HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY The study of the structure and function of the human body Knowledge of the

structure and function of the human body is the basis for understanding disease.

ANATOMY - The scientific discipline that investigates the structure of the body - The word Anatomy means to dissect or cut apart and separate, the parts of the body for study. - Examines the relationship between the structure of the body and its function. 2 Basic approaches to the study of anatom y: 1. Systemic Anatomy (The Study of the Body By Systems) 2. Regional Anatomy (The study of the organization of the body by areas)

*Surface Anatomy - The study of external features, such as bony projections, which serve as landmarks for location deeper structures

*Anatomical Imaging - Involves the use of X-rays, ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and other technologies to create pictures of internal structures PHYSIOLOGY The scientific discipline that deals with the processes or functions of living things.

MAJOR GOALS OF PHYSIOLOGY: 1. To understand and predict the body s responses to stimuli 2. To understand how the body maintains conditions within a narrow range of values in the presence of a continually changing environment. PHYSIOLOGY IS DIVIED ACCORDING TO: 1. The organisms involved 2. The levels of organization within a given organism

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY Cellular Physiology&Systemic Physiology both emphasize specific organizational levels. STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION 1. Chemical Level a. Involves interactions between atoms, which are tiny building blocks of matter. b. Atoms combine to form molecules. 2. Cell Level a. Cells are basic structural and functional units of organisms b. Molecules combine to form organelles, which are the small structures that make up cells. 3. Tissue Level a. A tissue is a group of similar cells an the materials surrounding them b. 4 primary tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. 4. Organ Level a. Composed of 2 or more tissue types that together perform one or more common functions. 5. Organ System Level a. An organ system is a group of organs classified as a unit because of a common function. b. There are 11 major organ systems i. Integumentary ii. Skeletal iii. Muscular iv. Lymphatic v. Respiratory vi. Digestive vii. Nervous viii. Endocrine ix. Cardiovascular x. Urinary xi. Reproductive 6. Organism Level a. Any living thing considered as a whole.

LIFE The most important common feature of all organisms. THE 6 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE 1. Organization The condition in which the parts of an organism have specific relationships to each other and the parts interact to perform specific functions.

2. Metabolism The sum of chemical and physical changes taking place in an organism.

3. Responsiveness The ability of an organism to sense changes in its internal and external environment and make adjustments that help maintain its life.

4. Growth Results in an increase in size of all or part if the organism

5. Development The changes an organism undergoes through time Begins with fertilization and ends at death Usually involves growth, but it also involves differentiation  Differentiation is change in cell structure and function from generalized to specialized

6. Reproduction The formation of new cells or new organisms.

HOMEOSTASIS It is the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body. A small amount of fluid surrounds most cells of the body. Normal cell functions depend on the maintenance of the cells fluid environment within a narrow range of conditions. (Temperature, volume, and chemical content) o These conditions are called variables because their values can change. Homeostatic mechanisms, such as sweating or shivering, normally maintain body temperature near an ideal normal value. o Normal value or Set Point o Body temperature increases and decreases slightly around the set point, producing a normal range of values. As long as body temperatures remain within this normal range, homeostasis is maintained. Disease disrupts homeostasis and sometimes results in death.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISMS Regulates most systems of the body and maintains homeostasis Negative means that any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is resisted. It doesn t prevent variation but maintains it within a normal range. Three components o Receptor monitors the value of a variable. o Control Center Receives information about the variable from the receptor, establishes the set point, and controls the effector. o Effector Produces responses that change the value of the variable.

POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISMS Not homeostatic and are rare in healthy individuals. Positive implies that, when a deviation from a normal value occurs, the response of the system is to make the deviation even greater. It usually creates a cycle leading away from homeostasis sometimes resulting in death.

BODY POSITIONS

1. Anatomical Position Refers to a person standing erect with the face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hand facing forward. Relational descriptions are always based on the anatomical position, no matter the actual position of the body

2. Supine A person lying face upward

3. Prone A person lying face downward

DIRECTIONAL TERMS 1. Left and Right Retained directional terms in anatomical terminology

2. Superior and Inferior / Cephalic and Caudal Superior is synonymous with Cephalic which means toward the head Inferior is synonymous with Caudal which means toward the tail o The terms cephalic and caudal can be used to describe directional movements on the trunk, but not used to describe directional movements on the limbs.

3. Anterior and Posterior / Ventral and Dorsal Anterior means that which goes before & Posterior means the back Ventral means Belly & Dorsal means the back

4. Proximal and Distal Proximal is closer to the point of attachment Distal is farther to the point of attachment

5. Lateral and Medial Lateral means away from the midline Medial means toward the midline

6. Superficial and Deep Superficial refers to a structure close to the surface of the body. Deep is toward the interior of the body.

BODY PARTS AND REGIONS APPENDICULAR REGION Upper Limb (Part of Appendicular Region) a. Arm extends from the shoulder to the elbow b. Forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist c. Wrist d. Hand II. Lower Limb (Part of Appendicular Region) a. Thigh extends from hip to knee b. Leg extends from knee to ankle c. Ankle d. Foot AXIAL REGION / CENTRAL REGION a. Head b. Neck c. Trunk i. Thorax (Chest) ii. Abdomen (Region Between the Thorax and the Pelvis) 1. Four Quadrants a. Right-upper b. Right-lower c. Left-upper d. Left-lower 2. Nine Regions a. Epigastric (upper) b. Right & Left Hypochondriac (upper) c. Umbilical (middle) d. Right & LeftLumbar (middle) e. Hypogastric (lower) f. Right & LeftIliac (lower) PLANES (imaginary flat surfaces) A. Sagittal Plane a. Runs vertically through the body and separates it into left and right parts. B. Median Plane a. A sagittal plane that passes through the midline of the body and divides it into equal right and left parts. C. Transverse Plane / Horizontal Plane a. It runs parallel to the surface of the ground and divides the body into superior and inferior parts. D. Frontal / Coronal Plane a. It runs vertically from right to left and divides the body into anterior and posterior parts I.

SECTIONS A. Longitudinal Section (a cut through the long axis of the organ) B. Transverse Section or Cross Section(a cut at a right angle to the long axis) C. Oblique Section (a cut other than a right angle to the long axis) BODY CAVITIES Body Cavities:  Cranial Cavity  Vertebral Cavity  Thoracic Cavity  Abdominal Cavity  Pelvic Cavity The trunk contains three cavities that do not open to the outside of the body: The Thoracic Cavity, Abdominal Cavity and Pelvic Cavity .

A. Thoracic Cavity -The ribcage surrounds the thoracic cavity, and the muscular diaphragm separates it from the abdominal cavity. - A median structure called the mediastinum divides the thoracic cavity into right and left parts. *The Mediastinum is a partition that contains: >The heart, thymus, trachea, esophagus and other structures B. Abdominal Cavity Abdominal muscles primarily enclose the abdominal cavity, which contains the: stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas and kidneys.

C. Pelvic Cavity Pelvic bones encase the small space known as the pelvic cavity, where the urinary bladder, part of the large intestine, and the internal reproductive organs are housed. o The abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity are not physically separated and they are sometimes called the abdominopelvic cavity.

SEROUS MEMBRANES Serous membranes cover the organs of the trunk cavities and line the trunk cavities. o Visceral Serous Membrane  The inner wall in contact with the organ o Parietal Serous Membrane  The outer wall of the serous membrane o Cavity o Serous Fluid  A thin, lubricating film produced by the membrane that fills the cavity.  As an organ rubs against another organ or against the body wall the serous fluid and smooth serous membranes function to reduce friction. The thoracic cavity contains three serous membrane-lined cavities: o A Pericardial Cavity  It surrounds the heart y Visceral pericardium covers the heart y Parietal pericardium lines the connective tissue sac containing the heart o The visceral and parietal pericardium contains pericardial fluid. o Two Pleural Cavities  It surrounds the lungs (one pleural cavity for each lung) y Visceral Pleura covers the lungs y Parietal Pleura lines the inner surface of the thoracic wall, the lateral surfaces of the mediastinum, and the superior surface of the diaphragm. y Pleural Cavity located between the visceral pleura and parietal pleura and contains pleural fluid. The abdominopelvic cavity contains a serous membrane lined cavity called the peritoneal cavity:  Visceral Peritoneum covers many of the organs of the abdominopelvic cavity.  Parietal Peritoneum lines the wall of the abdominopelvic cavity and the inferior surface of the diaphragm.  Peritoneal Cavity located between the visceral peritoneum and parietal peritoneum and contains peritoneal fluid.

MESENTERIES o Consist of two layers of peritoneum fused together. o It connects the visceral peritoneum of some abdominopelvic organs to the parietal peritoneum on the body wall or to the visceral peritoneum of other abdominopelvic organs. o They anchor the organs to the body wall and provide a pathway for nerves and blood vesselsto reach the organs.

 

Other abdominopelvic Organs are more closely attached to the body, and do not have mesenteries. Parietal peritoneum covers these organs, which are said to be retroperitoneal. (The Kidneys, the Pancreas, parts of the intestines, the urinary bladder and the Adrenal Glands)

TERMINOLOGY, ETYMOLOGY, ETC. Physiology (Study of Nature) Organelles (organon, a tool + -elle, small) Tissue (texo, to weave) Organ (A Tool) Metabolism (Metabole, Change) Homeostasis (Homeo-, the same + stasis, standing) Superior (L. higher) Inferior (L. lower) Cephalic (G. kephale, head) Caudal (L. Cauda, a tail) Anterior (L. before) Posterior (L. posterus, following) Ventral (L. ventr-, belly) Dorsal (L. dorsum, back) Proximal (L. proximus, nearest) Distal (L. di- + sto, to stand apart or be distant) Lateral (L. latus, side) Medial (L. medialis, middle) Superficial (L. superficialis, toward the surface) Deep (O.E. deop, deep) Mediastinum(wall) Visceral (organ) Parietal (wall) Pericardial (around the heart) Pleural (associated with the ribs) Peritoneal (to stretch over)

ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY A. Lymphatic System - Removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance, and transorts fats from the digestive tract. B. Respiratory System - Exchanges Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide between the blood and air and regulates blood pH. C.Digestive System - Performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of wastes. D. Integumentary System -Provides protection, regulates temperature, reduces water loss, and produces vitamin D precursors. E. Skeletal System - Provides protection and support, allows body movements, produces blood cells, and stores minerals and fat. F. Muscular System - Produces body movement, maintains posture, and produces body heat. G. Nervous System - A major regulatory system that detects sensations and controls movements, physiologic processes, and intellectual functions. H. Endocrine System - A major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many other functions. I. Cardiovascular System -Transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones thoughout the body; plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of body temperature. J. Urinary System - Removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance. K. Reproductive System (female)-Produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal development, milk for the newborn, & hormones that influence sexual functions and behaviors. (male) - Produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and produces hormones that influence sexual functions.

BODY PARTS AND REGIONS Frontal (forehead) Antebrachial(Forearm) Orbital (Eye) Carpal (Wrist) Nasal (Nose) Manual (Hand) Oral (Mouth) Palmar (Palm) Otic (Ear) Digital (Fingers) Buccal (Cheek) Dorsum (Back of Hand) Mental (Chin) Pelvic (Pelvis) Cranial (Skull) Inguinal (Groin) Cervical (Neck) Pubic (Genital) Occipital (Base of Skull) Coxal (Hip) Nuchal(Back of Neck) Sacral (Between Hips) Clavicular (Collar Bone) Gluteal(Buttock) Pectoral (Chest) Perineal (Perineum) Sternal (Breastbone) Femoral (Thigh) Mammary (Breast) Patellar (Kneecap) Abdominal (Abdomen) Popliteal (Hollow Behind Knee) Umbilical (Navel) Crural (Leg) Dorsal (Back) Sural (Calf) Vertebral (Spinal Column) Pedal (Foot) Lumbar (Loin) Talus (Ankle) Scapular (Shoulder Blade) Dorsum( Top of Foot) Acrominal(Point of Shoulder) Digital (Toes) Axillary (Armpit) Plantar (Sole) Brachial (Arm) Calcaneal (Heel) Antecubital (Front of Elbow) Olecranon (Point of Elbow)