GROUNDING SYSTEMS GROUNDING SYSTEMS

Part Part 11
11
Part Part 11
Professor Ahdab Elmorshedy Professor Ahdab Elmorshedy
Reference: Reference:
High Voltage Engineering Theory and High Voltage Engineering Theory and
Practice, Text Book, Marcel Dekker Inc. NY, Practice, Text Book, Marcel Dekker Inc. NY,
USA, USA, 2000 2000..
Mazen Abdel Mazen Abdel--Salam, Hussein Anis, Ahdab Salam, Hussein Anis, Ahdab
Elmorshedy, Roshedy Radwan. Elmorshedy, Roshedy Radwan.
22
Elmorshedy, Roshedy Radwan. Elmorshedy, Roshedy Radwan.
Grounding Systems, Grounding Systems, Chapter ( Chapter (13 13). ).
Overvoltages on Power Systems , Chapter Overvoltages on Power Systems , Chapter
((14 14). ).
High High--Voltage Cables Voltage Cables Chapter ( Chapter (12 12). ).
The objective of a grounding system are:
1. To provide safety to personnel during normal and fault
conditions by limiting step and touch potential.
2. To assure correct operation of electrical/electronic
devices.
3. To prevent damage to electrical/electronic apparatus.
4. To dissipate lightning strokes.
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4. To dissipate lightning strokes.
5. To stabilize voltage during transient conditions and to
minimize the probability of flashover during transients.
6. To divert stray RF energy from sensitive audio, video,
control, and computer equipment.
A safe grounding design has two objectives:
1. To provide means to carry electric currents
into the earth under normal and fault
conditions without exceeding any operating
and equipment limits or adversely affecting
continuity of service.
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continuity of service.
2. To assure that a person in the vicinity of
grounded facilities is not exposed to the
danger of critical electric shock.
The PRIMARY goal of the grounding
system throughout any facilities is
SAFETY.
Why ground at all?
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Why ground at all?
PERSONNEL SAFETY FIRST
EQUIPMENT PROTECTION SECOND
The three main types are:
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING (SAFETY)
What are the three main types
of grounding?
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EQUIPMENT GROUNDING (SAFETY)
SYSTEM GROUNDING
LIGHTNING/SURGE GROUNDING
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The The soil soil resistivity resistivity is is the the single single most most
important important factor factor affecting affecting the the resistance resistance of of
the the ground ground system system..
Most Most soils soils behave behave both both as as aa conductor conductor of of
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Most Most soils soils behave behave both both as as aa conductor conductor of of
resistance resistance R, R, and and as as aa dielectric dielectric..
For For high high frequency frequency and and steep steep--front front
waves waves penetrating penetrating aa very very high high resistive resistive
soil, soil, the the earth earth may may be be represented represented by by aa
parallel parallel connection connection of of resistance resistance R, R,
capacitance capacitance C, C, and and aa gap gap..
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capacitance capacitance C, C, and and aa gap gap..
For For low low frequencies frequencies and and dc dc the the charging charging
current current is is negligible negligible comparing comparing to to the the
leakage leakage current, current, and and the the earth earth can can be be
represented represented by by aa pure pure resistance resistance RR..
Soil Characteristics Soil Characteristics
Soil Soil type type.. Soil Soil resistivity resistivity varies varies widely widely
depending depending on on soil soil type, type, from from as as low low as as 11
Ohm Ohm--meter meter for for moist moist loamy loamy topsoil topsoil to to almost almost
10 10, ,000 000 Ohm Ohm--meters meters for for surface surface limestone limestone..
10 10
10 10, ,000 000 Ohm Ohm--meters meters for for surface surface limestone limestone..
Moisture Moisture content content is is one one of of the the controlling controlling
factors factors in in earth earth resistance resistance because because electrical electrical
conduction conduction in in soil soil is is essentially essentially electrolytic electrolytic..
The The resistivity resistivity of of most most soils soils rises rises abruptly abruptly
when when moisture moisture content content is is less less than than 15 15 to to
20 20 percent percent by by weight, weight, but but is is affected affected very very
little little above above 20 20 percent percent..
The The moisture moisture alone alone is is not not the the predominant predominant
11 11
The The moisture moisture alone alone is is not not the the predominant predominant
factor factor influencing influencing the the soil soil resistivity resistivity..
If If the the water water is is relatively relatively pure, pure, it it will will be be of of
high high resistivity resistivity and and may may not not provide provide the the
soil soil with with adequate adequate conductivity conductivity..
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13 13
The influence of moisture content
14 14
The influence of temperature
15 15
Typical variations in soil resistivity as a function of
moisture, temperature and soil content
16 16
Resistivities of different solutions
The The soluble soluble salts, salts, acids acids or or alkali alkali
presented presented in in soil soil influence influence considerably considerably
the the soil soil resistivity resistivity..
The The most most commonly commonly used used salting salting materials materials
are are sodium sodium chloride chloride ((common common salt), salt), copper copper
sulfate sulfate and and magnesium magnesium sulfate sulfate..
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sulfate sulfate and and magnesium magnesium sulfate sulfate..
Different Different types types of of salts salts have have varying varying
depletion depletion rates rates;; consequently, consequently, different different
types types may may be be combined combined to to produce produce the the
optimum optimum depletion depletion and and conditioning conditioning
characteristics characteristics..
The The temperature temperature effect effect on on soil soil resistivity resistivity
is is almost almost negligible negligible for for temperatures temperatures
above above the the freezing freezing points points..
When When temperature temperature drops drops below below water water
freezing freezing point, point, the the resistivity resistivity increases increases
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rapidly rapidly..
Compactness Compactness and and granularity granularity affects affects
soil soil resistivity resistivity in in that that denser denser soils soils generally generally
have have lower lower resistivity resistivity..
The The two two factors factors -- moisture moisture and and salt salt
content content --are are the the most most influential influential ones ones on on
soil soil resistivity resistivity for for aa given given type type of of soil soil..
Therefore Therefore the the chemical chemical treatment treatment of of soil soil
surrounding surrounding ground ground rods rods is is preferable preferable and and
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surrounding surrounding ground ground rods rods is is preferable preferable and and
in in some some cases cases the the only only economically economically
sound sound solution solution in in obtaining obtaining low low impedance impedance
of of the the ground ground system system..
TYPES OF GROUND ELECTRODES TYPES OF GROUND ELECTRODES
Ground Ground electrodes electrodes must must penetrate penetrate into into the the
moisture moisture level level below below the the ground ground level level..
They They consist consist of of aa metal metal (or (or combination combination of of
metals) metals) which which do do not not corrode corrode excessively excessively
20 20
metals) metals) which which do do not not corrode corrode excessively excessively
for for the the period period of of time time they they are are expected expected to to
serve serve..
Because Because of of its its high high conductivity conductivity and and
resistance resistance to to corrosion, corrosion, copper copper is is the the most most
commonly commonly used used material material for for ground ground
electrodes electrodes..
Other Other popular popular materials materials are are hot hot--galvanized galvanized
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Other Other popular popular materials materials are are hot hot--galvanized galvanized
steel, steel, stainless stainless steel steel and and lead lead..
Ground Ground electrodes electrodes may may be be rods, rods, plates, plates,
strips, strips, solid solid section section wire wire or or mats mats..
Three Three types types of of copper copper rods rods are are available available..
Solid Solid Copper Copper--Copper Copper --clad clad steel steel rod rod (copper (copper
shrunk shrunk onto onto the the core) core)--Copper Copper bonded bonded steel steel
core core (copper (copper is is molecularly molecularly bonded bonded to to nickel nickel
plated plated steel steel rod) rod)
Solid Solid copper copper rods rods not not prone prone to to corrosion, corrosion, but but
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Solid Solid copper copper rods rods not not prone prone to to corrosion, corrosion, but but
are are expensive expensive and and difficult difficult to to drive drive into into hard hard
ground ground without without bending bending..
AA steel steel cored cored copper copper rod rod is is used used for for this this
reason, reason, however however those those rods rods that that are are
simply simply clad clad are are prone prone to to the the cladding cladding
tearing tearing away away from from the the core core when when driven driven in in
rocky rocky ground, ground, or or when when bent bent..
This This exposes exposes the the internal internal steel steel core core to to
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This This exposes exposes the the internal internal steel steel core core to to
corrosion corrosion..
The The most most cost cost effective effective solution solution is is the the
molecularly molecularly bonded bonded steel steel cored cored copper copper
rod rod..
There There are are three three components components affecting affecting
grounding grounding electrode electrode resistance resistance::
((11)) The The resistance resistance of of the the electrode electrode which which is is
negligible negligible..
((22)) the the resistance resistance of of the the electrode electrode--to to--soil soil
interface interface area area which which is is negligible negligible
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interface interface area area which which is is negligible negligible
((33)) the the resistance resistance of of the the body body of of earth earth
immediately immediately surrounding surrounding the the electrode electrode..
The The main main part part of of any any electrode electrode resistance resistance is is
that that of of the the body body of of earth earth surrounding surrounding the the
electrode electrode..
GROUND GROUND RESISTANCE RESISTANCE OF OF AN AN ELECTRODE ELECTRODE
Grounding Grounding point point electrode electrode
The The equations equations for for the the resistance resistance of of any any complex complex
system system of of ground ground electrodes electrodes can can be be developed developed
from from the the fundamental fundamental principles principles..
The The starting starting point point for for such such aa development development is is the the
25 25
The The starting starting point point for for such such aa development development is is the the
use use of of aa buried buried metallic metallic electrode electrode with with aa
hemispherical hemispherical base base of of radius radius rr..
It It is is assumed assumed that that the the hemispherical hemispherical base base is is
completely completely buried buried in in the the soil soil..
When When aa current current II enters enters the the ground ground
through through such such an an electrode, electrode, due due to to its its
hemispherical hemispherical base, base, the the current current flows flows
radial radial outward outward as as shown shown in in the the sketch sketch
below below..
dx
dR

=
26 26
A Hemispherical
electrode
2
2 x
dx
dR

=
27 27
Current flow from a Current flow from a
hemisphere in a uniform earth hemisphere in a uniform earth
If If is is the the resistivity resistivity of of the the soil, soil, the the
resistance resistance offered offered by by aa hemispherical hemispherical shell shell
of of thickness thickness dx dx at at aa radial radial distance distance xx from from
the the electrode electrode is is given given by by
2
2
1
x
dx
R
r

=
28 28
Hence, Hence, the the resistance resistance encountered encountered by by
the the ground ground electrode electrode up up to to the the depth depth of of rr
11
is is
2
2 x
R
a

=
|
|

\
|
=
1
1 1
2 r a
R

If If rr
11
is is made made , , the the total total resistance resistance of of the the
ground ground electrode electrode will will be be
This This is is the the maximum maximum resistance resistance of of the the
ground ground electrode electrode..
The The general general equation equation of of the the resistance resistance

1
r
a
R

2
=

29 29
The The general general equation equation of of the the resistance resistance
shown shown above above can can be be modified modified to to aa suitable suitable
form form..
If If aa current current II enters enters the the ground ground electrode, electrode,
the the potential potential drop drop up up to to the the shell shell radius radius of of rr
11
will will be be given given by by
|
|
|

|
= 1
a
R

|
|

\
|
=
1
1 1
2 r a
R

30 30
|
|

\
|
= =

1
1
r
a
IR IR V
|
|

\
=
1
1
2 r a
R

The The general general equation equation for for the the electrode electrode
resistance resistance::
Where Where CC is is the the electrostatic electrostatic capacitance capacitance of of
the the electrode electrode and and its its image image above above earth earth..
C
R

2
=
Q
V =
31 31
rr in in cm cm = = C C of of aa sphere sphere in in cgs cgs units units..
r
Q
V
sphere
0
4
=
r C
V
Q
0
4 = =
At At very very high high values values of of rr
11
,, the the resistance resistance
value value will will approach approach the the value value RR

,, beyond beyond
which which true true ground ground can can be be assumed assumed to to be be
present present..
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The The figure figure below below shows shows the the plots plots of of R, R, VV
and and Vabs Vabs,, the the absolute absolute potential potential with with
respect respect to to the the true true ground ground against against the the
radial radial distance distance rr
11
from from the the electrode electrode..
|
|

\
|
=

1
r
a
IR Vabs
|
|

\
|
= =

1
1
r
a
IR IR V
33 33
|
|

\
|
=
1
2 r
a
a
I
Vabs

1
2 r
I
Vabs

=
34 34
Step and touch voltages
Step and touch voltages Step and touch voltages
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Step and Touch voltages near a grounded Step and Touch voltages near a grounded
structure: structure:
E electrostatic stress (voltage gradient) E electrostatic stress (voltage gradient)
2
2 x
I
i E
x

= =
36 36
2
2 x
x

|
|

\
|
= =

1
2
1 1
2 2
1
1
r a
I
dx
x
I
V
r
a
r

37 37
Step potential Step potential
Step Step potential potential is is the the voltage voltage
between between the the feet feet of of aa person person standing standing
near near an an energized energized grounded grounded object object..
It It is is equal equal to to the the difference difference in in voltage, voltage,
given given by by the the voltage voltage distribution distribution curve, curve,
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given given by by the the voltage voltage distribution distribution curve, curve,
between between two two points points at at different different
distances distances from from the the electrode electrode..
AA person person could could be be at at risk risk of of injury injury
during during aa fault fault simply simply by by standing standing near near
the the grounding grounding point point..
Touch potential Touch potential
Touch Touch potential potential is is the the voltage voltage
between between the the energized energized object object and and the the
feet feet of of aa person person in in contact contact with with the the
object object..
It It is is equal equal to to the the difference difference in in voltage voltage
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It It is is equal equal to to the the difference difference in in voltage voltage
between between the the energized energized object object and and aa point point
some some distance distance away away..
The The touch touch potential potential could could be be nearly nearly the the
full full voltage voltage across across the the grounded grounded object object if if
that that object object is is grounded grounded at at aa point point remote remote
from from the the place place where where the the person person is is in in
contact contact with with it it..
Driven rods Driven rods
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Resistance of driven rods: Resistance of driven rods:
The The Ground Ground Resistance Resistance (R) (R) of of aa single single rod, rod, of of diameter diameter
(d) (d) and and driven driven length length (l) (l) driven driven vertically vertically into into the the soil soil of of
resistivity resistivity (), (), can can be be calculated calculated as as follows follows::
where where:: Soil Soil Resistivity Resistivity in in ohm ohm- -mm

\
|
= 1
8
ln
2 d
l
l
R

41 41
where where:: Soil Soil Resistivity Resistivity in in ohm ohm- -mm
ll Buried Buried Length Length of of the the electrode electrode in in mm
dd Diameter Diameter of of the the electrode electrode in in mm
The The rod rod is is assumed assumed as as carrying carrying current current uniformly uniformly along along its its
rod rod..
Examples Examples
((a) a)20 20mm mm rod rod of of 33m m length length and and Soil Soil resistivity resistivity 50 50 --mm .. ..R= R=16 16..1 1

((b) b)25 25mm mm rod rod of of 22mm length length and and Soil Soil resistivity resistivity 30 30 --mm .. ..R= R=13 13..0 0

Earth resistance shells surrounding a Earth resistance shells surrounding a

vertical earth electrode vertical earth electrode
42 42
The The resistance resistance of of aa single single rod rod is is not not sufficiently sufficiently
low low..
AA number number of of rods rods are are connected connected in in parallel parallel..
They They should should be be driven driven far far apart apart as as possible possible to to
minimize minimize the the overlap overlap among among their their areas areas of of
43 43
minimize minimize the the overlap overlap among among their their areas areas of of
influence influence..
It It is is necessary necessary to to determine determine the the net net
reduction reduction in in the the total total resistance resistance by by
connecting connecting rods rods in in parallel parallel..
The The rod rod is is replaced replaced by by aa hemispherical hemispherical
44 44
The The rod rod is is replaced replaced by by aa hemispherical hemispherical
electrode electrode having having the the same same resistance resistance..
45 45
The interfacing hemisphere
Equivalent hemisphere Equivalent hemisphere

= 1
8
ln
2 2 d
l
l r
eq

=
1
8
ln
l
l
r
eq
46 46
R for large power station = R for large power station = 00..5 5 ohm ohm
R for small power station = R for small power station = 5 5 ohm ohm
R for towers = R for towers = 10 10--30 30 ohm ohm
R for labs = R for labs = 2 2 ohm ohm

1
8
ln
d
l
Rod Electrodes in Parallel Rod Electrodes in Parallel
If If the the desired desired ground ground resistance resistance cannot cannot
be be achieved achieved with with one one ground ground electrode, electrode,
the the overall overall resistance resistance can can be be reduced reduced by by
connecting connecting aa number number of of electrodes electrodes in in
parallel parallel..
47 47
parallel parallel..
These These are are called called arrays arrays of of rod rod
electrodes electrodes..
The The combined combined resistance resistance is is aa function function
of of the the number number and and configuration configuration of of
electrodes, electrodes, the the separation separation between between
them, them, their their dimensions dimensions and and soil soil
resistivity resistivity..
48 48
resistivity resistivity..
Rods Rods in in parallel parallel should should be be spaced spaced at at
least least twice twice their their length length to to utilize utilize the the
full full benefit benefit of of the the additional additional rods rods..
If If the the separation separation of of the the electrodes electrodes is is much much
larger larger than than their their lengths lengths and and only only aa few few
electrodes electrodes are are in in parallel, parallel, then then the the resultant resultant
ground ground resistance resistance can can be be calculated calculated using using the the
ordinary ordinary equation equation for for resistances resistances in in parallel parallel..
49 49
ordinary ordinary equation equation for for resistances resistances in in parallel parallel..
In In practice, practice, the the effective effective ground ground resistance resistance will will
usually usually be be higher higher than than this this..
Typically, Typically, aa 44 rod rod array array may may provide provide an an
improvement improvement of of about about 22..55 to to 33 times times..
An An 88 rod rod array array will will typically typically give give an an
improvement improvement of of may may be be 55 to to 66 times times..
50 50
improvement improvement of of may may be be 55 to to 66 times times..
The multiple driven rod electrode The multiple driven rod electrode
The The driven driven rod rod is is an an economical economical and and simple simple
means means of of making making an an earth earth connection connection but but its its
resistance resistance is is not not sufficiently sufficiently low low..
AA number number of of rods rods are are connected connected in in parallel parallel..
They They should should be be driven driven far far apart apart as as possible possible to to
minimize minimize the the overlap overlap among among their their areas areas of of
51 51
minimize minimize the the overlap overlap among among their their areas areas of of
influence influence..
It It is is necessary necessary to to determine determine the the net net reduction reduction in in
the the total total resistance resistance by by connecting connecting rods rods in in parallel parallel..
The The rod rod is is replaced replaced by by aa hemispherical hemispherical electrode electrode
having having the the same same resistance resistance..
The The method method consists consists of of assuming assuming that that
each each equivalent equivalent hemisphere hemisphere carries carries the the
same same charge charge..
Calculate Calculate the the average average potential potential of of the the
group group of of rods rods..
52 52
group group of of rods rods..
From From this this and and the the total total charge charge the the capacity capacity
and and the the resistance resistance can can be be calculated calculated..
53 53
Rods too close
Two ground Two ground electrodes electrodes
54 54
Equivalent Equivalent
hemisphere hemisphere
Two driven rods: Two driven rods:
Actual value Actual value

+ = + =
d r
I
d
I
r
I
V
1 1
4 2
) 2 / (
2
) 2 / (
1

+ = =
d r I
V
qactual
1 1
4
Re

55 55
Ideal value Ideal value
Overlapping Overlapping
coefficient (screening) coefficient (screening)
r
qideal

4
Re =
1
Re
Re
= =
actual q
ideal q
actual
ideal

Three electrode system Three electrode system

Four electrode system Four electrode system
56 56
57 57
58 58
59 59