Introduction to Thermodynamics

Ability to acquire and explain the basic concepts in thermodynamics

The student should be able to explain: System, boundary and surroundings. Non-flow (control mass, closed) and flow (control volume, open) processes. Intensive and extensive properties, zeroth law of thermodynamics Thermodynamics state (equilibrium) Process (isobaric, isochoric, isothermal), cycles, steady flow process

1.1 System, boundary and surroundings 1.2 Non-flow and flow processes 1.3 Intensive and extensive properties 1.4 Thermodynamic states and equilibrium

What is Thermodynamics?
Greek Words

Therme (heat)

Dynamis (Power)

The study of: Energy Transformation of useless energy (heat) to useful one (work or power) Interaction between energy and matter (liquids and gases) 5

HouseHouse-hold utensils appliances: Air-conditioner, heater, refrigerator Engines: Engines: Automotive, aircraft, rocket Plant/ Factory Refinery, power plants, nuclear power plant

Surroundings System
Boundary

region outside the system

Real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings

region chosen to study the changes of a physical property

fixed Boundary movable

1.2 Non-flow and flow processes

Types of systems: (a) isolated - no heat/ mass transfer across boundary (b) closed(control mass) - only heat transfer across boundary (c) open system(control volume) - heat & mass transfer across boundary

Non-flow processes

Flow processes

Forms of Energy
Forms of energy - thermal, mechanical, chemical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic & nuclear E = total energy i.e sum of all energy in a system e = total energy = E (kJ/kg) mass m Forms of energy that make up the total energy of a system :

Energy form macroscopic microscopic

energy of a system as a whole with respect to some outside reference frames, e.g. KE, PE - related to molecular structure of a system and the degree of molecular activity - independent of outside reference frames

Sum of all microscopic forms of energy = Internal Energy (U) Macroscopic forms of energy

Kinetic energy (KE) - result of motion relative to some reference frame KE = mv2/2 (kJ) where v = velocity of the system relative to some fixed reference frame (m/s) m = mass of an object (kg)

Potential energy (PE) - due to elevation in a gravitational field PE = mgh (kJ) where g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2 h = elevation of center of gravity of a system relative to some arbitrarily plane (m)

Therefore, E = U + KE + PE (kJ)
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Internal energy - sum of all microscopic forms of energy of a system related to - 1) molecular structure 2) degree of molecular activity I. E KE molecular translation molecular rotation electron translation molecular vibration electron spin nuclear spin

sensible energy depend on the temperature

PE

Latent heat - Internal energy associated to with the phase of a system - phase -change process can occur without a change in the chemical composition of a system
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Property - any characteristic of a system that describes a system Some familiar properties are P, T, V and m. But can be extended to include less familiar ones such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion coefficient and etc Density (mass per unit volume), =
m (kg/m3) depends on T & P V

Specific gravity or relative density (ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard substance at a specified temperature) e.g. for water, = s H O V Specific volume, = (m3/kg)
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Intensive Properties Extensive

independent of the size/extent of the system dependent on the size/extent of the system

T, P, age, colour m V total E

Specific properties - extensive properties per unit mass E.g. specific volume (v = V/m) and specific total energy (e = E/m)
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State

a set of properties that describe the condition of a system at certain time

At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values. If the value of one property changes, the state will change to a different one. Equilibrium state steady state/ state of balance & no change with time T is the same throughout the system P is the same throughout m of each phase unchanged chemical composition unchanged

Thermal equilibrium Mechanical equilibrium Phase equilibrium Chemical equilibrium

Thermal equilibrium (uniform temperature)

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Process one Path passes

Any change that a system undergoes from equilibrium state to another Series of states through which a system during a process

Need to specify the initial & final states of the process, as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.

When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to equilibrium state at all times. Sufficiently slow process that allows the system to adjust to itself internally so that properties in one part of the system do not change any faster than those at other parts. Slow compression (quasi-equilibrium) Very fast compression (non-quasi equilibrium)

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The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a particular property remains constant. Isothermal Process a process when T remains constant Isobaric Isochoric/ Isometric
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P constant specific volume v remains constant Process B

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Process A
V

A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state at the end of the process. For a cycle, the initial & final states are identical
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Pressure
P =
Force Area

F Unit = N/m2 or Pa A

Gas or liquid Pressure Solids Stress Common units 1 bar = 105 Pa 1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 1.01325 bars 1 kgf/ cm2 = 0.9807 bar = 0.96788 atm English unit Ibf/in2 or psi Absolute pressure Gage pressure Vacuum pressure Actual pressure at at given position & measured relative to absolute vacuum Difference between absolute pressure & local atmospheric pressure Difference between atmospheric pressure & absolute pressure

Absolute, gage & vacuum pressures are all +ve quantities & related to each other by: Pgage = Pabs - Patm (for pressure above Patm) Pvac = Patm - Pabs (for pressure below Patm)

In thermo, absolute pressure is always used unless stated.

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Manometer
Small to moderate pressure difference are measured by a manometer and a differential fluid column of height h corresponds to a pressure difference between the system and the surrounding of the manometer.

P = g h

( kPa )

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Other Pressure Measurement Devices

Bourdon Tube

Modern pressure sensors: 1) Pressure transducers 2) Piezoelectric material

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Example 1.1
A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 5.8 psi at a location where the atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psi. Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber. Solution: Using Pvac = Patm - Pabs = 14.5 - 5.8 = 8.7 psi
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A vacuum gage connected to a tank reads 30 kPa at a location where the atmospheric pressure is 98 kPa. What is the absolute pressure in the tank? Solution: Pabs = Patm - Pgage = 98 kPa - 30 kPa = 68 kPa

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Example 1.3
A pressure gage connected to a valve stern of a truck tire reads 240 kPa at a location where the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. What is the absolute pressure in the tire, in kPa and in psia? Solution: Pabs = Patm - Pgage = 100 kPa + 240 kPa = 340 kPa

The pressure in psia is Pabs = 340 kPa =

14.7 psia = 49.3 psia 101.3kPa

What is the gage pressure of the air in the tire, in psig? Pgage = Pabs - Patm = 49.3 psia - 14.7 psia = 34.6 psig
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Example 1.4
Both a gage and a manometer are attached to a gas tank to measure its pressure. If the pressure gage reads 80 kPa, determine the distance between the two fluid levels of the manometer if the fluids is mercury whose density is 13,600 kg/m3.

P h= g
103 N / m3 80 kPa kPa h= kg m 1N 13600 3 9.807 2 m s kg m / s2 = 0.6 m
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Measure of hotness and coldness Transfer of heat from higher to lower temp. until both bodies attain the same temp. At that point, heat transfer stops and the two bodies have reached thermal equilibrium requirement: equality of temperature Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium when they have reached the same temperature. If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. Temperature scales: Celcius (C) Fahrenheit (F) Kelvin (K) Rankine (R)
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Conversion:

T (K) = T ( oC) + 273.15 T (R) = T (oF) + 459.67 T (R) = 1.8 T(K) T (oF) = 1.8 T(oC) + 32
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Conversion: T(K) = T(C) + 273.15 T(R) = T(F) + 459.67 T K = (T2C +273.15) - (T1C + 273.15) = T2C - T1C = TC T R = TF

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Example 1.5
Consider a system whose temperature is 18C. Express this temperature in K, R and F. Ans: Ans: 291 K, 523.8 R, 64.4 oF

Example 1.6
The temperature of a system drops by 27F during a cooling process. Express this drop in temperature in C, K, R

Ans: 15 oC, 15 K, 27 R Ans:

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