rcrscccrrcs rcccrJirc thc lcccl scrrticrs flcwirc frcn rcrtcir
cbscs."
coc
Concernlne dlscrlmlnatlon on erounds of sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty, the
uh Speclal kapporteur on Torture has polnted out that "dlscrlmlnatory attltudes
towards members of sexual mlnorltles can mean that they are percelved as less
credlble by law enforcement aeencles or not fully entltled to an equal standard
of protectlon, lncludlne protectlon aealnst vlolence carrled out by non-State
aeents."
co6
o.z 1erture and i||-treatment via 'cures' impesed en sexua| minerities
Medlclne or the appllcatlon of "cures" has sometlmes been the basls for acts of
torture or deeradlne treatment of L08T persons. Professor kyan 0oodman has
descrlbed "the curatlve pretext" that ls used as a precursor to "soclal cleanslne"
or systematlc lll-treatment of L08T people. Professor 0oodman clted "lnvoluntary"
medlcal lnterventlon aealnst L08T persons such as electrlc shock, forms of "averslon
therapy" and use of psychotroplc drues: "even lf the practlce of sexual orlentatlon
were not experlmentatlon, a forelen State's use of certaln medlcal technoloey may
already constltute experlmentatlon ln uS courts. The experlmental nature of the
procedure ltself may brldee the alleeed eap between hurembere's experlmentatlon-
speclfc laws and the sexual orlentatlon 'cures'. Thus ad|udlcators and practltloners
should conslder the speclfc technlque rather than |ust the overall medlcal attempt
to forclbly alter sexual orlentatlon. The admlnlstratlon of antlpsychotlc drues, for
lnstance, may classlfy the practlce as experlmentatlon, because of the 'explora-
tory' nature of the use of such drues for sexual orlentatlon 'therapy' '.]. Thlrdly, the
cou. lbiJ., para. 1/, see also kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr, uh 0oc. F]Ch.u]zoou]c6, z 0ecember zoo.
coc. lbiJ., para. 1.
co6. kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr thc ccsticr cf tcrtrc crJ cthcr rrcl, irhncr cr JccrcJirc trcctncrt
cr prishncrt, F]Ch.u]zooz]/6, z/ 0ecember zoo1, Annex lll, p. 11.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1o
alleeed dlstlnctlon between cure and experlmentatlon ls untenable wlth reeard to
manlpulatlon of sexual orlentatlon".
co/
The context for the development of a curatlve trope has been set throueh the pathol-
oelzatlon of homosexual expresslons and transeender ldentltles. Thls approach
remalns throuehout many countrles ln the world and has only recently been removed
as "patholoey" ln medlcal clrcles.
The lnternatlonal and reelonal human rlehts systems have not yet dealt wlth an lndl-
vldual petltlon or communlcatlon speclfcally relatlne to lssues of sexual orlentatlon
and eender ldentlty ln relatlon wlth the prohlbltlon of torture and lll-treatments, and
provlslons prohlbltlne torture. however, all lnternatlonal norms and standards from
lnternatlonal human rlehts |urlsprudence on torture and lll-treatment, referred to ln
the prevlous sectlon of thls chapter, are appllcable ln relatlon to sexual orlentatlon
and eender ldentlty. lndeed, everyone ls entltled, wlthout any klnd of dlscrlmlnatlon
and reeardless hls or her sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty, to the absolute rleht
to be free from torture and lll-treatment. The Commlttee Aealnst Torture has recalled
that "'t]he prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon ls a baslc and eeneral prlnclple ln the
protectlon of human rlehts and fundamental to the lnterpretatlon and appllcatlon of
the Conventlon. hon-dlscrlmlnatlon ls lncluded wlthln the defnltlon of torture ltself
ln Artlcle 1, paraeraph 1, of the Conventlon, whlch expllcltly prohlblts speclfed acts
when carrled out for crv rccscr bcscJ cr Jisrrinircticr cf crv kirJ .."
coS
The
Commlttee polnted out that:
"1hc prctcrticr cf rcrtcir nircritv cr ncrcirclizcJ irJiviJcls cr pcp-
lcticrs cspcricllv ct risk cf tcrtrc is c pcrt cf thc cbliccticr tc prcvcrt
tcrtrc cr ill trcctncrt. Stctcs pcrtics nst crsrc thct, irscfcr cs thc
cbliccticrs crisirc rJcr thc Ccrvcrticr crc rcrrcrrcJ, thcir lcws crc ir
prcrtirc cpplicJ tc cll pcrscrs, rcccrJlcss cf |.] scxcl cricrtcticr |cr] trcrs-
ccrJcr iJcrtitv |.]. Stctcs pcrtics shclJ, thcrcfcrc, crsrc thc prctcrticr cf
ncnbcrs cf crcps cspcricllv ct risk cf bcirc tcrtrcJ, bv fllv prcscrtirc
crJ prishirc cll crts cf viclcrrc crJ cbsc cccirst thcsc irJiviJcls crJ
crsrirc inplcncrtcticr cf cthcr pcsitivc nccsrcs cf prcvcrticr crJ
prctcrticr, irrlJirc bt rct linitcJ tc thcsc ctlircJ cbcvc".
co
0n several occaslons the Commlttee Aealnst Torture has expressed lts concerns for
alleeatlons of torture and lll-treatment of certaln other vulnerable eroups, lncludlne
co/. kyan 0oodman, "The lncorporatlon of lnternatlonal human klehts Standards lnto sexual orlentatlon
asylum clalms: cases of lnvoluntary 'medlcal' lnterventlon", ln clc lcw lcrrcl, vol. 1oc, 0ctober 1c, pp.
z/u-z/c.
coS. Commlttee Aealnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, "lnplcncrtcticr cf Artlcle 2 bv Stctcs pcrtics", para.
zo.
co. lbiJ., para. z1.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 11o
sexual mlnorltles.
c1o
Concernlne L08T detalnees, the Commlttee has also expressed
lts concerns about "dlscrlmlnatory treatment of certaln eroups wlth reeard to access
to the already llmlted essentlal servlces, notably on the basls of soclal orleln or
sexual orlentatlon".
c11
The Commlttee has recommended that States "'r]emove all
ambleulty ln leelslatlon whlch mleht underpln the persecutlon of lndlvlduals because
of thelr sexual orlentatlon. Steps should also be taken to prevent all deeradlne
treatment on the occaslon of body searches".
c1z
The Commlttee has relterated the
duty of States to ensure that reports of brutallty and lll-treatment of members of
vulnerable eroups, lncludlne persons of dlfferent sexual orlentatlon, by lts law-
enforcement personnel are lndependently, promptly and thorouehly lnvestleated
and that perpetrators are prosecuted, broueht to trlal and approprlately punlshed.
c1

The Commlttee has recommended States bulld up and strenethen the system of
publlc defenders to protect vulnerable eroups, lncludlne sexual mlnorltles.
c1u
Flnally, concernlne the lssue of rcr-rcfclcncrt, the uh Speclal kapporteur on
Torture has "draw'n] attentlon to factors and clrcumstances that stem from condl-
tlons that may prevall ln a country and touch at the same tlme upon the vulnerablllty
of persons whose removal to such a country ls at stake. keference ls made here to
persons belonelne to any ldentlfable eroup or collectlvlty on '.] eender or other
erounds, such as sexual orlentatlon, and who for that reason are tareeted by the
authorltles or, wlth the connlvance of the authorltles, rlsk belne sub|ected to perse-
cutlon or systematlc dlscrlmlnatlon amountlne to torture or other cruel, lnhuman or
deeradlne treatment or punlshment. These factors and clrcumstances also have to
be taken lnto account ln determlnlne the rcr-rcfclcncrt lssue".
c1c
5ummary
Fveryone ls entltled, wlthout any klnd of dlscrlmlnatlon and reeardless of !
hls or her sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty, to the rleht to be free from
torture and lll-treatment;
c1o. See irtcr clic: CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc Ccnnittcc cccirst 1crtrc: Arccrtirc, CAT]C]Ck]]1, of 1o
0ecember zoou, para. 6; CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc Ccnnittcc cccirst 1crtrc: Fcvpt, CAT]C]Ck]z]u,
of z 0ecember zooz; CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc Ccnnittcc cccirst 1crtrc: 8rczil, A]c6]uu, of 16 May
zoo1; CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc Ccnnittcc cccirst 1crtrc: FrcJcr, CAT]C]FCu]C0], of S February
zoo6; CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc Ccnnittcc cccirst 1crtrc: uritcJ Stctcs cf Ancrirc, CAT]C]uSA]
C0]z, of zc luly zoo6.
c11. CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs: cf thc Ccnnittcc cccirst 1crtrc: 8rczil, A]c6]uu, of 16 May zoo1, para. 11.
c1z. CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc Ccnnittcc cccirst 1crtrc: Fcvpt, CAT]C]Ck]z]u, of z 0ecember zooz,
para. c.
c1. CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc Ccnnittcc cccirst 1crtrc: uritcJ Stctcs cf Ancrirc, CAT]C]uSA]C0]z, of
zc luly zoo6, para. /; CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc Ccnnittcc cccirst 1crtrc: FrcJcr, CAT]C]FCu]
C0], of S February zoo6, para. 1/.
c1u. CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc Ccnnittcc cccirst 1crtrc: FrcJcr, CAT]C]FCu]C0], of S February zoo6,
para. 1/.
c1c. lrtcrin rcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cf thc Ccnnissicr cr hncr kichts cr tcrtrc crJ cthcr rrcl,
irhncr cr JccrcJirc trcctncrt cr prishncrt, uh 0oc. A]c]zu, September 1, zoou, para. .
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 111
The rleht to freedom from torture and lll-treatment ls unlversally recoenlzed !
and protected by lnternatlonal human rlehts law, both treaty and customary
law;
The rleht to freedom from torture and lll-treatment ls an absolute rleht, !
whlch must not be deroeated from at any tlme or clrcumstance. The absolute
prohlbltlon of torture and lll-treatment ls a norm of js rcccrs. Torture and
lll-treatment are crlmes under lnternatlonal law;
Three elements whlch characterlse torture are: (a) the lnfllctlon, by act or !
omlsslon, of severe paln or sufferlne, whether physlcal or mental; (b) the
act or omlsslon must be lntentlonal; and c) the act must be lnstrumental to
another purpose prohlblted by lnternatlonal law, ln the sense that the lnfllc-
tlon of paln must be almed at reachlne a certaln eoal;
Althoueh lnternatlonal law does not provlde a deflnltlon, lll-treatment should !
be lnterpreted so as to extend the wldest posslble protectlon aealnst abuses,
whether physlcal or mental. lnternatlonal human rlehts |urlsprudence
provldes a llst of acts whlch constltute lll-treatment;
States have the oblleatlon to prevent, lnvestleate and punlsh torture and lll- !
treatment and not to take recourse to methods of lnterroeatlon, condltlon of
detentlon or punlshment, whlch can amount to these prohlblted acts;
hobody shall be expelled, returned, deported ! , surrendered, extradlted or
otherwlse sent to a State where there are substantlal erounds for bellevlne
that he or she would be ln daneer of belne sub|ected to crcss human rlehts
vlolatlons, irrlJirc tcrtrc crJ ill-trcctncrt, fcr his cr hcr scxcl cricrtc-
ticr cr ccrJcr iJcrtitv.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 11
"|p]lrclisn is |.] bilt cr thc ccrirc rcrccriticr cf,
crJ rcspcrt fcr, Jivcrsitv crJ thc Jvrcnirs cf rltrcl
trcJiticrs, cthrir crJ rltrcl iJcrtitics, rclicics
bclicfs, crtistir, litcrcrv crJ scric-crcrcnir iJccs crJ
rcrrcpts. 1hc hcrncrics irtcrcrticr cf pcrscrs crJ
crcps with vcricJ iJcrtitics is csscrticl fcr crhicvirc
scricl rchcsicr."
-Furopean Court of human klehts
c16
vtt. Rights te freedem eI xpressien, Assemb|y and
Asseciatien
:. 5cepe and nature eI the rights
The urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cf hncr kichts and the lrtcrrcticrcl Ccvcrcrt cr Civil
crJ Pclitircl kichts (lCCPk), as well as all the ma|or reelonal human rlehts treatles,
safeeuard the rleht of peaceful assembly, freedom of assoclatlon and freedom of
expresslon, whlch lncludes both recelvlne and expresslne lnformatlon and ldeas.
c1/

0ther human rlehts treatles and lnternatlonal lnstruments, both at the unlversal and
reelonal levels, also ensure and protect these rlehts and freedoms.
c1S
c16. ludement of 1/ February zoou, Case of Ccrzclik crJ 0thcrs v. PclcrJ, Appllcatlon ho. uu1cS]S, para. z.
c1/. unlversal 0eclaratlon of human klehts Artlcles 1, zo; lCCPk Artlcles 1, z1, zz; Afrlcan Charter on human
and Peoples' klehts. Artlcles , 1o, 11; Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts, Artlcles , 1c, 16; Furopean
Conventlon on human klehts. Artlcles 1o, 11; and Arab Charter on human klehts, Artlcles zu, z.
c1S. See irtcr clic: lnternatlonal Covenant on Fconomlc, Soclal and Cultural klehts (Artlcle S), Conventlon on the
klehts of the Chlld (Artlcles 1 and 1c), lnternatlonal Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klehts of All Mlerant
workers and Members of Thelr Famllles (Artlcles 1 and zu), lnternatlonal Conventlon for the Protectlon of All
Persons from Fnforced 0lsappearance (Artlcle zu,/), Conventlon relatlne to the Status of kefueees (Artlcle
1c), 0eclaratlon on the human rlehts of lndlvlduals who are not natlonals of the country ln whlch they llve
(Artlcle c(z) and S (1.b)), 0eclaratlon on the kleht and kesponslblllty of lndlvlduals, 0roups and 0reans of
Soclety to Promote and Protect unlversally kecoenlsed human klehts and Fundamental Freedoms (Artlcles
1, c, 6, /, and 1z), 0eclaratlon on the klehts of Persons 8elonelne to hatlonal or Fthnlc, kellelous and
Llneulstlc Mlnorltles (Artlcle z), 8aslc Prlnclples on the kole of Lawyers (Prlnclple z), 8aslc Prlnclples on
the lndependence of the ludlclary (Prlnclples S and ), 0uldellnes on the kole of Prosecutors (0uldellnes
S and ), 0eclaratlon of Prlnclples on Freedom of Fxpresslon ln Afrlca, Afrlcan Charter on the klehts and
welfare of the Chlld (Artlcles / and S), Amerlcan 0eclaratlon of the klehts and 0utles of Man (Artlcles lv,
XXl and XXll), Addltlonal Protocol to the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts ln the Area of Fconomlc,
Soclal and Cultural klehts, Protocol of San Salvador (Artlcle S), lnter-Amerlcan Conventlon on the Preventlon,
Punlshment and Fradlcatlon of vlolence aealnst women (Artlcle u), 0AS 0eclaratlon of Prlnclples on Freedom
of Fxpresslon, Furopean Conventlon on human klehts (Artlcles , 1o and 11), Furopean Soclal Charter (Part
1, para. c, Artlcles c and 6), the Freedom of Assoclatlon and Protectlon of the kleht to 0reanlse Conventlon,
1uS (lL0), lndleenous and Trlbal Peoples Conventlon, 1S (ho. 16) (Artlcle zo,z) and lL0 Conventlon ho.
1c1 concernlne Protectlon of the kleht to 0reanlze and Procedures for 0etermlnlne Condltlons of Fmployment
ln the Publlc Servlce. See also the lohannesbure Prlnclples on hatlonal Securlty, Freedom of Fxpresslon
and Access to lnformatlon, whlch were endorsed by the uh Speclal kapporteur on the rleht to freedom of
oplnlon and expresslon (uh.0oc. F]Ch.u]16], appendlx) and the former uh Commlsslon on human
klehts referred to these prlnclples ln several resolutlons (see resolutlon zooo]S of zo Aprll zooo) as well
the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klehts.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 11u
:.: freedem eI expressien
Freedom of expresslon ls a cornerstone of a democratlc soclety. Freedom of expres-
slon ls lndlspensable for the development of publlc oplnlon. lt ls also a rcrJitic sirc
cc rcr for the advancement of polltlcal partles, trade unlons, sclentlfc and cultural
socletles and, ln eeneral, those who wlsh to communlcate cr ncss wlth the publlc.
lt represents, ln short, the means that enable the communlty, when exerclslne lts
optlons, to be suffclently lnformed. Consequently, lt can be sald that a soclety that
ls not well lnformed ls not a soclety that ls truly free.
c1
The lnter-Amerlcan Court
of human klehts has underllned that the freedom of expresslon has also a soclal
dlmenslon and lmplles a collectlve rleht to recelve any lnformatlon whatsoever and
to have access to thouehts expressed by others.
czo
The protectlon of freedom of expresslon must encompass not only the fow of
"lnformatlon" or "ldeas" that are recelved favourably or wlthout offence, but also
expresslons that "offend, shock or dlsturb"; such are the demands of plurallsm,
tolerance and broadmlndedness wlthout whlch there ls no "democratlc soclety".
cz1

The dlssemlnatlon of polltlcal ldeas that do not conform to the vlews of a rullne
ellte and are not lncompatlble themselves wlth the prlnclples of democracy cannot
be consldered themselves as |eopardlzlne the lnteerlty or the natlonal securlty of a
country. The State ls the ultlmate euarantor of the prlnclple of plurallsm.
czz
c1. See irtcr clic: lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts, ludement of z luly zoou, Case of hcrrcrc-ullcc v. Ccstc
kirc; Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klehts, Communlcatlon ho. zuz]zoo1, Case of lrtcrichts,
lrstittc fcr hncr kichts crJ 0cvclcpncrt ir Afrirc, crJ Asscricticr Mcritcricrrc Jcs 0rcits Jc lhcnnc
v. lslcnir kcpblir cf Mcritcric, Communlcatlon ho. z1z]S, Case of Anrcstv r/Zcnbic.
czo. ludement of z luly zoou, Case of hcrrcrc-ullcc v. Ccstc kirc, para. 1oS; ludement of 6 February zoo1, Case
of lvrhcr-8rcrstcir v. Pcr, para. 1u6; ludement of c February zoo1, Case of "1hc lcst 1cnptcticr cf Christ"
(0lncJc 8stcs ct cl. v. Chilc|, para. 6u; and Advlsory 0plnlon 0C-c]Sc of 1 hovember 1Sc, Jcr. rit., para.
o.
cz1. Furopean Court of human klehts: ludement of / 0ecember 1/6, Case of hcrJvsiJc v. uritcJ kircJcn;
ludement of S luly 1, Case of Sbrck crJ 0zJcnir v. 1rkcv, Appllcatlons ho. zz/]u and zuz//]u;
ludement of z6 September 1c, Case of vcct v. Ccrncrv; ludement of o lanuary 1S, Appllcatlon ho.
1]16]/cz]c1, Case of uritcJ Ccnnrist Pcrtv cf 1rkcv crJ 0thcrs v. 1rkcv; ludement of 1z luly
zooc, Case of Cbrcri crJ 0thcrs v. 1rkcv, Appllcatlon ho. uzSc]S, u6o]S and uuz1]S; ludement
of z1 lune zoo/, Case of Zhcrhcv v. 8lccric, Appllcatlon ho. c/ouc]oo; ludement of May zoo/, Case of
8crkcwski crJ 0thcrs v. PclcrJ, Appllcatlon ho. 1cu]o6; ludement of May zoo/, Case of 0cnckrctik
kitlc Pcrtisi v Flri v. 1rkcv, Appllcatlon ho. c1zo]; ludement of 1z 0ecember zoo6, Case of lirkcv v.
Czcrh kcpblir, Appllcatlon ho.1ocou]o; ludement of z 0ctober zoo1, Case of Stcrkcv crJ thc uritcJ
McrcJcricr 0rccriscticr llirJcr v. 8lccric, Appllcatlons ho. zzz1]c and zzzc]c; and ludement
of 1o luly 1S, Case of SiJircpclcs crJ 0thcrs v. Crccrc, Appllcatlon ho. c/]1/]Su1]1ou/. See also:
lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts, ludement of c February zoo1, Case of 0lncJc 8stcs ct. cl v. Chilc
("lcst 1cnptcticr cf Christ"| and ludement of z luly zoou, Case of hcrrcrc-ullcc v. Ccstc kirc; lnter-Amerlcan
Commlsslon on human klehts, Annual keport on human klehts 1o, "kcpcrt cr thc Ccnpctibilitv cf
0cscrctc lcws with thc Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts", 0FA]Ser.L]v]ll.SS., 0oc. rev (1c).
czz. Furopean Court of human klehts, ludement of zu hovember 1, Case of lrfcrncticrsvcrcir lcrtic crJ
0thcrs v. Astric, Appllcatlon ho. 11u]SS; 1cou1]S; 1c/1/]S; 1c//]S; 1/zo/]o, para. S.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 11c
:.z 1he rights eI peaceIu| assemb|y and asseciatien
The rlehts of peaceful assembly and assoclatlon are closely llnked wlth the rleht
to freedom of expresslon. Freedom of assembly focuses on the process of formlne,
expresslne and lmplementlne polltlcal oplnlons ln a democratlc soclety, whlle
freedom of assoclatlon entalls the rleht to choose, |oln and form assoclatlons whlch
often form and express thouehts and oplnlons. Thls lnter-relatlon has been affrmed
by the Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klehts as lt has stated that
the rleht to assoclate cannot be dlvorced from the rleht to assemble freely and
peacefully.
cz
Llke freedom of expresslon, the rlehts of peaceful assembly and assoclatlon are key
components of a democratlc soclety. The human klehts Commlttee has affrmed
that "the exlstence and operatlon of assoclatlons, lncludlne those whlch peacefully
promote ldeas not necessarlly favourably recelved by the eovernment or the ma|orlty
of the populatlon, ls a cornerstone of a democratlc soclety".
czu
The Furopean Court
of human klehts added, "the rleht to freedom of assembly ls a fundamental rleht, lt
should not be lnterpreted restrlctlvely".
czc
The human klehts Commlttee has polnted
out that States must not only safeeuard rlehts to freedom of assembly and assocla-
tlon but also refraln from applylne unreasonable lndlrect restrlctlons upon those
rlehts.
cz6
z. 0eregatiens, |imitatiens and restrictiens
The rleht of expresslon and the freedoms of assembly and assoclatlon are not abso-
lute rlehts under lnternatlonal human rlehts law and can be restrlcted ln tlmes of
normallty as well as ln tlmes of emereency.
cz/
lnternatlonal human rlehts lnstruments protectlne the rleht of expresslon and
freedom of assembly and assoclatlon slmultaneously encompass restrlctlons on
these rlehts; notably on actlvltles that advocate war or lnclte hatred,
czS
threaten
natlonal securlty or publlc safety, health, order, or morals,
cz
or lmplnee on the rlehts
cz. Communlcatlon ho. zc1]zooz, lcwvcrs fcr hncr kichts v. SwczilcrJ.
czu. vlews of 1 0ctober zoo6, Case of viktcr kcrrccrkc crJ 0thcrs v. 8clcrs, Communlcatlon ho. 1z/u]zoou,
para. /.. See also vlews of zo luly zooc, Case of lccrc-Fr lcc v. kcpblir cf kcrcc, Communlcatlon
ho. 111]zooz, para. /.z and vlews of 1/ 0ctober zoo6, Case of 8cris Zvczskcv crJ 0thcrs v. 8clcrs,
Communlcatlon ho. 1o]zoo1, para. /.z.
czc. ludement of zo February zoo, Case of 0jcvit Ar v. 1rkcv, Appllcatlon ho. zo6cz]z, para. c6.
cz6. lbiJ., Furopean Court on human klehts, ludement of z6 Aprll 11, Case of Fzclir v. Frcrrc; lnter-Amerlcan
Commlsslon on human klehts, kcpcrt cr 1crrcrisn crJ hncr kichts, cp. rit., para. c.
cz/. The lCCPk (Artlcle u), the Furopean Conventlon on human klehts (Artlcle 1c), the Arab Charter on human
klehts (Artlcle u) and the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts (Artlcle z/).
czS. The lCCPk (Artlcle zo) and the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts (Artlcle 1.c).
cz. lCCPk, Artlcles 1.(b). z1; Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klehts, Artlcle 11; Amerlcan Conventlon
on human klehts Artlcles 1.z(b), 1., 1c; Furopean Conventlon on human klehts Artlcles 1o.z, 11.z; Arab
Charter on human klehts, Artlcle zu, z.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 116
of others.
co
The clrcumstances ln whlch a State may llmlt the exerclse of any euar-
anteed rleht are set out elther ln a eeneral clause authorlslne such restrlctlons or ln
speclfc provlslons relatlne to each rleht or freedom.
lnternatlonal human rlehts law speclfes the strlct condltlons under whlch such
restrlctlons on rlehts are posslble.
c1
lt ls recoenlsed that, any restrlctlons or llmlta-
tlons have to be: establlshed ln law; necessary ln a democratlc soclety to protect
natlonal securlty, publlc order, publlc health, morallty, or the rlehts and freedoms
of others; proportlonate to the lnterest to be protected and not lmpalr the essence
of the rleht ln questlon; and conslstent wlth other lnternatlonal oblleatlons and
the rleht to an effectlve remedy. when a State lmposes certaln restrlctlons on the
exerclse of freedoms or rlehts, these may not put ln |eopardy the freedom or rleht
ltself.
cz
Flnally, ln order to be leeltlmate any such restrlctlon or llmltatlon must comply wlth
both the substantlve and procedural requlrements of lnternatlonal law.
z.: Limitatiens and Restrictiens en Ireedem eI expressien
keeardlne the llmltatlons and restrlctlons of the rleht to freedom of expresslon, the
human klehts Commlttee has stated that the exerclse of thls rleht "carrles wlth lt
speclal dutles and responslbllltles and for thls reason certaln restrlctlons on the rleht
are permltted whlch may relate elther to the lnterests of other persons or to those
of the communlty as a whole. however, when a State party lmposes certaln restrlc-
tlons on the exerclse of freedom of expresslon, these may not put ln |eopardy the
rleht ltself ".
c
kestrlctlons must cumulatlvely meet the followlne condltlons: they
must be "provlded by law"; they may only be such that are necessary for respect
of the rlehts or reputatlons of others, the lnterests of the communlty or the protec-
tlon of natlonal securlty, publlc order, publlc health or morals; and they must be
|ustlfed as belne "necessary" for the State ln questlon to achleve one of those
leeltlmate purposes.
cu
ln addltlon, under the Frcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr
kichts, freedom of expresslon may be restrlcted "for preventlne the dlsclosure of
lnformatlon recelved ln confdence" and "for malntalnlne the authorlty and lmpartl-
allty of the |udlclary".
cc
The human klehts Commlttee further consldered "that the
co. lCCPk, Artlcle 1.(a); Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts Artlcles 1.z(a) and 1c; Furopean Conventlon
on human klehts, Artlcles 1o.z and 11.z; Arab Charter on human klehts, Artlcles zu and z.
c1. See, amone others, the human klehts Commlttee: Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1c, FrccJcn cf cxprcssicr (Artirlc
1|, para. u and Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1, Nctrc cf thc Ccrcrcl lcccl 0bliccticr lnpcscJ cr Stctcs Pcrtics
tc thc Ccvcrcrt, para. 6.
cz. See, for example, the human klehts Commlttee: Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1c, FrccJcn cf cxprcssicr (Artirlc
1|, para. u, and Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2;, FrccJcn cf ncvcncrt (Artirlc 12|, para. 1.
c. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1c, FrccJcn cf cxprcssicr, para. u.
cu. lbiJ., para. u. See also vlews of S hovember 16, Case of kcbcrt Fcrisscr v. Frcrrc, Communlcatlon
cco]1, paras. (u) and (6), and vlews of z1 luly 1u, Case of Albcrt wcnch Mkcrc v. Ccncrccr,
Communlcatlon ho. ucS]11, para. ./.
cc. Artlcle 1o of the Frcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 11/
leeltlmate ob|ectlve of safeeuardlne and lndeed strenethenlne natlonal unlty under
dlffcult polltlcal clrcumstances cannot be achleved by attemptlne to muzzle advo-
cacy of multl-party democracy, democratlc tenets and human rlehts".
c6
however,
lt ls relevant to underscore that the "rleht to hold oplnlons wlthout lnterference",
accordlne to the human klehts Commlttee, "ls a rleht to whlch the lCCPk permlts
no exceptlon or restrlctlon."
c/
z.z Limitatiens and Restrictiens en the rights te Ireedem eI assemb|y
and asseciatien
under the lCCPk, the llmltatlons and restrlctlons of the freedom of peaceful assembly
and assoclatlon must meet the followlne condltlons: (a) they must be provlded for
by law; (b) they may only be lmposed for one of the purposes set out ln paraeraph
z of Artlcle zz the lCCPk - the lnterests of natlonal securlty or publlc safety, publlc
order (crJrc pblir), the protectlon of publlc health or morals or the protectlon of
the rlehts and freedoms of others; and (c) they must be "necessary ln a democratlc
soclety" for achlevlne one of these purposes.
cS
The lCCPk and the Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts, prohlblt propaeanda for
war or advocacy of natlonal, raclal or rellelous hatred that constltute lncltement to
dlscrlmlnatlon, hostlllty or vlolence.
c
The Furopean Court of human klehts has also
stated that the clear lncltement of vlolence, hostlllty or hatred between cltlzens ls a
fundamental crlterlon for dlstlneulshlne between freedom of expresslon and prohlb-
lted propaeanda or advocacy.
cuo
ln thls context restrlctlons on thls freedom may be
permltted on expresslons of a nature llkely to lnclte or strenethen antl-Semltlsm,
xenophobla, and slmllar sentlments.
cu1
States are oblleed to take affrmatlve steps to protect expresslons of polltlcal oplnlon
that are so unpopular as to foreseeably provoke publlc dlsorder.
cuz
ln addltlon to
preventlne vlolence and strlfe, reasonable restrlctlons on assembly and expresslon
when thelr purpose ls to protect publlc safety and order are also leeltlmate. Thus,
c6. vlews of z1 luly 1u, Case of Albcrt wcnch Mkcrc v. Ccncrccr, Jcr. rit., para. ./.
c/. human klehts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1c, Jcr. rit., para. 1.
cS. vlews of 1 0ctober zoo6, Communlcatlon ho. 1z/u]zoou, viktcr kcrrccrkc crJ 0thcrs v. 8clcrs, para.
/.z (uh.0oc CCPk]C]SS]0]1z/u]zoou). Alone the same llnes see also: Artlcles z6 (z) and uo (z) of the
lnternatlonal Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klehts of All Mlerant workers and Members of Thelr
Famllles; Artlcle 16 of the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts; Artlcle 11 of the Furopean Conventlon
on human klehts; and Artlcle S (1,b) of the 0eclaratlon on the human klehts of lndlvlduals who are not
hatlonals of the Country ln whlch They Llve.
c. Artlcle zo of the lCCPk and Artlcle 1 (c) of the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts.
cuo. ludement of zc hovember 1/, Case of Zcrc v. 1rkcv, and ludement of S lune 1S, Case of lrrcl v.
1rkcv.
cu1. vlews of 1S 0ctober zooo, Case of Mclrcln kcss v. CcrcJc, Communlcatlon ho. /6]1/ and vlews of S
hovember 16, Case of kcbcrt Fcrisscr v. Frcrrc, Communlcatlon ho. cco]1.
cuz. Furopean Court of human klehts, ludement of zo 0ctober zooc, Case of 1cxc v. Crccrc, Appllcatlon ho.
/uS]o1, paras. u.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 11S
a routlne permlttlne process for assemblles, allowlne the authorltles to plan for
crowd control and traffc clrculatlon ls permlsslble so lone as lt makes no dlstlnctlon
based on the assembly's polltlcal messaee.
cu
kestrlctlons on assembly for presslne
reasons of health and safety are also leeltlmate.
cuu
Thus, a eovernment's declslon
to have rlot pollce forclbly evlct huneer-strlkers from a church they had been occu-
pylne was not llleeltlmate because the "huneer-strlkers' health had deterlorated
and sanltary condltlons 'had] become wholly lnadequate".
cuc
The Furopean Court has ruled that States may have an "oblleatlon to avold as far as
posslble expresslons that are eratultously offenslve to others and thus an lnfrlnee-
ment of thelr rlehts, and whlch therefore do not contrlbute of any form of publlc
debate capable of further proeress ln human affalrs".
cu6
kellelous freedom ls not the
only rleht that can be protected by llmltlne the rlehts to expresslon and assembly.
The uh human klehts Commlttee affrmed a Canadlan school board declslon to reas-
slen a teacher to a non-classroom |ob after he had ealned notorlety for publlshlne
books crltlcal of lews, slnce the "restrlctlons lmposed on hlm were for the purpose
of protectlne the 'rlehts or reputatlons' of persons of lewlsh falth, lncludlne the rleht
to have an educatlon ln the publlc school system".
cu/
The reeulatlon of expresslon, assoclatlon, or assembly wlth no speclfc purpose ls
not a leeltlmate restrlctlon of those rlehts. The State has the burden show that a
restrlctlon on the freedom of expresslon, assoclatlon, or assembly ls necessary and
serves a leeltlmate purpose compatlble wlth Artlcles 1, z1 and zz of the lCCPk.
cuS

The human klehts Commlttee found a vlolatlon of an actlvlst's rlehts to expresslon
and assembly where the eovernment of 8elarus prohlblted hlm from dlstrlbutlne
coples of the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cf hncr kichts on a publlc street, and could
not "'lnvoke] any speclfc eround on whlch the restrlctlons lmposed on the author's
actlvlty whlch, '.] lt ls uncontested dld not pose a threat to publlc order".
cu
The scope for restrlctlons of expresslon, assembly and assoclatlon ls very narrow ln
the area of polltlcal affalrs. kestrlctlons on polltlcal assoclatlons that do not advo-
cu. For example, human klehts Commlttee, vlews of 1 March 1u, Case of kivcrncc v. FirlcrJ, Communlcatlon
ho. u1z]1o, para. .z.
cuu. Furopean Court of human klehts, ludement of Aprll zooz, Case of Cissc v. Frcrrc, Appllcatlon ho. c1u6],
para. cz.
cuc. lbiJ., para. c1.
cu6. Furopean Court of human klehts, ludement of zo September 1u, Case of 0ttc-Prcnirccr-lrstitt v. Astric,
Appllcatlon ho. 1u/o]S/, para. u.
cu/. human klehts Commlttee, vlews of 1S 0ctober zooo, Case of kcss v. CcrcJc, Communlcatlon ho. /6]1/,
para. 11.c.
cuS. See irtcr clic, human klehts Commlttee: vlews of 1o Aueust zoo6, Case of Pctrirk Cclcncr v. Astrclic,
Communlcatlon ho. 11c/]zoo, para. /.: vlews of zo luly zooc, Case of lccrc-Fr lcc v. kcpblir cf
kcrcc, Communlcatlon ho. 111]zooz, para. /.z; vlews of zu luly zoo/, Case of AlckscrJcr 8clvctskv ct cl.
v. 8clcrs, Communlcatlon ho. 1z6]zoou, para. /..
cu. human klehts Commlttee, vlews of zo 0ctober zooc, vclirhkir v. 8clcrs, Communlcatlon ho. 1ozz]zoo1,
para. /..
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 11
cate for vlolent or non-democratlc chanee are usually deemed unlawful restrlctlons
on the freedom of expresslon, no matter how unpopular the assoclatlons' ldeas.
cco

Curtallment on rlehts ln thls reeard "must meet a strlct test of |ustlfcatlon."
cc1
Scope for restrlctlons of expresslon, assembly and assoclatlon vla prlvate matters
such as morals, rellelon and reputatlon appears wlder. The Furopean Court
reasoned that: "whereas there ls llttle scope '.] for restrlctlons on polltlcal speech
or on debate of questlons of publlc lnterest, '.] a wlder mareln of appreclatlon ls
eeneral'ly] avallable '.] ln relatlon to matters llable to offend lntlmate personal
convlctlons".
ccz
Thls ls due both to the fact that such restrlctlons may serve to
protect "the rlehts of others", and because the ereat dlverslty of such convlctlons
amone countrles makes lt more dlffcult for lnternatlonal human rlehts bodles, ln
thelr removed posltlon, to determlne whether such restrlctlons are approprlate or
excesslve.
cc
however, when conslderlne the "rlehts of others" ln maklne llmltatlons
on the rlehts of assembly, expresslon or assoclatlon, "the prlnclple of the lndlvls-
lblllty of human rlehts" requlres that States must balance the rlehts equally, and may
not systematlcally favour one over the other.
ccu
The prlnclple of proportlonallty, as
well as evolvlne practlce ln other countrles, ls often persuaslve ln thls respect.
Llmltlne the rlehts of expresslon, assoclatlon and assembly ls broadest ln reeards
to protectlon of the lnterests and well-belne of chlldren. The Furopean Court of
human klehts affrmed a wlde mareln of appreclatlon ln respect to measures
restrlctlne expresslon to prevent "pernlclous effects on the morals of '.] chlldren and
adolescents".
ccc
Thus, the declslon by the 8rltlsh 0overnment to destroy all coples
of a chlldren's reference book whose unorthodox vlews on sexuallty lt determlned
would have "a tendency to 'deprave and corrupt'" a eood number of the chlldren
who read lt, dld not exceed lts mareln of appreclatlon.
cc6
cco. Furopean Court of human klehts: ludement of o lanuary 1S, Case of uritcJ Ccnnrist Pcrtv cf 1rkcv
crJ 0thcrs v. 1rkcv Appllcatlon ho. 1]16]/cz]c1, paras. uo-uc; ludement of z 0ctober zoo1, Case
of Stcrkcv crJ thc uritcJ McrcJcricr 0rccriscticr llirJcr v. 8lccric, Appllcatlons ho. zzz1]c and
zzzc]c, paras. SS-1o/.
cc1. human klehts Commlttee, Case of vclirhkir v. 8clcrs, Jcr. rit., para. /..
ccz. Furopean Court of human klehts, ludement of zz 0ctober 16, Case of wircrcvc v. thc uritcJ kircJcn,
Appllcatlon ho. 1/u1]o, para. cS.
cc. lbiJ., See also human klehts Commlttee, vlews of z Aprll 1Sz, Case of hcrtzbcrc v. FirlcrJ, Communlcatlon
ho. 61]1/.
ccu. lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klehts, Case of 1hc lcst 1cnptcticr cf Christ, Jcr. rit., para. 6k.
ccc. Furopean Court of human klehts, ludement of / 0ecember 1/6, Case of hcrJvsiJc v. thc uritcJ kircJcn,
Appllcatlon ho. cu]/z, para. cz.
cc6. lbiJ., para. c/.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 1zo
. freedem eI expressien, peaceIu| assemb|y and asseciatien
app|ied te sexua| erientatien and gender identity.
The rleht of freedom of expresslon, peaceful assembly and assoclatlon are cruclal to
L08T actlvlsm and hlv]Al0S advocacy. Clvll soclety ls consldered to be functlonlne
and healthy when lt lncludes the posslblllty of partlclpatlon of all cltlzens ln the
democratlc process. Thls may be achleved throueh peaceful assembly or belonelne
to assoclatlons ln whlch they may lnteerate wlth each other and pursue common
ob|ectlves collectlvely. ln the case of 8crzkcwski crJ cthcrs v. PclcrJ, the Furopean
Court of human klehts descrlbed the scope of the rleht to democratlc partlclpatlon
throueh assembly and assoclatlon as follows:
"|c] ccrirc crJ cffcrtivc rcspcrt fcr frccJcn cf csscricticr crJ csscnblv
rcrrct bc rcJrcJ tc c ncrc Jtv cr thc pcrt cf thc Stctc rct tc irtcrfcrc;
c prclv rccctivc rcrrcpticr wclJ rct bc rcnpctiblc with thc prpcsc
cf Artirlc 11 rcr with thct cf thc Ccrvcrticr ir ccrcrcl. 1hcrc ncv ths bc
pcsitivc cbliccticrs tc scrrc thc cffcrtivc crjcvncrt cf thcsc frccJcns
|.] 1his cbliccticr is cf pcrtirlcr inpcrtcrrc fcr pcrscrs hclJirc rpcp-
lcr vicws cr bclcrcirc tc nircritics, bcrcsc thcv crc ncrc vlrcrcblc tc
virtinizcticr".
cc/
ln 8crzkcwski crJ cthcrs v. PclcrJ, the authorltles banned a planned march and
slx statlonary assemblles. These were advocacy events to promote tolerance and
to protest dlscrlmlnatlon aealnst L08T persons. The appellate authorltles reversed
the frst-lnstance declslon and crltlclsed lt for belne poorly |ustlfed and ln breach
of the appllcable laws. The appellate declslon, however, was elven after the dates
of the planned march. The demonstratlon had been held on the planned dates. ln
eolne ahead wlth the demonstratlon and assemblles the appllcants had taken a rlsk
elven the offclal ban ln force at that tlme.
The Furopean Court observed that the refusal to elve authorlsatlon could have had
a chllllne effect on the appllcants and other partlclpants ln the assemblles. lt could
also have dlscouraeed other persons from partlclpatlne on the erounds that they
dld not have offclal authorlsatlon, and consequently no offclal protectlon aealnst
posslble hostlle counter-demonstrators would be ensured by the authorltles. The
court was further of the vlew that when the assemblles were held the appllcants
were neeatlvely affected by the refusal to authorlse them. The leeal remedles avall-
able to them could not have amellorated thelr sltuatlon as the relevant declslons
were elven by the appellate proceedlnes after the date on whlch the assemblles
were held. There had therefore been an lnterference wlth the appllcants' rlehts
euaranteed by Artlcle 11 of the Furopean Conventlon, and the lnterference wlth the
appllcants' rleht to freedom of peaceful assembly was not prescrlbed by law.
cc/. ludement of May zoo/, Case of 8crzkcwski crJ cthcrs v. PclcrJ, Appllcatlon 1cu]o6, para. 6u.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1z1
The Court declded that ln the assessment of the case lt could not dlsreeard the
strone personal oplnlons publlcly expressed by the mayor on lssues dlrectly relevant
for the declslons reeardlne the exerclse of the freedom of assembly. lt observed
that the declslons concerned were elven by the munlclpal authorltles actlne on
the mayor's behalf after he had made known to the publlc hls oplnlons reeardlne
the exerclse of the freedom of assembly and "propaeanda of homosexuallty".
Accordlnely, a vlolatlon of the dlscrlmlnatlon provlslon of Artlcle 1u ln con|unctlon
wlth Artlcle 11 of the Frcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts was found.
An lmportant element of the freedom of expresslon ls the freedom of eender
expresslon, especlally throueh dress, deportment and mannerlsm. The uh Speclal
kapporteur on the promotlon and protectlon of the rleht to freedom of oplnlon and
expresslon has noted arbltrary arrests owlne to eender expresslon:
"rcprcscrtctivcs cf crccrizcticrs cf scxcl nircritics crJ trcrsvcstitcs |.]
rcpcrtcJ tc hin rcscs cf viclcticrs cf hncr richts bcrcsc cf thcir scxcl
cricrtcticr. 1hc Spcricl kcppcrtcr wcs rcrrcrrcJ ct thc rnbcr cf |rcscs
cf viclcticrs cf hncr richts cr crrcrt cf scxcl cricrtcticr. hc] wcs
irfcrncJ thct thc prcvirricl lccislcticr cllcws pclirc tc inpcsc Jctcrticr
cr scrrticrs fcr irfrcrticrs thct Jc rct rcrstittc rrinircl cffcrrcs. hc hcs
clsc bccr irfcrncJ thct ir scvcrcl prcvirrcs thcrc is c Ccrtrcvcrticr CcJc
whirh pcrclizcs thcsc whc crc JrcsscJ cs scncbcJv cf thc cppcsitc scx
with Jctcrticr fcr p tc 1< Jcvs".
ccS
vlolatlons of the rleht to freedom of expresslon sometlmes manlfest themselves
throueh the threat of vlolence. The Speclal kepresentatlve on the sltuatlon of human
rlehts defenders noted that the rlehts of eays and lesblans ln lamalca, especlally
those ln a human rlehts lobby eroup called lcncirc Fcrn fcr lcsbicrs, All-Scxcls
crJ Ccvs were at rlsk from both attempts by publlc authorltles to suppress thelr
exerclse of free speech and from vlolent attacks by homophoblc lndlvlduals. The
contents of the followlne letter by the Pollce Federatlon's Publlc kelatlons 0ffcer,
ln relatlon to a human klehts watch study on hlv]Al0S and how homophobla fuels
the dlsease, exempllfes thls sltuatlon:
"thc Pclirc FcJcrcticrs Pblir kclcticrs 0ffircr rcrJcnr|s] thc rclc cf thcsc
sc-rcllcJ hncr richts crcps tc sprccJ lics crJ Jclibcrctclv nclicr crJ
slcrJcr thc pclirc fcrrc crJ thc ccvcrrncrt. hc rclls cr thc Miristcr cf
lstirc tc cxcnirc thcsc cllcccticrs crJ slcp cr scJiticr rhcrccs whcrc
rcrcsscrv tc bcth fcrcicr crJ lcrcl cccrts cf prcvcrcticr. lr stctirc thct
thc Ccvcrrncrt crJ thc pclirc rcrrct bc hclJ rcspcrsiblc fcr |.] thc
rltrcl rcspcrscs cf thc pcplcticr tcwcrJs ccvs, thc lcttcr clsc cppccrs
tc rcrJcrc viclcrrc cccirst ccvs crJ lcsbicrs. 1his inprcssicr is irsf-
ccS. kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr thc prcncticr crJ prctcrticr cf thc richt tc frccJcn cf cpiricr crJ
cxprcssicr: Missicr tc Arccrtirc, F]Ch.u]zooz]/c]Add.1, 1/ lanuary zooz, paras. 1z- 1zu.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 1zz
firicrtlv JispcllcJ bv thc cssrcrrc thct cs lcw crfcrrcncrt cffircrs wc trv
cr tncst tc scrvc, tc rccssrc crJ tc prctcrt".
cc
States oblleatlons lnclude provldlne educatlon and maklne lnformatlon avallable,
especlally ln relatlon to matters of sexuallty and health. Addresslne the matter of
Al0S ln Colombla, the Speclal kapporteur on the promotlon and protectlon of the
rleht to freedom of oplnlon and expresslon observed:
"lr crrcrJcrrc with thc rctrc crJ thc spirit cf his ncrJctc, thc Spcricl
kcppcrtcr rcrsiJcrs thct cll ritizcrs, rcccrJlcss cf, irtcr clic, thcir scxcl
cricrtcticr, hcvc thc richt tc cxprcss thcnsclvcs, crJ tc scck, rcrcivc crJ
inpcrt irfcrncticr. 1hc Spcricl kcppcrtcr clsc rcrsiJcrs thct Ccvcrrncrts
hcvc thc cbliccticr tc prcviJc ritizcrs with rclicblc irfcrncticr cr hcclth
isscs ir ccrcrcl crJ, bccrirc ir nirJ thc cxtrcnc crcvitv cf thc cpiJcnir,
cr Al0S ir pcrtirlcr. |.]. Ccv crJ lcsbicr crcps crJ irJiviJcls richt tc
frccJcn cf cpiricr crJ cxprcssicr is hirJcrcJ bv thc cppcsiticr thcv firJ
ir thc ncJic whcrc scxcl isscs, cspcricllv hcncscxclitv, crc trcctcJ ir c
prJish crJ trcJiticrcl wcv crJ rcvcr brccJrcst cr princ tinc".
c6o
Access to lnformatlon ls relevant to the rleht to health. Thls lnterdependence ls
noted by the Speclal kapporteur as follows:
"with rcspcrt tc crrcss tc irfcrncticr fcr thc prpcscs cf cJrcticr crJ
prcvcrticr cf hlv/Al0S, thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr wishcs first tc rJcrlirc thct
thc lcvcl cf prctcrticr cf hncr richts ir c civcr rcrtrv hcs c Jircrt inpcrt
cr thc sprccJ cf thc cpiJcnir, crJ thct thc rcclizcticr cf hncr richts, ir
pcrtirlcr cf spcrifir crcps srh cs wcncr, vcrc pccplc, ncr crJ wcncr
wcrkirc ir prcstitticr, ncr whc hcvc scx with ncr, nicrcrts, rcfcccs,
irtrcvcrcs Jrc scrs crJ cthcr vlrcrcblc crcps, is csscrticl tc rcJrc
vlrcrcbilitv tc hlv/Al0S".
c61
ln hcrtzbcrc ct cl v. FirlcrJ, edltors of the State-run Flnnlsh 8roadcastlne Company
complalned that the dlrector of the company had censored thelr proerammes on
homosexuals because the Flnnlsh Penal Code made lt crlmlnal to "encouraee lnde-
cent behavlour between persons of the same sex". The uh human klehts Commlttee
oplned that:
"lt hcs tc bc rctcJ, first, thct pblir ncrcls Jiffcr wiJclv. 1hcrc is rc
rivcrscllv cpplircblc rcnncr stcrJcrJ. Ccrscccrtlv, ir this rcspcrt, c
rcrtcir ncrcir cf Jisrrcticr nst bc crrcrJcJ tc thc rcspcrsiblc rcticrcl
cc. kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcprcscrtctivc cf thc Scrrctcrv-Ccrcrcl cr thc sitcticr cf hncr richts JcfcrJcrs,
F]Ch.u]zooc]1o1]Add.1, 16 March zooc, paras. zuo and zuz.
c6o. kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr thc prcncticr crJ prctcrticr cf thc richt tc frccJcn cf cpiricr crJ
cxprcssicr: Missicr tc Cclcnbic, F]Ch.u]zooc]6u]Add., z6 hovember paras. /c and /6.
c61. kcpcrt cf thc Spcricl kcppcrtcr cr thc prcncticr crJ prctcrticr cf thc richt tc frccJcn cf cpiricr crJ
cxprcssicr, F]Ch.u]zoo]6/, o 0ecember zooz, para. /u.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1z
cthcritics. |.] 1hc Ccnnittcc firJs thct it rcrrct ccsticr thc Jcrisicr cf
thc rcspcrsiblc crccrs cf thc Firrish 8rccJrcstirc Ccrpcrcticr thct rcJic
crJ 1v crc rct thc cpprcprictc fcrns tc Jisrss isscs rclctcJ tc hcncscx-
clitv, cs fcr cs c prccrcnnc rclJ bc jJccJ cs crrcrccirc hcncscxcl
bchcvicr. ArrcrJirc tc crtirlc 1 (|, thc cxcrrisc cf thc richts prcviJcJ fcr
ir crtirlc 1 (2| rcrrics with it spcricl Jtics crJ rcspcrsibilitics fcr thcsc
crccrs."
c6z
ln an lndlvldual oplnlon appended to the Commlttee's vlews, one member oplned
as follows:
"|c]lthcch l ccrcc with thc rcrrlsicr cf thc Ccnnittcc, l wish tc rlcrifv
rcrtcir pcirts. 1his rcrrlsicr prcjJccs rcithcr thc richt tc bc Jiffcrcrt
crJ livc crrcrJirclv, prctcrtcJ bv crtirlc 1; cf thc Ccvcrcrt, rcr thc richt tc
hcvc ccrcrcl frccJcn cf cxprcssicr ir this rcspcrt, prctcrtcJ bv crtirlc 1.
urJcr crtirlc 1 (2| crJ sbjcrt tc crtirlc 1 (|, cvcrvcrc nst ir prirriplc
hcvc thc richt tc inpcrt irfcrncticr crJ iJccs - pcsitivc cr rccctivc - cbct
hcncscxclitv crJ Jisrss crv prcblcn rclctirc tc it frcclv, thrcch crv
ncJic cf his rhcirc crJ cr his cwr rcspcrsibilitv".
c6
As hcrtzbcrc was declded ln 1/, lt ls debatable whether thls declslon would be
repeated by uh human klehts Commlttee today, elven slmllar facts. The rleht to
lnformatlon ln relatlon to sexuallty and lts lmpllcatlons for health have been acknowl-
edeed by varlous uh human rlehts bodles. Thls unequlvocal llne of reasonlne would
challenee the lncllnatlon to conslder an educatlonal proeramme on homosexuallty
as llmlted by "publlc health or morals". Thls ldea was dlrectly re|ected ln the case of
Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v. Astrclic.
c6u
The notlon that freedom of expresslon and respect
of mlnorlty vlews also lncludes those that offend, shock or dlsturb the ma|orlty, has
solldlfed and ls consldered a feature of a democratlc and plurallstlc soclety.
ln 8crzkcwski crJ cthcrs v. PclcrJ the Furopean Court took note of statements
made by the Mayor of warsaw that a eay prlde parade constltuted "propaeanda of
homosexuallty", and stated that:
"thc cxcrrisc cf thc frccJcn cf cxprcssicr bv clcrtcJ pclitiricrs, whc ct thc
scnc tinc crc hclJcrs cf pblir cffircs ir thc cxcrtivc brcrrh cf thc ccvcrr-
ncrt, crtcils pcrtirlcr rcspcrsibilitv. lr rcrtcir sitcticrs it is c rcrncl pcrt
cf thc Jtics cf srh pblir cffiricls tc tckc pcrscrcllv cJniristrctivc Jcri-
sicrs whirh crc likclv tc cffcrt thc cxcrrisc cf irJiviJcl richts, cr thct srh
c6z. human klehts Commlttee, vlews of z Aprll 1Sz, Case of hcrtzbcrc ct cl v. FirlcrJ, Communlcatlon ho.
61]1/, paras. 1o. and 1o.u.
c6. lbiJ., Appendlx lndlvldual oplnlon of Mr. Torkel 0psahl. Mr. ka|soomer Lallah and Mr. walter Surma
Tarnopolsky |olned the lndlvldual oplnlon.
c6u. human klehts Commlttee, vlews of 1 March 1u, Case of Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v. Astrclic, Communlcatlon
ho. uSS]1z.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 1zu
Jcrisicrs crc civcr bv pblir scrvcrts crtirc ir thcir rcnc. hcrrc, thc cxcr-
risc cf thc frccJcn cf cxprcssicr bv srh cffiricls ncv rJlv inpircc cr
thc crjcvncrt cf cthcr richts ccrcrtccJ bv thc Ccrvcrticr |.] . whcr cxcr-
risirc thcir frccJcn cf cxprcssicr thcv ncv bc rccircJ tc shcw rcstrcirt,
bccrirc ir nirJ thct thcir vicws rcr bc rcccrJcJ cs irstrrticrs bv rivil
scrvcrts, whcsc cnplcvncrt crJ rcrccrs JcpcrJ cr thcir cpprcvcl".
c6c
5ummary
The rlehts of assoclatlon and peaceful assembly, and freedom of expres- !
slon, are cornerstones of a democratlc soclety. These rlehts are unlversally
recoenlzed and protected by lnternatlonal human rlehts law;
All persons, reeardless of, ! irtcr clic, thelr sexual orlentatlon, have the rleht
to express themselves, and to seek, recelve and lmpart lnformatlon;
The rlehts of expresslon and the freedom of assembly and assoclatlon are !
cruclal to L08T actlvlsm and hlv]Al0S advocacy;
The rleht to freedom of expresslon lncludes the rleht to express thouehts and !
ldeas and the rleht to seek, recelve and lmpart lnformatlon and ldeas of all
klnds, reeardless of frontlers, elther orally, ln wrltlne or ln prlnt, ln the form
of art, or throueh any other medla of one's cholce;
The protectlon of freedom of expresslon must encompass not only the flow !
of "lnformatlon" or "ldeas" that are recelved favourably or wlthout offence,
but also expresslons that "offend, shock or dlsturb"; such are the demands
of plurallsm, tolerance and broadmlndedness wlthout whlch there ls no
"democratlc soclety";
The plurallsm necessary for the malntenance of a democratlc soclety requlres !
the free flow of lnformatlon and oplnlons, lncludlne those whlch the ma|orlty
may flnd shocklne. Assembly and assoclatlon are necessary for the forma-
tlon, development, expresslon and dlffuslon of polltlcal ldeas;
A State cannot conslder an oplnlon or the assoclatlon or assembly wlthln !
whlch lt ls expressed to |eopardlze the lnteerlty or the natlonal securlty of a
country, unless the oplnlon, assoclatlon or assembly ls lncompatlble wlth a
democratlc soclety;
Freedom of assembly focuses on the process of formlne, expresslne and !
lmplementlne polltlcal oplnlons ln a democratlc soclety, whlle freedom of
assoclatlon ls about the rleht to choose, |oln and form assoclatlons relevant
to the formatlon and expresslon of thouehts and oplnlons;
c6c. Case of 8crzkcwski crJ cthcrs v. PclcrJ, Jcr. rit., para. S.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1zc
The rleht to freedom of assoclatlon relates not only to the rleht to form an !
assoclatlon, but also euarantees the rleht of such an assoclatlon freely to
carry out lts statutory actlvltles;
The rleht of expresslon and the freedom of assembly and assoclatlon may !
be llmlted lf they advocate war or lnclte hatred, threaten natlonal securlty or
publlc safety, health, order or morals, or lmplnee on the rlehts of others;
The rleht of expresslon and the freedoms of assembly and assoclatlon can be !
restrlcted ln tlmes of emereency. however, llmltatlons or deroeatlons of rlehts
ln tlmes of emereency must be based on the prlnclples of publlc declaratlon,
leeallty, leeltlmacy, non-dlscrlmlnatlon, necesslty and proportlonallty and
be of llmlted duratlon. human rlehts that are sub|ect to lawful llmltatlon ln
tlmes of emereency can never be deemed to have dlsappeared: deroeatlon
does not mean obllteratlon;
The rleht to freedom of expresslon, and of assembly and assoclatlon can !
also be restrlcted ln tlmes of normallty. All llmltatlons, restrlctlons and
deroeatlons must: be provlded for by law; not exceed the mlnlmum scope
necessary to protect the rlehts or reputatlons of others, be ln the lnterests of
the communlty, natlonal securlty or publlc order, health or morals, and they
must be |ustlfled as belne "necessary" for the State ln questlon to achleve
one of those leeltlmate purposes.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1z/
"1hc Ccrvcrticr crJ Prctcrcl hcvc prcvcJ rcsilicrt ir
thc fcrc cf thc rhcrcirc rctrc cf pcrscrticr cvcr thc
lcst <c vccrs. lr pcrcllcl, fcr irstcrrc, with irrrccscJ
cwcrcrcss cf thc prctcrticr rccJs cf rcrtcir crcps ir
scrictv - irrlJirc wcncr, irJiccrcs crcps cr thcsc
with Jiffcrirc scxcl cricrtcticr, whc crc ct risk - thc
Ccrvcrticr hcs bccr thc ncrhcrisn cllcwirc prctcr-
ticr tc bc prcviJcJ tc srh crcps whc crc fcrrcJ tc
flcc".
-Fxecutlve Commlttee of the unlted hatlons hleh
Commlssloner for kefueees Proeramme
c66
vttt. Asy|um and ReIuge
:. Lega| kature and 5cepe
The urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cf hncr kichts recoenlses that "'e]veryone has the
rleht to seek and to en|oy ln other countrles asylum from persecutlon".
c6/
The
uh 0crlcrcticr cr 1crritcricl Asvln also protects thls rleht.
c6S
The world Conference
on human klehts, held ln vlenna ln lune 1, reaffrmed "that everyone, wlthout
dlstlnctlon of any klnd, ls entltled to the rleht to seek and to en|oy ln other countrles
asylum from persecutlon, as well as the rleht to return to one's own country".
c6

Thls rleht ls also protected by reelonal human rlehts lnstruments: the Afrircr
Chcrtcr cr hncr crJ Pccplcs kichts;
c/o
the Prctcrcl tc thc Chcrtcr cr hncr
crJ Pccplcs kichts cr thc kichts cf wcncr ir Afrirc;
c/1
the Ancrircr 0crlcrcticr
cf thc kichts crJ 0tics cf Mcr;
c/z
the Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr hncr kichts;
c/

the Arcb Chcrtcr cr hncr kichts;
c/u
and the Chcrtcr cf FrJcncrtcl kichts cf thc
Frcpccr uricr.
c/c
lnternatlonal refueee law also protects these rlehts and provldes
the eeneral leeal frame of the leeal status of refueees and thelr rlehts and dutles ln
thelr country of refuee, lncludlne the Ccrvcrticr kclctirc tc thc Stcts cf kcfcccs
(1c1 Conventlon), the Prctcrcl kclctirc tc thc Stcts cf kcfcccs (16/ Protocol),
c66. Nctc cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr, uh doc. A]AC.6]c1 of 1 September zoo1, para. .
c6/. Artlcle 1u of the unlversal 0eclaratlon of human klehts.
c6S. Adopted by the uh 0eneral Assembly resolutlon z1z (XXll) of 1u 0ecember 16/.
c6. vlenna 0eclaratlon and Proeramme of Actlon, adopted by the world Conference on human klehts ln vlenna
on zc lune 1, para. z.
c/o. Artlcle 1z (), Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klehts.
c/1. Artlcle 11, Protocol to the Charter on human and Peoples' klehts on the klehts of women ln Afrlca.
c/z. Artlcle XXvll, Amerlcan 0eclaratlon of the klehts and 0utles of Man.
c/. Artlcle zz (/), Amerlcan Conventlon on human klehts.
c/u. Artlcle zS, Arab Charter on human klehts.
c/c. Artlcle 1S, Charter of Fundamental klehts of the Furopean unlon.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 1zS
the Stcttc cf thc 0fhrc cf thc uritcJ Ncticrs hich Ccnnissicrcr fcr kcfcccs;
c/6

the 0rccrizcticr cf Afrircr uritvs Ccrvcrticr Ccvcrrirc thc Spcrihr Aspcrts cf
kcfccc Prcblcns ir Afrirc and other lnternatlonal lnstruments.
c//
Accordlne to the 1c1 Conventlon, a refueee ls a person who "owlne to a well-founded
fear of belne persecuted for reasons of race, rellelon, natlonallty, membershlp of a
partlcular soclal eroup or polltlcal oplnlon, ls outslde the country of hls natlonallty
and ls unable or, owlne to such fear, ls unwllllne to avall hlmself of the protectlon
of that country; or who, not havlne a natlonallty and belne outslde the country of
hls former habltual resldence as a result of such events, ls unable or, owlne to such
fear, ls unwllllne to return to lt".
c/S
Thls defnltlon and crlterla determlnlne who ls entltled to refueee status, has been
expanded by the 16/ Protocol
c/
and leeal lnstruments and euldellnes adopted by
the unlted hatlons hleh Commlssloner for kefueees (uhhCk).
cSo
z. 5tates' eb|igatiens teward reIugees
0nce a refueee has establlshed a well-founded fear of belne persecuted, the
recelvlne State has an oblleatlon to erant them asylum or help them resettle ln a
thlrd country where they wlll be safe.
cS1
8y erantlne asylum, a State obllees ltself
to extend the asylee permlsslon to work, as well as the protectlons of all lts laws,
speclfcally lncludlne the protectlons of labour leelslatlon and the benefts of soclal
c/6. Adopted by kesolutlon uzS (v) of the 0eneral Assembly on 1u 0ecember 1co.
c//. See also irtcr clic; Cartaeena 0eclaratlon on kefueees, zz hovember 1Su, 0AS]Ser.L. ]v]ll.66, doc. 1o,
rev. 1; the Ccrvcrticr cr Asvln, (havana, 1zS); thc Ccrvcrticr cr Pclitircl Asvln, (Montevldeo, 1);
the Ccrvcrticr cr 0iplcnctir Asvln, (Caracas, 1cu); the Ccrvcrticr cr 1crritcricl Asvln, (Caracas,
1cu); Ccrril cf Frcpc, Pcrlicncrtcrv Asscnblv, kcrcnncrJcticr ;; (1;6| cr thc Sitcticr cf Jc
fcrtc kcfcccs, z6 lanuary 1/6; Frcpccr uricr, Ccrril 0ircrtivc 2cco/8 cf 2 April 2cco cr nirinn
stcrJcrJs fcr thc cclifircticr crJ stcts cf thirJ rcrtrv rcticrcls crJ stctclcss pcrscrs cs rcfcccs cr
cs pcrscrs whc cthcrwisc rccJ irtcrrcticrcl prctcrticr crJ rcrtcrt cf thc prctcrticr crcrtcJ, 0l L ou,
o September zoou.
c/S. 1c1 Conventlon, Artlcle 1(A)(z).
c/. The Protocol relatlne to the Status of kefueees (16/ Protocol) and the Statute of the 0fflce of the unlted
hatlons hleh Commlssloner for kefueees both ellmlnate two llmltatlons lncluded ln the 1c1 Conventlon:
the llmltatlon on conslderlne as refueees only those persons who became before 1 lanuary 1c1 (Artlcle
1.z), and eeoeraphlc llmltatlons (Artlcle 1.).
cSo. See lnter alla: uhhCk, handbook on Procedures and Crlterla for 0etermlnlne kefueee Status under the
1c1 Conventlon and the 16/ Protocol relatlne to the Status of kefueees, hCk]lP]u]Fne]kFv.1 (znd ed.
1z); 0uldellnes on lnternatlonal Protectlon 1: 0ender-kelated Persecutlon wlthln the context of Artlcle
1A(z) of the 1c1 Conventlon and]or lts 16/ Protocol relatlne to the Status of kefueees, hCk]0lP]oz]o1
(zooz); 0uldellnes on lnternatlonal Protectlon z: "Membershlp of a partlcular soclal eroup" wlthln the
context of Artlcle 1 A (z) of the 1c1 Conventlon and]or lts 16/ Protocol relatlne to the Status of kefueees,
hCk]0lP]oz]oz (zooz); 0uldellnes on lnternatlonal Protectlon ho. 6: kellelon-8ased kefueee Clalms under
Artlcle 1A(z) of the 1c1 Conventlon and]or the 16/ Protocol relatlne to the Status of kefueees, hCk]
0lP]ou]o6 (zoou) ; and 0uldellnes on lnternatlonal Protectlon ho. /: The Appllcatlon of Artlcle 1A(z) of
the 1c1 Conventlon and]or 16/ Protocol kelatlne to the Status of kefueees to vlctlms of Trafflcklne and
Persons at klsk of 8elne Trafflcked, hCk]0lP]o6]o/ (zoo6).
cS1. uhhCk, Nctc cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr, u.h. 0oc. A]AC.6]c1 (zoo1), paras. 6-1o6.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1z
securlty.
cSz
ho State may expel a refueee to a country ln whlch he]her faces a real
rlsk of persecutlon or other eross human rlehts vlolatlons. Thls absolutely prohlb-
lted practlce ls known as "rcfclcncrt". The prohlbltlon of rcfclcncrt ls frmly
establlshed ln refueee law and several unlversal and reelonal human rlehts lnstru-
ments
cS
as well as ln the lnternatlonal customary law, blndlne on all States, as a
js rcccrs norm.
States' rleht to expel a refueee lawfully ln thelr terrltory on erounds of natlonal
securlty or publlc order,
cSu
ls overrldden lf the lssue of rcfclcncrt comes lnto play.
ln addltlon to the prlnclple of rcr-rcfclcncrt, refueee law lmposes on the State
certaln procedural safeeuards.
cSc
Accordlne to the prlnclple of rcr-rcfclcncrt,
States shall not "expel or return ('refouler') a refueee '.] where hls llfe or freedom
would be threatened on account of hls race, rellelon, natlonallty, membershlp of
a partlcular soclal eroup or polltlcal oplnlon".
cS6
A declslon by 8rltaln to expel an
lndlan mllltant asylee on the erounds that he represented a threat to 8rltlsh natlonal
securlty was ruled to be ln vlolatlon of the rcr-rcfclcncrt oblleatlon under Artlcle
of the Furopean Conventlon, as he faced a real rlsk of torture ln lndla.
cS/
The court
took note that the rcr-rcfclcncrt oblleatlon applled reeardless of the asylee's
threat to natlonal securlty.
cSS
kefueees may, however, be voluntarlly repatrlated to thelr own countrles once thelr
fear of persecutlon has abated. voluntary repatrlatlon ls the preferred outcome
asylum.
cS
voluntary repatrlatlon ends the valldlty of any outstandlne clalms to
cSz. 1c1 Conventlon, Artlcles 1z, 1/-1, zu, z; lCCPk Artlcle 1; see also lcccl Ccnncrtcrv tc thc lCl 8crlir
0crlcrcticr, cp. rit.
cS. The 1c1 Conventlon relatlne to the Status of kefueees (Artlcle ), the 0AS Conventlon on Terrltorlal
Asylum (Artlcle lv); the 0reanlzatlon of Afrlcan unlty's Conventlon 0overnlne the Speclflc Aspects of
kefueee Problems ln Afrlca (Artlcle ll ()); the Conventlon Aealnst Torture and Cruel, lnhuman or 0eeradlne
Treatment or Punlshment (Artlcle .1), the lnternatlonal Conventlon for the Protectlon of All Persons from
Fnforced 0lsappearance (Artlcle 16), the 0eclaratlon on Terrltorlal Asylum (Artlcle .1), the 0eclaratlon on the
Protectlon of All Persons from Fnforced 0lsappearances (Artlcle S), the Prlnclples on the Fffectlve Preventlon
and lnvestleatlon of Fxtra-leeal, Arbltrary and Summary Fxecutlons (Prlnclple c), the Amerlcan Conventlon
on human klehts (Artlcle zz.S), the lnter-Amerlcan Conventlon to Prevent and Punlsh Torture (Artlcle 1.u),
the Arab Charter on human klehts (Artlcle zS) and the Furopean Conventlon of human klehts (Artlcle ).
Althoueh the lnternatlonal Covenant on Clvll and Polltlcal klehts does not expllcltly provlde for lt, the human
klehts Commlttee has polnted out that the prlnclple of rcr-rcfclcncrt ls lnherent ln States' oblleatlon
under the Covenant to euarantee the rleht not to be sub|ected to torture or lll-treatment (Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt
Nc. 2c, para. ). See also, CcrrlJirc 0bscrvcticrs cf thc hncr kichts Ccnnittcc: CcrcJc, CCPk]C]CAh]
C0]c, zo Aprll zoo6, para. 1c.
cSu. Artlcle z (1) of the 1c1 Conventlon.
cSc. lbiJ., and Artlcle z (z) of the 1c1 Conventlon.
cS6. Artlcle of the 1c1 Conventlon.
cS/. Furopean Court of human klehts, ludement of 1c hovember 16, Case of Chchcl v. thc uritcJ kircJcn,
Appllcatlon ho. zzu1u], para. 1o/.
cSS. lbiJ., at paras. /-So.
cS. uhhChk, Nctc cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr, u.h. 0oc. A]AC.6]c1, para. /. Also, uhhCk kS0 hcrJbcck
crJ CiJclircs cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr (http:]]www.unhcr.ore]docllst]publ]ddc111u.html).
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 1o
asylum, as lt ls assumed that a refueee's return home lmplles chaneed condltlons
there, allowlne for the asylum seeker's safety.
co
. Asy|um and ReIugee 5tatus en the Creunds eI 5exua|
0rientatien and Cender tdentity
.: Particu|ar secia| greup inc|uding sexua| minerities
"Membershlp of a partlcular soclal eroup", one of the fve erounds enumerated ln
Artlcle 1 of the 1c1 Conventlon, has encompassed lncreaslnely dlverse clalms.
c1

Thls expandlne cateeory has accommodated women, famllles, trlbes, occupatlonal
eroups and homosexuals.
cz
There ls no doubt that thls eround ls amenable to
advanclne refueee clalms based on sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty. Thls
ls expllcltly stated by the uhhCk ln lts 0uldellnes on lnternatlonal Protectlon on
"eender-related persecutlon":
"|r]cfccc rlcins bcscJ cr Jiffcrirc scxcl cricrtcticr rcrtcir c ccrJcr
clcncrt. A rlcincrts scxclitv cr scxcl prcrtircs ncv bc rclcvcrt tc c
rcfccc rlcin whcrc hc cr shc hcs bccr sbjcrt tc pcrscrtcrv (irrlJirc
Jisrrinirctcrv| crticr cr crrcrt cf his cr hcr scxclitv cr scxcl prcrtircs.
lr ncrv srh rcscs, thc rlcincrt hcs rcfscJ tc cJhcrc tc scricllv cr rltr-
cllv JcfircJ rclcs cr cxpcrtcticrs cf bchcvicr cttribtcJ tc his cr hcr scx.
1hc ncst rcnncr rlcins irvclvc hcncscxcls, trcrsscxcls cr trcrsvcs-
titcs, whc hcvc fcrcJ cxtrcnc pblir hcstilitv, viclcrrc, cbsc, cr scvcrc cr
rnlctivc Jisrrinircticr".
c
The uhhCk has also recoenlsed States' oblleatlon to conslder the speclal rlsks
faced by refueees from persecutlon on the erounds of sexual orlentatlon and eender
ldentlty vla lts reference to the oeyakarta Prlnclples:
"|w]ith rcccrJ tc scxcl cricrtcticr, thc 2cc; ccvckcrtc Prirriplcs cr
thc Applircticr cf lrtcrrcticrcl hncr kichts lcw ir rclcticr tc Scxcl
0ricrtcticr crJ CcrJcr lJcrtitv cffirn thc birJirc irtcrrcticrcl lcccl
stcrJcrJs cr this issc cs JcrivcJ frcn kcv frJcncrtcl hncr richts
irstrncrts".
cu
co. For example, lmmleratlon and kefueee 8oard of Canada, 0eclslon of 1S 0ctober zoou, Case of Applircrt v.
Miristcr, ho. dossler SPk vA-o11u.
c1. See for example, uhhCk, handbook; Alexander Alelnlkoff, "Protected characterlstlcs and soclal percep-
tlons: an analysls of the meanlne of 'membershlp of a partlcular soclal eroup'", ln kcfccc Prctcrticr ir
lrtcrrcticrcl lcw: 1hc uNhCks Clcbcl Ccrsltcticrs cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr, Frlka Feller, edltors, volker
Turk and Frances hlcholson, Cambrldee unlverslty Press, zoo.
cz. uhhCk, CiJclircs cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr 2, cp. rit. paras. 1, 6, /, zo.
c. uhhCk, CiJclircs cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr 1, cp. rit. para. 16.
cu. uhhCk, hcrJbcck fcr thc Prctcrticr cf wcncr crJ Cirls (zooS), p. /z.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 11
For the purpose of lmplementlne the 1c1 Conventlon, the Furopean unlon (Fu) has
adopted a defnltlon of "soclal eroup" that lncludes sexual orlentatlon, requlrlne Fu
member States to recoenlse that "dependlne on the clrcumstances ln the country of
orleln, a partlcular soclal eroup mleht lnclude a eroup based on a common character-
lstlc of sexual orlentatlon".
cc
Thls standard applles to and has been lmplemented ln
every Fu member State except, throueh an anomaly of Fu law, 0enmark.
c6
Fu leels-
latlon also encompasses eender ldentlty, althoueh somewhat obllquely, notlne that
"'e]ender related aspects mleht be consldered, wlthout by themselves alone creatlne
a presumptlon for the appllcablllty of thls Artlcle".
c/
These standards replace the
earller Furopean |urlsprudence on whether sexual orlentatlon may defne a soclal
eroup.
cS
ln the unlted States, the 8oard of lmmleratlon Appeals has recoenlsed "homo-
sexuals" as a partlcular soclal eroup,
c
and one appeals court has recoenlsed an
asylum clalm based on eender ldentlty, "conclud'lne] as a matter of law that eay men
wlth female sexual ldentltles ln Mexlco constltute a 'partlcular soclal eroup'".
6oo
The uhhCk has developed a standard of "partlcular soclal eroup" that lncludes
two separate but complementary approaches for establlshlne such a eroup's
exlstence:
"c pcrtirlcr scricl crcp is c crcp cf pcrscrs whc shcrc c rcnncr rhcr-
crtcristir cthcr thcr thcir risk cf bcirc pcrscrtcJ, cr whc crc pcrrcivcJ
cs c crcp bv scrictv. 1hc rhcrcrtcristir will cftcr bc crc whirh is irrctc,
rrhcrcccblc, cr whirh is cthcrwisc frJcncrtcl tc iJcrtitv, rcrsricrrc cr
thc cxcrrisc cf crcs hncr richts".
6o1
The frst approach ln thls standard ls the "protected characterlstlcs" or "lmmu-
tablllty" approach, whlch examlnes whether a eroup ls unlted by an lmmutable
cc. Councll 0lrectlve zoou]S]FC, cp. rit.
c6. For example, CiJclircs fcr lrvcsticcticr crJ Fvclcticr cf Asvln Ccscs ir whirh Pcrscrticr 8cscJ
cr Civcr Scxcl 0ricrtcticr (Sweden) (zooz), avallable at www.unhcr.ore]cel-bln]texls]vtx]refworld]
rwmaln!docld=fSc1afuu; kcfccc Art (lreland) para. z (16).
c/. lbiJ.; see also lL0A Furope, "Prctcrtirc lC81 Pccplc Scckirc Asvln: CiJclircs 0r 1hc kcfccc
Stcts 0ircrtivc" (zooc), p. 11 (notlne that the "nccrirc cf this stctcncrt is fcr frcn rlccr. |.] |l]t ncv
bc pcssiblc tc Jcncrstrctc thc cxistcrrc cf c trcrsccrJcr rcnnritv/iJcrtitv, bt this will rccirc
rcsc-bv-rcsc Jctcrnircticr"). See: http:]]www.llea- europe.ore]europe]publlcatlons]non_perlodlcal]
euldellnes_on_the_refueee_status_dlrectlve_october_zooc__1
cS. See eenerally Furopean Councll for kefueees and Fxlles (FCkF), "Flcrc kcsccrrh Pcpcr cr Scxcl
0ricrtcticr As c CrcrJ Fcr kcrccriticr cf kcfccc Stcts" (1/), avallable at www.ecre.ore]resources]
Pollcy_papers]co.
c. unlted States 8oard of lmmleratlon Appeals, 0eclslon of 1z March 1o, Mcttcr cf 1cbcsc-Alfcrsc, zo l&h
0ec. S1, 1o wL cu/1S (8lA 1o).
6oo. unlted States Court of Appeals for the hlnth Clrcult, 0eclslon of zu Aueust zooo, Case of hcrrcrJcz-Mcrticl
v. lNS.
6o1. 0uldellnes on lnternatlonal Protectlon: "Membershlp of a partlcular soclal eroup" wlthln the context of
Artlcle 1A(z) of the 1c1 Conventlon and]or lts 16/ Protocol relatlne to the Status of kefueees, para. 11,
uhhCk 0oc. hCk]0lP]oz]oz of / May zooz.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 1z
characterlstlc or by a characterlstlc that ls so fundamental to human dlenlty that
a person should not be compelled to forsake lt.
6oz
A declslon-maker adoptlne thls
approach would examlne whether the asserted eroup ls defned by:
an lnnate, unchaneeable characterlstlc; !
a past temporary or voluntary status that ls unchaneeable because of lts !
hlstorlcal permanence; or
a characterlstlc or assoclatlon that ls so fundamental to human dlenlty that !
eroup members should not be compelled to forsake lt.
Applylne thls approach, courts and admlnlstratlve bodles ln a number of |urlsdlctlons
have concluded that homosexuals, amonest others, can constltute a partlcular soclal
eroup wlthln the meanlne of Artlcle 1A(z). ln the case of kc Cl,
6o
hew Zealand's
kefueee Status Appeals Authorlty ruled ln favour of an lranlan man who areued
that he had a well-founded fear of persecutlon based on hls homosexuallty. The
authorlty found that homosexuals formed "a partlcular soclal eroup" and that sexual
orlentatlon ls elther an lnnate or unchaneeable characterlstlc or so fundamental
to ldentlty and]or human dlenlty that lt oueht not to chanee. ln thls analysls, the
trlbunal offered a basls for the conslderatlon of sexual orlentatlon as constltutlne "a
partlcular soclal eroup" deservlne of |udlclal protectlon. A deeply felt sense of one's
eender ldentlty eoes to the core of one's ldentlty as a human belne to the extent
that one should not be forced on to forsake lt. Therefore, eender ldentlty may also
constltute a partlcular soclal eroup.
The second, "soclal perceptlon", approach examlnes whether or not members of a
eroup share common characterlstlcs constltutlne a recoenlzable eroup whlch sets
them apart from soclety at laree. The uhhCk 0uldellne on "Membershlp of a partlc-
ular soclal eroup" cltes women, famllles and homosexuals as examples recoenlzed
under thls analysls as partlcular soclal eroups, dependlne on the clrcumstances of
the soclety ln whlch they exlst.
6ou
Fxpresslons of eender ldentlty could concelvably
be lncluded ln thls approach. 0ender expresslon ls vlslble and can be a source of
ldentlfcatlon, especlally when, throueh characterlstlcs such as dress, mannerlsms
and modlfcatlons of the body lt subverts tradltlonal expectatlons of eender expres-
slon. ln the ln the case of 0rbih, the Councll of State (Ccrscil JFtct| of France
found that transsexuals may constltute a partlcular soclal eroup. ln lts declslon, the
6oz. See for example, Supreme Court of Canada, Case of Attcrrcv Ccrcrcl cf CcrcJc v. wcrJ, 1, z SCk 6S.
The Court has stated that: "The meanlne asslened to 'partlcular soclal eroup' '.] 'comprlses] three posslble
cateeorles: (1) eroups deflned by an lnnate or unchaneeable characterlstlc; (z) eroups whose members
voluntarlly assoclate for reasons so fundamental to thelr human dlenlty that they should not be forced
to forsake the assoclatlon; and () eroups assoclated by a former voluntary status, unalterable due to lts
hlstorlcal permanence. The flrst cateeory would embrace lndlvlduals fearlne persecutlon on such bases as
eender, llneulstlc backeround and sexual orlentatlon'.]".
6o. Avallable at http:]]www.refueee.ore.nz]rsaa]text]docs]11z-.htm
6ou. 0uldellnes on lnternatlonal Protectlon: "Mcnbcrship cf c pcrtirlcr scricl crcp" withir thc rcrtcxt cf
Artirlc 1A(2| cf thc 1<1 Ccrvcrticr crJ/cr its 16; Prctcrcl rclctirc tc thc Stcts cf kcfcccs, para. 1.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1
Consell d'Ftat re|ected the declslon of the body of appeal (Ccnnissicr Jcs rcrcrs
Jcs rcfcics| to deny the clalm of 0urblh, an Aleerlan transsexual, fndlne that the
body had not properly examlned the evldence to determlne whether transsexuals
were reearded as a soclal eroup ln Aleerla "by reason of the common characterlstlcs
whlch defne them ln the eyes of the authorltles and of soclety".
6oc
Accordlne to the uhhCk 0uldellnes on "Membershlp of a partlcular soclal eroup",
"'a] partlcular soclal eroup cannot be defned excluslvely by the persecutlon that
members of the eroup suffer or by a common fear of belne persecuted".
6o6
however,
there ls no requlrement that a partlcular soclal eroup be "coheslve", that ls to say,
known to each other or assoclate wlth each other.
6o/
hot all members of the eroup
need be at rlsk for an lndlvldual clalm to succeed.
6oS
The slze of the purported soclal
eroup ls not a relevant crlterlon ln determlnlne whether the partlcular soclal eroup
exlsts.
6o
.z Persecutien
.z.: 5cepe eI persecutien
To elve rlse to refueee status persecutlon must be more severe than harassment,
dlscrlmlnatlon or threats, althoueh lt does not have to elve rlse to a threat to llfe.
61o

Thls can sometlmes be a fne llne to ad|udlcate on. Past persecutlon must establlsh
a presumptlon of future persecutlon. lt ls not by ltself suffclent to establlsh a cred-
lble fear of belne persecuted.
611
Persecutlon must also conslst of acts commltted by
or wlth the acqulescence of the authorltles.
.z.z Persecutien in re|atien te sexua| erientatien and gender identity
An asylum-seeker does not need to show that he or she outwardly conforms to a
stereotype or llves wlth an openly "homosexual" ldentlty ln order to demonstrate the
potentlal for persecutlon. Courts have acknowledeed the unlque pressures that L08T
asylum-seekers have to conceal thelr ldentlty and how thls factors ln the assessment
of thelr clalm. A person cannot be refused asylum on the basls that he or she could
6oc. Consell d'Ftat, SSk, 0eclslon ho. 1/1ScS, z lune 1/ (0rlelnal ln French, free translatlon).
6o6. 0uldellnes on lnternatlonal Protectlon: "Mcnbcrship cf c pcrtirlcr scricl crcp" withir thc rcrtcxt cf
Artirlc 1A(2| cf thc 1<1 Ccrvcrticr crJ/cr its 16; Prctcrcl rclctirc tc thc Stcts cf kcfcccs, para. 1u.
6o/. lbiJ., para. 1c.
6oS. lbiJ., para. 1/.
6o. lbiJ., para. 1S.
61o. unlted States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Clrcult, 0eclslon of 1c lune zooc, Case of li v. Ashrrcft.
611. lbiJ., para. z/.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 1u
avold persecutlon by modlfylne behavlour that ls the sub|ect of the persecutlon. ln
the Fnellsh case of 0cricr v. SSh0, Lord lustlce Slmon 8rown oplned:
"|i]r cll csvln rcscs thcrc is ltinctclv c sirclc ccsticr tc bc cskcJ: is
thcrc c scrics risk thct cr rctrr thc cpplircrt wclJ bc pcrscrtcJ fcr
c Ccrvcrticr rccscr? |.] if rctrrcJ, wclJ thc csvln scckcr ir fcrt crt
ir thc wcv hc scvs hc wclJ crJ thcrcbv sffcr pcrscrticr? lf hc wclJ,
thcr, hcwcvcr rrccscrcblc hc nicht bc thccht fcr rcfsirc tc crrcpt thc
rcrcsscrv rcstrcirt cr his libcrtics, ir nv jJcncrt hc wclJ bc crtitlcJ tc
csvln".
61z
An uS lmmleratlon |udee who denled the asylum appllcatlon of an Albanlan because
he "dld not dress or speak llke or exhlblt the mannerlsms of a homosexual" was
censured by an appeals court for baslne hls declslon on a "personal and lmproper
oplnlon", and was removed from the case.
61
The hleh Court of Australla has slmllarly reasoned that appllcants' prlor ablllty to
avold persecutlon by keeplne thelr sexual orlentatlon secret should have no bearlne
on a declslon as to whether an asylum seeker has a reasonable fear of future perse-
cutlon based on sexual orlentatlon. The court ruled:
"thcrc is c rctrcl tcrJcrrv |.] tc rccscr thct, bcrcsc thc cpplircrt hcs rct
bccr pcrscrtcJ ir thc pcst, hc cr shc will rct bc pcrscrtcJ ir thc ftrc.
1hc fcllcrv rJcrlvirc this cpprccrh is thc cssnpticr thct thc rcrJrt cf
thc cpplircrt is rirflcrrcJ bv thc rcrJrt cf thc pcrscrtcr".
61u
ln other words, "lf such a person were requlred to keep hls homosexuallty secret ln
order to avold persecutlon, that ln ltself was a persecutory actlon".
61c
The Australlan
Court ruled that, slnce an lmmleratlon trlbunal had found that two asylum seekers
"were dlscreet about thelr relatlonshlp only because they feared that otherwlse they
would be sub|ected to 'persecutlon, lt must therefore] conslder what mleht happen
to the appellants ln 8aneladesh lf they llved openly as a homosexual couple".
616
The kefueee Status Appeals Authorlty of hew Zealand (kSAA) has adopted thls
reasonlne, concludlne that the Ccrvcrticr rclctirc tc thc Stcts cf kcfcccs
requlres that: "'l]f the rleht proposed to be exerclsed by the refueee clalmant ln
61z. Court of Appeal (Clvll 0lvlslon), ludement of zS 0ctober 1, Case of 0cricr v. Scrrctcrv cf Stctc fcr thc
hcnc 0cpcrtncrt, '1] lhLk cc, pp. /0, SC, S0 (unlted Klnedom). See also eenerally, lcncirc v. Scrrctcrv
cf Stctc fcr thc hcnc 0cpcrtncrt, Asylum and lmmleratlon Trlbunal ] lmmleratlon Appellate Authorlty, C0
'zooc] uKAlT oo16S.
61. unlted States Court of Appeals, Flehth Clrcult, 0eclslon of z Aprll zoo/, Case of Shchircj v. Ccrzclcs,.
61u. Appcllcrt S</2cc2 v. Miristcr fcr lnnicrcticr crJ Mltirltrcl Affcirs, zoo hCA /1, para. u.
61c. Court of Appeal (Clvll 0lvlslon), Case of Z v. 1hc Scrrctcrv cf Stctc fcr thc hcnc 0cpcrtncrt, 'zoou] FwCA
Clv 1c/S, (unlted Klnedom).
616. hleh Court of Australla, ludement of 0ecember zoo, Case of Appcllcrt cf S</2cc2 v. Miristcr fcr
lnnicrcticr crJ Mltirltrcl Affcirs, para. cu.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1c
the country of orleln ls at the core of the relevant entltlement and serlous harm ls
threatened, lt would be contrary to the laneuaee context, ob|ect and purpose of the
kefueee Conventlon to requlre the refueee clalmant to forfelt or foreeo that rleht and
to be denled refueee status on the basls that he or she could eneaee ln self-denlal
or dlscretlon on return to the country of orleln".
61/
ln the case of a homosexual appll-
cant from lran, the kSAA ruled that, slnce an exerclse of dlscretlon would vlolate the
"fundamental rlehts" of prlvacy and non-dlscrlmlnatlon euaranteed by the lCCPk,
and llvlne openly as a homosexual would entall "severe |udlclal or extra-|udlclal
punlshment", asylum had to be eranted.
61S
An lnltlal reluctance to dlsclose sexual orlentatlon at the beelnnlne of the clalm
process, or even durlne lts lnltlal staees, should not be erounds for susplclon by an
lmmleratlon trlbunal. ln a case called Mccb, a uS appeals court found "lt reason-
able that Mr. Moab would not have wanted to mentlon hls sexual orlentatlon 'at hls
lnltlal alrport lntervlew] for fear that reveallne thls lnformatlon could cause further
persecutlon as lt had ln hls home country of Llberla".
61
Cases of persecutlon on the erounds of sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty often
lnvolve rlsks of harm from non-State actors. ln such cases, the clalm for asylum ls
valld where there ls a real fear of persecutlon from a non-State actor, and where
the State ls unwllllne or slmply unable to protect the clalmant. ln lts CiJclircs
cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr: ccrJcr-rclctcJ pcrscrticr, the 0ffce of the unlted
hatlons hleh Commlssloner for kefueees has stated that:
"|w]hcrc hcncscxclitv is illcccl ir c pcrtirlcr scrictv, thc inpcsiticr cf
scvcrc rrinircl pcrcltics fcr hcncscxcl rcrJrt rclJ cncrt tc pcrsc-
rticr, jst cs it wclJ fcr rcfsirc tc wccr thc vcil bv wcncr ir scnc
scrictics. Fvcr whcrc hcncscxcl prcrtircs crc rct rrinirclizcJ, c rlcincrt
rclJ still cstcblish c vcliJ rlcin whcrc thc Stctc rcrJcrcs cr tclcrctcs
Jisrrinirctcrv prcrtircs cr hcrn pcrpctrctcJ cccirst hin cr hcr, cr whcrc thc
Stctc is rcblc tc prctcrt cffcrtivclv thc rlcincrt cccirst srh hcrn".
6zo
ln the unlted States of Amerlca, an asylum appllcant seeklne to avold deportatlon
ls "not requlre'd] '.] to provlde evldence that he or she would be slneled out lndl-
vldually for '.] persecutlon lf (l) '.] there ls a pattern or practlce of persecutlon of a
eroup of persons slmllarly sltuated to the appllcant on account of '.] membershlp
ln a partlcular soclal eroup; and '.] (ll) 't]he appllcant establlshes hls or her own
61/. kefueee Status Appeals Authorlty, 0eclslon of u luly zoou, kcfccc Appccl Nc. ;o66</c, para. 11u.
61S. lbiJ., paras. 1z/ and 1z.
61. unlted States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Clrcult, 0eclslon of 1 September zoo/, Case of Mccb v.
Ccrzclcs.
6zo. 0fflce of the unlted hatlons hleh Commlssloner for kefueees, CiJclircs cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr: ccrJcr-
rclctcJ pcrscrticr withir thc rcrtcxt cf crtirlc 1 A (2| cf thc 1<1 Ccrvcrticr crJ its 16; Prctcrcl rclctirc
tc thc Stcts cf kcfcccs, uhhCk doc. hCk]0lP]oz]o1 of / May zooz, para. 1/. See also uh worklne 0roup
on Arbltrary 0etentlon, 0plnlon ho. /]zooz (Feypt) of z1 lune zooz, Case of csscr MchcncJ Sclch ct cl.
v. Fcvpt, para. z/, ln uh 0oc. F]Ch.u]zoo]S]Add.1.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. u 16
lncluslon ln and ldentlfcatlon wlth such eroup '.] that lt ls more llkely than not that
hls or her llfe or freedom would be threatened upon return".
6z1
Applylne thls reeula-
tlon, a uS appeals court has ruled that, lf an asylum seeker has "shown evldence of
a pattern of persecutlon aealnst the soclal eroup of homosexuals" and can "show
hls lncluslon ln the soclal eroup of 'homosexuals'", he need not "provlde evldence
that he or she would be slneled out lndlvldually for such persecutlon".
6zz
Althoueh "rlehts attachlne to marrlaee, shall be respected by" States partles to
the 1c1 Conventlon,
6z
the questlon of whether a refueee may sponsor a same-sex
partner ls unsettled. Practlces vary: ln the unlted States refueees eranted asylum are
not permltted to brlne wlth them thelr same-sex partners,
6zu
whereas ln Canada refu-
eees are entltled to brlne wlth them thelr same-sex "spouse, common-law partner
or con|ueal partner".
6zc
however, elven that many refueees' persecutlon lncludes
forced physlcal separatlon from thelr partners, there remaln questlons as to how
many refueees would be able demonstrate the "con|ueal" or "common law" llnks
unltlne the two of them.
6z6
5ummary
Fveryone has the rleht to seek and to en|oy ln other countrles asylum from !
persecutlon, except ln the case of prosecutlons eenulnely arlslne from
serlous non-polltlcal crlmes, from acts contrary to the purposes and prln-
clples of the unlted hatlons, crlme aealnst peace, a war crlme, or a crlme
aealnst humanlty;
A refueee ls a person unable to return to hls country due to a well-founded !
fear of belne persecuted for reasons of race, rellelon, natlonallty, polltlcal
oplnlon, or membershlp of a partlcular soclal eroup;
Sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty may constltute a "partlcular soclal !
eroup". Constltutlne as such due to elther lnnate or unchaneeable charac-
terlstlcs or characterlstlcs so fundamental to ldentlty or human dlenlty that
they oueht not to chanee. Sexual orlentatlon and eender ldentlty may also
6z1. S C.F.k. zoS.16 (b)(z) "wlthholdlne of removal under sectlon zu1(b)()(8) of the Act and wlthholdlne of
removal under the Conventlon Aealnst Torture", of the CcJc cf FcJcrcl kcclcticr.
6zz. unlted States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Clrcult, 0eclslon of / lanuary zooS, Case of Fkc v.
Mkcscv.
6z. Artlcle 1z, 1c1 kefueee Conventlon.
6zu. 0cfcrsc cf Mcrriccc Art, 1 u.S.C. /; Cf. vlsas for Cohabltatlne Partners, lmmleratlon Fquallty, avallable at
www.lmmleratlonequallty.ore]template.php!paeeld=1cc (zoo/) (notlne that forelen natlonals on temporary
work vlsas are the only class of persons allowed by u.S. law to obtaln vlsas for thelr same sex-partners).
6zc. lnnicrcticr crJ kcfccc Prctcrticr kcclcticrs, S.0.k.]zooz-zz/, part /, dlvlslon 1.
6z6. Lavlolette, hlcole, "Comlne 0ut to Canada: The lmmleratlon of Same-Sex Couples under the lmmleratlon
and kefueee Protectlon Act", MrCill lcw lcrrcl, vol. u, ho. u, zoou, Mc0lll unlverslty, Canada, paees
SS-1.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1/
deflne a partlcular soclal eroup because they are deflned as such ln the eyes
of the authorltles and of soclety;
Persons persecuted for hls]her sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty have !
the rleht to seek and en|oy asylum. Persecutlon on the erounds of sexual
orlentatlon or eender ldentlty ls erounds for asylum;
An asylum seeker does not need to show that he or she outwardly conforms !
to a stereotype ln order to obtaln asylum. hor can he or she be denled asylum
on the erounds that he or she could avold persecutlon by keeplne hls or her
sexual orlentatlon or eender ldentlty a secret;
Accordlne to the prlnclple of ! rcr-rcfclcncrt, States must not expel or
return a refueee to a country ln whlch he]her faces a real rlsk of persecutlon
or other eross human rlehts vlolatlons. States must erant a refueee asylum
or resettle them ln safe a thlrd country;
The prlnclple of ! rcr-rcfclcncrt lncludes a prohlbltlon to expel lesblans and
eays to countrles whlch are known to eneaee ln persecutlon for thelr sexual
orlentatlon or eender ldentlty;
8y erantlne asylum, a State oblleates ltself to extend the asylee permlsslon !
to work, as well as the protectlons of all lts laws, lncludlne labour, soclal
securlty and famlly law.