ECE 250 Electronic Devices

ECE 250
Electronic Device Modeling

ECE 250 Electronic Devices

Introduction to Semiconductor Physics

You should really take a semiconductor device physics course. p y We can only cover a few basic ideas and some simple calculations. calculations

ECE 250 Electronic Devices

Electronic Devices
Most electronic devices are made out of semiconductors, insulators, and conductors. Semiconductors
Old Days Germanium (Ge) Now Silicon (Si) Now Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) used for high speed and optical devices. devices New Silicon Carbide (SiC) High voltage Schottky diodes.

ECE 250 Electronic Devices

Elements
Elements in the periodic table are grouped by the number of electrons in their valence y shell (most outer shell).
Conductors Valence shell is mostly empty (1 electron) Insulators Valence shell is mostly full y Semiconductors Valence shell is half full. (Or is it half empty?)

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Semiconductors
Silicon and Germanium are group 4 elements they have 4 electrons in their y valence shell.
Valence Electron Si

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Silicon
When two silicon atoms are placed close to one another, the valence electrons are , shared between the two atoms, forming a covalent bond.
Covalent bond

Si

Si

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Silicon
Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

ECE 250 Electronic Devices Si Si Si Si Si

Silicon

An i A important property of the 5-atom t t t f th 5 t silicon lattice structure is that valence electrons are available on the outer edge of the silicon crystal so that other silicon y atoms can be added to form a large single silicon crystal.

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Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

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Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

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At 0 K each electron is in its lowest energy K, state so each covalent bond position is filled. If a small electric field is applied to the material, no electrons will move because they are bound to their individual atoms. atoms => At 0 K, silicon is an insulator.

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Silicon
As temperature increases, the valence electrons gain thermal energy. g gy If a valence electron gains enough energy, it may break its covalent bond and and move away from its original position. This electron is free to move within the crystal.

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Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si + Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

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Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si + Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

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Si Si Si

Since the net charge of a crystal is zero, if a negatively (-) charged electron breaks its bond and moves away from its original position, a positively charged empty state is left in its original position.

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Semiconductors Semicond ctors

As temperature increases, more bonds are p broken creating more negative free p y g electrons and more positively charged empty states. (Number of free electrons is a p ) function of temperature.) To break a covalent bond, a valence electron must gain a minimum energy Eg, called the energy band gap. (Number of free electrons is a function of Eg.)

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Insulators
Elements that have a large energy band gap of 3 to 6 eV are insulators because at room temperature, essentially no free electrons exist. Note: an eV is an electron volt. It is the amount of energy an electron will gain if it is accelerated through a 1 volt potential.

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Electron Volt
1 eV V = = =

coul (1 volt ) l l joule 19 1.602 10 coul 1 coulomb 1.602 10 19 joules

19

(1.602 10

Also, 1 eV = 1.518 10-22 BTU, but who cares.

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Conductors
Elements that have a small energy band gap are conductors. These elements have a large number of free electrons at room temperature because the electrons need very little energy to escape from their covalent bonds. bonds

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Semiconductors
Semiconductors have a band gap energy of about 1 eV
Silicon = 1.1 eV GaAs = 1.4 eV Ge = 0.66 eV

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Empty States
An electron that has sufficient energy and is adjacent to an empty state may move into j py y the empty state, leaving an empty state behind.

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Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si + Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si

Si Si

Si Si This electron can fill the empty state. Si Si Si Si Empty state originally here.

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Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si + Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Empty state now here. Si

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Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si + Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

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Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si + Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

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Empty States
Moving empty states can give the appearance that positive charges move through the material. This moving empty state is modeled as a positively charged particle called a hole. In semiconductors, two types of particles contribute to the current: positively charged holes and negatively charged electrons.

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Carrier Concentrations
The concentrations of holes and free electrons are important quantities in the p q behavior of semiconductors. Carrier concentration is given as the number of particles per unit volume, or Carrier concentration = #

cm

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Intrinsic Semioconductor
Definition An intrinsic semiconductor is a single crystal semiconductor with no other g y types of atoms in the crystal.
Pure silicon Pure germanium Pure gallium arsenide. arsenide

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Carrier Concentration
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of holes and free electrons are the same because they are thermally generated. If an electron breaks its covalent bond we have one free electron and one hole. In an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of holes and free electrons are the same.

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Intrinsic Semiconductors
= the concentration of free electrons in an intrinsic semiconductor. = the concentration of holes in an intrinsic semiconductor.

ni

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g Eg ni = BT e p exp 2 KT B and Eg are determined by the properties of the semiconductor. E = band gap energy (eV) Eg b d ( V) B = material constant
3 2

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

# cm3 o K

( )( )

3 2

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Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

ni = BT
3 2

g Eg exp e p 2 KT

T = temperature (K) K = Boltzmanns constant = 86.210-6 eV/K Boltzmann s 86 210 6 eV/ K

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Material Constants
Material Silicon Gallium Arsenide Germanium Eg (eV) 1.12 1.4 0.66

# 3 o cm K

( )( )

3 2

5.231015 2.101014 1.661014

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Important Note: Book B k uses a slightly different li htl diff t No o ! Notation!

Eg ni = BT exp KT
3

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Book Material Constants

Material Silicon Eg (eV) 1.12

# 3 o 6 cm K

( )( )

5.41031

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Example
Find the intrinsic carrier concentration of free electrons and holes in a silicon semiconductor at room temperature.

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MathCAD
19 eV ( 1.602 10 coul) 1 volt

K B := 86.2 10

6 eV

T := 300 K Bsi := 5.23 10 Egsi := 1.12 eV

15

cm K

1
1.5

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MathCAD
Egsi ni := BsiT exp 2 K B T
1.5

ni = 1 5 10 1.5

10 1

cm

The concentration of silicon atoms in an intrinsic semiconductor is 51022 atoms/cm3.

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Extrinsic Semiconductors
Since the concentrations of free electrons and holes is small in an intrinsic semiconductor, only small currents are p possible. Impurities can be added to the semiconductor to increase the concentration of free electrons and holes.

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Extrinsic Semiconductors
An impurity would have one less or one more electron in the valance shell than silicon. Impurities for group 4 type atoms (silicon) would come from group 3 or group 5 elements. elements

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Extrinsic Semiconductors
The most common group 5 elements are phosphorous and arsenic. Group 5 elements have 5 electrons in the valence shell. Four of the electrons fill the covalent bonds in the silicon crystal structure. The 5th electron is loosely bound to the impurity atom and is a free electron at room temperature.

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Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si P Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

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Extrinsic Semiconductors
The group 5 atom is called a donor impurity since it donates a free electron. p y The group 5 atom has a net positive charge that is fixed in the crystal lattice and cannot move. With a donor impurity free electrons are impurity, created without adding holes.

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Extrinsic Semiconductors
Adding impurities is called doping. A semiconductor doped with donor impurities has excess free electron and is called an n-type semiconductor n type semiconductor.

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Extrinsic Semiconductors
The most common group 3 impurity is boron which has 3 valence electrons. Since boron has only 3 valence electrons, the boron atom can only bond with three of its neighbors leaving one open bond position. position

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Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si B Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

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Extrinsic Semiconductors
At room temperature, silicon has free electrons that will fill the open bond p position, creating a hole in the silicon atom whence it came. The boron atom has a net negative charge because of the extra electron, but the boron electron atom cannot move.

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Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si B Si Si

Si Si + Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si

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Extrinsic Semiconductors
Since boron accepts a valence electron, it is called an acceptor impurity. p p y Acceptor impurities create excess holes but do not create free electrons. electrons A semiconductor doped with an acceptor impurity has extra holes and is called a p-type semiconductor.

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Carrier Concentrations
For any semiconductor in thermal equilibrium nopo=ni2, where q no = the concentration of free electrons. po = the concentration of holes. holes ni = the intrinsic carrier concentration

ni = BT

Eg exp 2 KT

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Extrinsic Carrier Concentrations

For an n-type semiconductor with donor impurities, the concentration of donor p , impurities is Nd with units #/cm3. If Nd >> ni, then the concentration of free electrons in the n-type semiconductor is approximately no Nd.

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Extrinsic Carrier Concentrations

Since nopo=ni2 for any semiconductor in thermal equilibrium, and For an n-type semiconductor, no Nd
ni po = Nd
2

Where po is the concentration of holes in the n-type semiconductor.

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Extrinsic Carrier Concentrations

For a p-type semiconductor with acceptor impurities, the concentration of acceptor p , p impurities is Na with units #/cm3. If Na >> ni, then the concentration of holes in the p-type semiconductor is approximately po Na.

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Extrinsic Carrier Concentrations

Since nopo=ni2 for any semiconductor in thermal equilibrium, and For a p-type semiconductor, po Na
ni no = Na
2

Where no is the concentration of free electrons in the p-type semiconductor.

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Current in Semiconductors
The two processes that cause free electrons and holes to move in a semiconductor are drift and diffusion. Drift the movement of holes and electrons due to an electric field Diffusion the movement of holes and electrons due to variations in concentrations.

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Drift Current
Assume that an electric field is applied to to a semiconductor. This field acts on holes and electrons.

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Drift Current-Electrons
r E
s vdn
r Jn
n-type

Electrons The Electric field creates a force in the opposite direction of the electric field Attractive. vdn i the drift velocity of is h d if l i f electrons. Jn i the current density is th t d it due to electrons.

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Drift Current-Electrons
The electrons acquire a drift velocity of

r s vdn = n E

Where n is the mobility of electrons with units of cm2/(volt-sec). The units of vd are cm/sec. cm/sec dn For low-doped silicon, a typical number is n=1350 cm2/volt-sec 1350 /volt sec.

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Drift Current-Electrons
r s vdn = n E
Th minus sign (-) indicates that the The i i ( ) i di h h electrons move in the opposite direction of the th applied electric field. li d l t i fi ld

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Drift Current Density-Electrons

Current = charge per unit time (coul/sec). Current density = current flowing through a specific area = amps/unit area = coul/(seccm2)

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Drift Current Density-Electrons

J n = envdn = en n E
e = the charge on an electron = 1.60210-19 coulombs. n=concentration of electrons = #/cm3. en=charge/cm3. charge cm charge amp envdn = = = 3 2 2 cm sec sec cm cm

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Drift Current - Holes

r E
Holes The Electric field creates a force in the same direction of the electric field. vdp i the drift velocity of is h d if l i f holes. Jp i the current density is th t d it due to holes.

r vdp

r Jp
n-type

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Drift Current-Holes
The holes acquire a drift velocity of

Where p is the mobility of holes with units of cm2/( lt f /(volt-sec). ) The units of vdp are cm/sec. For low-doped silicon, a typical number is dp=480 cm2/volt-sec.

r s vdp = p E

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Mobility - Aside
Note that n> p. Electrons are faster than holes. holes P-type and n-type devices operate the same. However, n-type However n type devices are faster. faster

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Drift Current Density-Holes

J p = epvdp = ep p E
e = the charge on an electron = 1.60210-19 coulombs. p=concentration of holes = #/cm3. ep=charge/cm3. charge cm charge amp envdp = = = p 3 2 2 cm sec sec cm cm

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Drift Current
r E r E
+

r vdp

s vdn
r Jn
n-type

r Jp
n-type

Drift current due to holes and electrons is in the same direction.

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Total Drift Current

Since the hole current and the electron current are in the same direction, the , currents add. The total drift current is:

r r r J = en n E + ep p E

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Ohms Law
Another form of Ohms law is J=E is the conductivity of the material material. Noting that

r r r J = en n E + ep p E
and

r v J = E

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Conductivity
We can find the conductivity of a semiconductor as

= en n + ep p

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Diffusion Currents
(Cover Them)

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Excess Carriers
So far we have assumed that the semiconductor is in steady state. y Suppose that we shine light on a semiconductor. semiconductor If the photons have sufficient energy, valence electrons may break their covalent bonds and create pairs of free electrons and holes.

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Excess Carriers
These additional holes and electrons are called excess holes (p) and excess free electrons (n) (n). When excess holes and free electrons are created, these concentration of holes and d h i fh l d free electrons increase above the thermal equilibrium value ilib i l

n = no+ n

p = po + p p

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Excess Carriers
In steady state, the generation of excess carriers will not cause the carrier concentration to increase indefinitely due to a process called recombination. p Electron-Hole Recombination a free electron combines with a hole and both disappear.

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Excess Carriers
Generation Creates free electrons hole p pairs. Recombination Eliminates free electrons and holes in pairs pairs. Excess Carrier Lifetime The mean time over which an excess free electron and hole exist before recombination.