14 Plumbing Systems & Design APRIL 2011 WWW.PSDMAGAZINE.

ORG
S
izing water heaters to provide sucient hot water e-
ciently requires the designer to consider many aspects
of the system, such as how much hot water is needed
and at what temperature, the fuel source, equipment space
requirements, storage-type heaters vs. separate heat exchang-
ers, and many other decisions. Many ways to size water heat-
ers are available, and the method that you select for a specic
application may depend on the type of occupancy, the loca-
tion, and other factors or even a combination of these factors.
While this one article cannot tell you everything you need
to know about water heaters, it presents three methods to
derive the amount of hot water needed and explores some
basic ways to meet those needs. It may be benecial to use
more than one of the three methods described in this article
to determine a projects requirements and then decide which
direction to take based on a comparison of the results. If you
use the same design criteria for multiple sizing methods and
get widely varying results, you may want to check the data
and calculations for inconsistencies.
LEARN THREE METHODS YOU SHOULD BE
USING TO DESIGN EFFICIENT SYSTEMS
BY DAVID E. DEBORD, CPD, LEED AP
Using a computer to perform the calculations makes it
easier to double-check your results and to vary some of the
parameters to compare dierent usage scenarios. You can
compare dierent thermal eciencies or dierent balances
of storage and recovery rates to nd the best solution for the
application.
is article focuses on three of the methods commonly
used for sizing water heaters:
Fixture demand method 1.
Population demand method 2.
Hunter method 3.
e various types of water heaters, when to select one type
over another, how to control temperatures, and other such
details are not covered.
As mentioned, many sizing methods are available, and
some of your clients, such as large corporations, restaurants,
or hotel chains, may have their own standards that you are
required to follow. Figure 1 shows one example that a client
may use as their standard basis of design.
APRIL 2011 Plumbing Systems & Design 15
Even if a client requires you to use their method, you also
should perform calculations using one of the more familiar
and standardized methods to see if you are comfortable with
the results. You then may be motivated to consult with the
client to recommend alternatives to their standard calcula-
tions. Of course, any time you deviate from an accepted stan-
dard or prescribed method of engineering, you must realize
that you may be taking additional responsibility for the
results. e consequences of such actions should always be
considered before making the nal decision, and the owner
needs to be consulted and made part of this decision.
WHAT IS THE GOAL?
Regardless of the type of building or system, water heater
sizing has some basic, common, and recurring goals:
Determine the probable demand load t
Calculate the energy required to generate enough hot water to t
meet this demand
Find a heater that is adequate to satisfy this demand in a safe t
manner
Design an efcient system t
How do you do this? Where do you start?
THE BASIC CONCEPT
You can simplify the process by reducing the steps to the
basic concept (see Figure 2) and more clearly dening your
goals. As already stated, you rst need to determine the
demand. en you balance the storage with the recovery
(heating components) to determine the gallons per hour
(gph) delivered.
e next step in the simplication process naturally leads
you to consider the four basic steps to sizing a water heater:
Determine the gph demand 1.
Divide the demand between storage and recovery 2.
Determine the storage capacity 3.
Subtract the storage from the demand to get the recov- 4.
ery capacity required
Once you know what you need, it will be easier to nd the
solution.
Lets further rene each of these components of the design
criteria.
DEMAND
What is demand? How do you measure and satisfy it?
Domestic Water Heating Design Manual denes demand
as a function of the anticipated hot water usage of the occu-
pants of a particular building during the period being con-
sidered. It is aected by the population of a project as well
as behavioral patterns of those occupants and the amenities
oered them.
Some engineers say that demand (or load) sizing is an art
form because it requires a blend of science and art. Demand
proles vary for dierent types of occupancies, and they also
can vary in any particular building. As always, when deal-
ing with plumbing, the accuracy of the results depends on
the behavior of the end users. When calculating hot water
demand, you should follow established demand allowances
based on established procedures.
STORAGE
e storage capacities indicated in the various sizing guides
and calculation methods are usually the net usable require-
ments. Assuming that 60 to 80 percent of the hot water in a
storage tank is usable, the actual storage tank size should be
increased by 25 to 66 percent to compensate for unusable hot
water. is is due to stratication. As hot water is used, it is
removed from the tank, and then cold water comes into the
tank to replace the water that was removed. e cold water is
denser and sinks to the bottom of the tank, pushing the hot
water toward the top. Hopefully, you have piped the system
to take advantage of this phenomenon, but that is outside the
scope of this discussion.
is is not to say that the tank will never be 100 percent
lled with water that is at the design temperatureonly that
you cannot depend on it being hot when it is needed. 75
percent generally is accepted as an average gure to use for
this calculation.
Any tank more than 119 gallons must be ASME certied,
which requires an ASME-certied technician to sign o on
the construction by stamping the vessel. Certied tanks tend
to cost more than non-certied tanks, so you can pick a 120-
gallon tank (or less), which is always actually 119 gallons per
the manufacturers, to avoid this issue. However, some clients
and applications require all water heaters and hot water stor-
age tanks to be ASME rated, so this may be a moot point for
specic projects.
Guest Rooms gph/Room Total gph Redundancy
Recovery 600 4 2,400 4,800
Guest Rooms Gallons Total Gallons
Storage Capacity 600 10 6,000
GPH
DEMAND
GPH
DELIVERED
GALLONS
STORAGE
GPH
RECOVERY
+ >
>
FIGURE 1 EXAMPLE OF A TYPICAL CLIENT STANDARD
Figure 2 The basic concept
16 Plumbing Systems & Design APRIL 2011 WWW.PSDMAGAZINE.ORG
RECOVERY
Recovery describes the rate at which the heated water that
is removed from the storage tank is replenished. Once
you know the demand and the storage capacity, you will
know what amount is needed for recovery. e dierence
between the temperature of the incoming water and the
temperature of the water leaving the heater is referred to
as T, or delta T. It also is called the rate of the temperature
increase, which more commonly is called the rate of rise.
You need to know the delta T to determine how quickly hot
water can be recovered, which will help you determine the
amount of energy needed.
us, to determine the gph delivered, you add the storage
capacity in gallons to the recovery rate in gallons per hour
(see Figure 3). e goal is to deliver enough hot water to
meet the demand.
Lets look at some examples of this process.
Example 1
If the demand for an application is 200 gph, is a 100-gallon
tank big enough to meet the demand?
Divide the load between storage and recovery. Start 1.
with a 50/50 split for storage and recovery, or 100 gal-
lons storage and 100 gph recovery.
Determine the actual hot water storage capacity. 2.
Remember that only 75 percent might be hot, so mul-
tiply 100 by 0.75 to get the actual gallons stored hot,
which in this case is 75 gallons. us, the 100-gallon
tank is not capable of meeting the 100-gallon storage
capacity.
Subtract the storage from the demand to get the recov- 3.
ery capacity required, or 200 gph demand 75 gallons
storage = 125 gph recovery (see Figure 4).
Keep in mind that this only works for applications that
have a one-hour peak load. e storage capacity (as deter-
mined so far) most likely was depleted during the rst hour,
so if the maximum demand load is needed for more than
one hour, additional capacity in storage or recovery may be
required.
Following is one way to account for these apparent storage
anomalies.
Example 1A
If the load (demand) for an application is 200 gph, what size
tank is needed to meet the required storage capacity?
Divide the load between storage and recovery. Start 1.
with a 50/50 split for storage and recovery, or 100 gal-
lons storage and 100 gph recovery.
Determine the required storage tank size. Remember 2.
that only 75 percent might be hot, so divide 100 by
0.75, or 133 gallons.
Subtract the storage from the demand to get the recov- 3.
ery capacity required, or 200 gph demand 100 gallons
storage = 100 gph recovery (see Figure 5).
Lets look at some examples using our three methods.
METHOD 1: FIXTURE DEMAND METHOD
e steps in the xture demand method are:
Determine the demand in gallons per hour for each 1.
xture type
Determine the quantity of each type of xture 2.
Multiply the quantity of each xture by the gph value 3.
of each
is reveals the total gallon-per-hour demand.
Demand is measured in dierent ways. When dealing with
hot water, the demand rates are measured as:
Gallons per minute (gpm) t
Gallons per hour (gph) t
Gallons per day (gpd) t
BUILDING TYPES VS. LOADS
Dierent occupancies have dierent use patterns; thus,
dierent criteria are used to evaluate the demand based
on these occupancies. Basic building types include oce
buildings, hotels, schools, apartment buildings, and res-
taurants. e various ways of calculating the hot water
demand rates of these dierent occupancy types include:
Gallons per hour per xture t
Gallons per hour per person t
Gallons per hour per bed t
Gallons per hour per unit, apartment, or hotel room t
Gallons per hour per meal t
Figure 5 Results of Example 1A
GPH
DELIVERED
GALLONS
STORAGE
GPH
RECOVERY
+ >
GPH
DELIVERED
GPH
DEMAND
=
Figure 3 How to satisfy demand
200
GPH
DELIVERED
125
GPH
RECOVERY
75
GALLONS
STORAGE +
=
Figure 4 Results of Example 1
200
GPH
DELIVERED
100
GPH
RECOVERY
100
GALLONS
STORAGE +
=
APRIL 2011 Plumbing Systems & Design 17
TABLE 2 FIXTURE DEMAND FOR SOCIAL CLUB EXAMPLE
Fixture Demand Quantity Total Demand
Basin, private lavatory 2 5 10
Basin, public lavatory 6 9 54
Dishwasher 50 1 50
Kitchen sink 20 1 20
Laundry, stationary tub 28 2 56
Pantry sink 10 3 30
Service sink 20 1 20
Total 240
Figure 6 Results of Example 2
How do you determine the demand in gph per xture?
is information can be found in charts and tables published
by industry associations and manufacturers (see Table 1).
Example 2
Lets look at an example that would be considered a social
club. Assume the xtures as indicated in Table 2 to calcu-
late the loads.
According to the table, the total demand for this project is
240 gph. e next step is to divide the demand between stor-
age and recovery.
Using the example procedure from above, start by dividing
the demand (load) between storage and recovery. Start with
a 50/50 split for storage and recovery, or 120 gallons storage
and 120 gph recovery. If the storage capacity requirement is
120 gallons, does that mean you need a 120-gallon tank?
Not exactly. Only 75 percent of the water in the tank may be
hot when water is needed, so if you multiply 120 by 0.75, the
actual gallons stored in a 120-gallon tank is only 90 gallons.
To size a tank large enough to store 120 gallons of hot
water, divide 120 by 0.75, which results in a 160-gallon tank.
To determine the recovery capacity required, subtract the
storage from the demand (see Figure 6).
SIZING THE WATER HEATER
Assuming that you chose the 160-gallon tank, now you
need to determine how to recover 120 gph.
First, you need to determine how much energy is needed
to deliver the required recovery rate.
240
GPH
DELIVERED
150
GPH
RECOVERY
90
GALLONS
STORAGE +
=
240
GPH
DELIVERED
120
GPH
RECOVERY
120
GALLONS
STORAGE +
=
TABLE 1 HOT WATER DEMAND PER FIXTURE FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF BUILDINGS
(GALLONS [LITERS] OF WATER PER HOUR PER FIXTURE, CALCULATED AT A FINAL TEMPERATURE OF 140F [60C])
Fixture Apartment Club Gymnasium Hospital Hotel Industrial Plant
Ofce
Building
Private
Residence School YMCA
Basins, private lavatory 2 (7.6) 2 (7.6) 2 (7.6) 2 (7.6) 2 (7.6) 2 (7.6) 2 (7.6) 2 (7.6) 2 (7.6) 2 (7.6)
Basins, public lavatory 4 (15) 6 (23) 8 (30) 6 (23) 8 (30) 12 (45.5) 6 (23) 15 (57) 8 (30)
Bathtubs 20 (76) 20 (76) 30 (114) 20 (76) 20 (76) 20 (76) 30 (114)
Dishwashers
a
15 (57) 50-150
(190-570)
50-150
(190-570)
50-200
(190-760)
20-100
(76-380)
15 (57) 20-100
(76-380)
20-100
(76-380)
Foot basins 3 (11) 3 (11) 12 (46) 3 (11) 3 (11) 12 (46) 3 (11) 3 (11) 12 (46)
Kitchen sink 10 (38) 20 (76) 20 (76) 30 (114) 20 (76) 20 (76) 10 (38) 20 (76) 20 (76)
Laundry, stationary tubs 20 (76) 28 (106) 28 (106) 28 (106) 20 (76) 28 (106)
Pantry sink 5 (19) 10 (38) 10 (38) 10 (38) 10 (38) 5 (19) 10 (38) 10 (38)
Showers 30 (114) 150 (568) 225 (850) 75 (284) 75 (284) 225 (850) 30 (114) 30 (114) 225 (850) 225 (850)
Service sink 20 (76) 20 (76) 20 (76) 30 (114) 20 (76) 20 (76) 15 (57) 20 (76) 20 (76)
Hydrotherapeutic showers 400 (1,520)
Hubbard baths 600 (2,270)
Leg baths 100 (380)
Arm baths 35 (130)
Sitz baths 30 (114)
Continuous-ow baths 165 (625)
Circular wash sinks 20 (76) 20 (76) 30 (114) 20 (76) 30 (114)
Semicircular wash sinks 10 (38) 10 (38) 15 (57) 10 (38) 15 (57)
Demand factor 0.30 0.30 0.40 0.25 0.25 0.40 0.30 0.30 0.40 0.40
Storage capacity factor
b
1.25 0.90 1.00 0.60 0.80 1.00 2.00 0.70 1.00 1.00
a Dishwasher requirements should be taken from this table or from manufacturers data for the model to be used, if this is known.
b Ratio of storage tank capacity to probable maximum demand per hour. Storage capacity may be reduced where an unlimited supply of steam is available from a central street steam system or large
boiler plant.
Reprinted from Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, Volume 2, Table 6-1
18 Plumbing Systems & Design APRIL 2011 WWW.PSDMAGAZINE.ORG
1 kilowatt (kW) will provide 4.1 gallons of hot water per hour, at t
a 100F delta T.
1,000 British thermal units per hour (Btuh) will provide about 1 t
gph at a 100F delta T.
1 kilowatt equals 3,412 Btuh (approximately). t
Next, determine what type of energy source will be uti-
lized. Many choices are available, but the most common
are natural gas and electricity. Other options are steam and
high-temperature hot water from a boiler.
e water heating formula is:
q = gph
[(
1 Btu
) (
8.33 lb
)
(T)
]
lb/F gal
{
q =
m
3
[(
4.188 kJ
) (
999.6 kg
)
(T)
]}
h kg/K m
3
where:
q = Time rate of heat transfer (Btuh)
For natural gas, the equations are:
Btu/Input =
gph x 8.33 x T x !
Lllciency ol healer
gph =
8luh lnpul x Lllciency
T x 8.33
For electricity, the equations are:
kW =
gph x 8.33 x T x 1
OR
gph x T
3,412 410
gph =
kW x 3,412
OR
kW x 410
T x 8.33 T
Example 3
You need 120 gph. Assume that you are using electricity to
heat the water and that the incoming water temperature
is 40F. Remember that 1 kW will provide 4.1 gallons of hot
water per hour at a 100F delta T. You need 140F water out
of the heater, which is a 100F delta T. Since 120 gph 4.1
gph per kW = 29.27 kW, you will specify 30 kW.
us, the water heater will be 160 gallons at 30 kW/480
volt/3 phase.
Keep in mind that all electricity is not equal. Regarding
amperage draw:
1 kW = 2.5A, 230V, 3 Phase t
1 kW = 4.4A, 230V, 1 Phase t
Amp(3 Phase) = kW x 1,000 Volts x 1.732 t
Amp(1 Phase) = kW x 1,000 Volts t
Always coordinate this specication and design with the
electrical engineer.
Example 3A
Now lets see what is needed if you are using natural gas to
heat the water. You need to recover 120 gph, and the incom-
ing water temperature is 40F. You need 140F water out of
the heater, which is a 100F delta T.
Table 3 shows an example of a simple chart indicating the
dierence in Btuh requirements based on dierent ecien-
cies. It is based on the basic formula:
Btuh/Output =
gph x 8.33 pounds per gallon x T
Lllciency
Remember that 1 Btu will raise 1 pound of water 1F in one
hour. us, 1 Btuh will heat approximately 0.01 pound per
hour at a 100F T, and 1,000 Btuh will heat 10 pounds of water
at a 100F T. Since 1 gallon of hot water weighs 8.33 pounds,
1,000 Btuh = 1 gph (at 84 percent eciency). Note that the 84
percent basically cancels out the weight of the water.
en, 120 x 1,000 = 120,000 Btuh, so the water heater will
be 160 gallons at 120,000 Btuh.
However, nothing is ever that simple. e exercises in this
article have been using a 50/50 split, but note the last two
rows in Table 1, the demand factor and the storage factor.
Notice that they seldom come close to 50/50. Also notice that
they usually add up to more than 100 percent. is is par-
tially to compensate for peak demand periods longer than
one hour. Read those rows carefully!
Table 1 may be used to determine the size of the water
heating equipment based on the number of xtures. To
obtain the probable maximum demand, multiply the total
value for all of the xtures by the demand factor in line 19.
e heating capacity of the water heater should equal this
probable maximum demand. e storage capacity should
equal this demand multiplied by the storage capacity factor
on line 20.
Lets demonstrate this procedure for the example of a
social club in Example 2:
Probable maximum demand = 240 gph x 0.3 = 72 gph t
Heater or coil capacity = 72 gph t
Storage tank capacity = 72 x 0.9 = 64.8 gallons t
Using this method, the water heater would be:
64.8 0.75 = 86 gallons t
If electric: 72 4.1 = 18 kW/208 V/3 Phase t
If gas: 72,000 Btuh t
is result is quite a bit dierent than the 50/50 split result
and presumably more accurate. However, the engineer
makes the nal decision. is example was a rather small
load. With larger loads, you have more comfort with the
diversity factors, which in reality are a function of curves
rather than linear relationships, just as you see when sizing
water supply piping. is is another consideration to include
in the design process: the relative size of the system.
TABLE 3 EFFECT OF THERMAL EFFICIENCIES
Btuh (gph) (T) (8.33) Efciency
119,000 = 120 100 8.33 0.84
106,340 = 120 100 8.33 0.94
102,000 = 120 100 8.33 0.98
APRIL 2011 Plumbing Systems & Design 19
METHOD 2: POPULATION DEMAND METHOD
e steps in the population demand method are:
Determine the demand in gallons per day for each 1.
occupant
Determine the number of occupants 2.
Multiply the number of occupants by the gallons per 3.
day required for each
is reveals the total gpd demand.
Using Table 4, you can determine:
Maximum hourly demand t
Duration of peak demand t
Storage capacity required t
Heating capacity (recovery) required t
Example 4
For this example, the project is a 600-room hotel with an
expectation of using the higher end of the range of hot
water indicated in Table 4.
Maximum daily requirement = 600 x 40 = 24,000 gallons t
Maximum hourly demand factor = 24,000 gallons x 1/7 = t
3,452 gph
Duration of peak load = Four hours t
Water required for four-hour peak = 4 x 3,452 = 13,728 gallons t
If four 1,000-gallon tanks are used and 75 percent of the
water in the tanks is hot, the available hot water is 4,000 x 75
percent = 3,000 gallons.
Water to be heated in four hours = 13,728 3,000 = 10,728 t
gallons
Heating capacity per hour = 10,728 4 = 2,862 gph t
(Note that depending on how some numbers are
rounded when you are performing these calculations, even
with a calculator or spreadsheet, some minor discrepan-
cies may be reected in your calculations. ese minor
discrepancies will have no detectable eect on your system
performance.)
Using this method, the water heater for this hotel would
include:
Four 1,000-gallon storage tanks = 4,000 gallons t
Heating capacity = 2,862,000 Btuh t
TABLE 4 FACTORS FOR POPULATION DEMAND METHOD
Building Type
gpd per
Person
Total
Occupants
Total gpd
Maximum
Hourly Demand
Peak Duration
Storage Capacity in
Relation to Days Use
Heating Capacity in
Relation to Days Use
Factor 1/7 4 1/5 1/7
Residence, hotel, or
apartment
20 min 600 12,000 1,716 6,864 2,400 1,716
40 max 600 24,000 3,432 13,728 4,800 3,432
Factor 1/5 2 1/5 1/6
Ofce building 2 min 600 1,200 240 480 240 200
3 max 600 1,800 360 720 360 300
Factor 1/3 1 2/5 1/8
Factory 5 600 3,000 1,000 1,000 1,200 375
METHOD 3: HUNTER METHOD
is method uses curves that were developed with empiri-
cal data from actual studies to determine the demand in
gph for each occupant or unit.
e basic steps to sizing a water heater per the Hunter
method are:
Find the chart and curves that t the occupancy type 1.
Find the storage capacities on the bottom of the chart 2.
or the recovery capacities on the left
Follow this perpendicularly to nd the other factor. 3.
Now you have the storage and the recovery require-
ments for each unit.
Multiply these values by the number of units to get the 4.
storage and recovery capacities required for the system
Note that for steps 2 and 3 above, it does not matter if you
start with the storage factor or the recovery factor. e inter-
section of the graph will be at the same point.
Figure 7 shows the relationships between recovery and
storage capacity for various building categories. Any combi-
nation of storage and recovery rates that falls on the proper
curve will satisfy the building requirements.
TIP
Using the minimum recovery rate and the maximum stor-
age capacity on the curves yields the smallest hot water
capacity capable of satisfying the building requirement.
With a higher recovery rate, you get greater 24-hour heating
capacity and smaller required storage capacity.
STORAGE CAPACITIES
e storage capacities shown are net usable requirements,
as previously mentioned. Assuming that 75 percent of the
hot water in a storage tank is usable, the actual storage tank
size should be increased by 33 percent to compensate for
unusable hot water.
Example 5
A high school has 1,000 students, and the demand is 3 gal-
lons of storage per student. Locate 3 gph on the bottom of
20 Plumbing Systems & Design APRIL 2011 WWW.PSDMAGAZINE.ORG
the high school chart in Figure 7h, follow up to the curve,
and then follow left to nd the required recovery at 0.15 gph
per student.
1,000 x 3 = 3,000 gallons storage t
1,000 x 0.15 = 150 gph recovery t
If electric, 150 4.1 = 36.6 kW t
Example 5A
For the same high school, the demand is 1 gallon of storage
per student. Find 1 gph on the bottom of the high school
chart in Figure 7h, follow up to the curve, and then follow
left to nd the required recovery at 0.5 gph per student.
1,000 x 1 = 1,000 gallons storage t
1,000 x 0.5 = 500 gph recovery t
If electric, 500 4.1 = 122 kW t
Example 5 provides 3,150 gph, while Example 5A provides
1,500 gph. Which is correct?
ey both are. e apparent discrepancy is in the fact that
this method relies on curves, so the relationships between
storage and recovery are not linear. e hot water storage
capacity provides a buer that reduces the recovery capac-
A. DORMITORIES B. MOTELS
E. FOOD SERVICE F. APARTMENT BUILDINGS
FIGURE 7 RECOVERY AND STORAGE CAPACITIES FOR VARIOUS BUILDINGS
ity required. When more is stored, you can draw that down
when the demand exceeds the recovery. When less is stored,
you dont have that extra cushion, and you need to recover
at a rate closer to the demand rate. e total maximum gph
delivered may not be the same because Example 5 provides a
greater reserve storage buer, whereas Example 5A does not.
However, Example 5A has a greater recovery capacity and
may be more ecient, depending on the particular usage
parameters of the individual project. en again, maybe you
do not have a large enough electrical service available for the
second scenario.
SUMMARY
e mission of this article was to provide three distinct
methods of evaluating domestic hot water demand loads and
to demonstrate some methods of satisfying that demand.
While enough information was provided to do that, you
should know that some thought is required beyond pure
calculations. is is where the engineer takes precedence.
e computer can only take it so farthe engineer needs to
make the nal selection. Be the engineer!
APRIL 2011 Plumbing Systems & Design 21
C. NURSING HOMES D. OFFICE BUILDINGS
G. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS H. HIGH SCHOOLS
David E. DeBord, CPD, LEED AP, ARCSA AP, is a plumbing engineer and senior associate at Environmental Systems Design in Chicago and has more than 30 years in the
consulting business. He currently serves as the Legislative Vice President of ASPE. He is also an Adjunct Assistant Professor at Illinois Institute of Technology, is a member of
the American Solar Energy Society, American Rainwater Catchment Systems Association, Geothermal Heat Pump Consortium, and USGBC, and serves on ICC and IAPMO
code committees. For more information or to comment on this article, e-mail articles@psdmagazine.org.
FIGURE 7 RECOVERY AND STORAGE CAPACITIES FOR VARIOUS BUILDINGS
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