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Solar Energy Vol. 72, No. 6, pp. 459472, 2002 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd S 0 0 3 8 0 9 2 X ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 2 5 7 All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain 0038-092X / 02 / $ - see front matter

SOLAR FIBER-OPTIC MINI-DISH CONCENTRATORS: FIRST EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND FIELD EXPERIENCE
DANIEL FEUERMANN*, JEFFREY M. GORDON** , and MAHMOUD HULEIHIL*
*Department of Solar Energy and Environmental Physics, Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Sede Boqer Campus 84990, Israel **The Pearlstone Center for Aeronautical Engineering Studies, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beersheva 84105, Israel Received 12 March 2002; accepted 19 April 2002 Communicated by JOACHIM LUTHER

AbstractThe experimental realization and eld experience of a recently proposed solar ber-optic mini-dish concentrator are reported. The prototype is 200 mm in diameter. We have repeatably transported concentrated sunlight in a one-millimeter-diameter optical ber and measured ux levels of 1112 kilosuns at a remote target (up to 20 m away). The prototypeassembled from off-the-shelf parts and customized items that rely solely upon existing commercial technologiesproved impervious to dust penetration and condensation. For the particular application of solar surgery, dielectric second-stage concentrators were designed and ber tips were sculpted to boost ux concentration by a factor of 2 to 4, for light extraction into air and tissue, respectively. Our ndings strengthen the feasibility of the efcient and complete de-coupling of the collection and remote delivery of highly concentrated solar radiation. 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. INTRODUCTION

Certain solar applications uniquely require very high photon densities, i.e., high ux concentration. Recent innovations include solar surgery (Feuermann and Gordon, 1998), solar-pumped lasers (Arashi and Kaneda, 1993), the solar-driven synthesis of carbon nanomaterials (Pitts et al., 1993; Flamant et al., 1999) and electricity generation with advanced semiconductor materials (Feuermann and Gordon, 2001a; Reddy et al., 2001). An essential element in the practical realization of these applications is the total separation of the collection and delivery of highly concentrated sunlight, including high efciencies for collection and optical transport. Toward solving this problem in a pragmatic and modular fashion, the use of solar ber-optic mini-dishes was proposed (Cariou et al., 1982; Feuermann and Gordon, 1998, 1999, 2001a; Gordon, 2001). This article constitutes a detailed report on the experimental results and eld experience in which these miniaturized concentrators were translated from

physical and engineering concepts into a functional prototype (Feuermann and Gordon, 2001b). Fig. 1 is a schematic of the mini-dish unit. Fig. 2 includes photographs in the eld of our rst operating prototype (200 mm in diameter, with a focal length of 120 mm), including the remote extraction (delivery) of sunlight at ux levels surpassing 11 kilosuns (i.e., 11 000 suns) from an optical ber 1.0 mm in diameter, at a distance up to 20 m from the mini-dish collector. The sections that follow provide a detailed component-by-component description of the design, assembly, testing and eld measurements. With this itemized accounting, we then proceed to report on the performance and analysis of our outdoor solar experiments on the assembled prototype. This is followed by our observations regarding future generations of improved viable solar ber-optic mini-dishes.

2. PROTOTYPE CONCENTRATOR DESIGN

A paraboloidal dish is specied completely by its diameter D and rim half-angle f. The fnumber of the dish, f 5 (focal length) /(diameter) 5 F /D is related to f by (1)

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel.: 1972-7-659-6923; fax: 1972-7-659-6921; e-mail: jeff@menix.bgu.ac.il 459

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ux that reaches the focal plane (Baum and Strong, 1958). The focal spot diameter d max that accepts essentially all reected rays is (Rabl, 1976) Duss1 1 16f 2d 2 d max 5 ]]]]. 8fs16f 2 2 1d (5)

The corresponding averaged ux concentration is sin 2 (f ) cos 2 (f ) C avg 5 ]]]]]. flux 2 us (6)

For comparison, the thermodynamic limit for ux concentration (in air) is (Rabl, 1976; Welford and Winston, 1989) 1 C max 5 ]. flux u2 s (7)

Fig. 1. Schematic of a solar ber-optic mini-dish. A small at mirror below the focal plane redirects solar rays reected from the dish downward to facilitate practical coupling into an optical ber. Extreme rays are shown traced into the ber, which is enclosed in a protective sleeve. Concentrated sunlight is transported in the optical ber to a remote application illustrated here as solar surgery (Feuermann and Gordon, 1998)with the option of a signicant boost in power density with a nonimaging secondary concentrator at the distal end (Drawing courtesy of New Scientist (Marks, 1999)).

1 /f 5 4 tan(f / 2).

(2)

The diameter d min of the approximately uniform-ux core region of the focal spot is d min 5 2Dfus (3)

where us is the effective solar half-angle (a convolution of the actual size of the solar disk with optical errors in the mini-dish contour, tracker accuracy and ber alignment), which is taken throughout to be sufciently small that sin(us ) us . As justied in Section 6, we adopt a realistic value for us of 0.005 radian. The concentration in the core region is the highest local ux a paraboloidal dish generates (Rabl, 1976) sin (f ) core C flux 5 ]] 2 us
2

(4)

and encompasses a fraction cos 4 (f / 2) of the total

In Section 7, we shall explore how overall ux concentration can be heightened to the thermodynamic limit, at high collection efciency, with dielectric secondary concentrators sculpted from the distal tips of optical bers. When designing for maximum ux concentration from the dish, one selects the ber core diameter d fiber to be d min ; while for maximum efciency designs d fiber will be closer to d max . Furthermore, achieving a reasonably low number of bers per collection area demands systems of relatively low f-number. Fiber core diameters can of course be chosen between d min and d max . A comprehensive study of the associated efciency concentration tradeoff for paraboloidal concentrators covering a wide range of f-numbers was presented in Feuermann et al. (1999). The optimal compromise between efciency and concentration is case-specic, with Feuermann et al. (1999) providing the quantitative tools for such determinations. We selected a mini-dish diameter D 5 200 mm, a focal length F 5 120 mm (hence f 5 458), and an optical ber core diameter d fiber 51.0 mm as a consequence of several considerations. 1. The dish size should be sufciently small that eventual mass production of the dishes, and modularity, would be feasible. 2. The dish should be small enough to permit affordable production of prototypes by a number of companies. 2 3. The number of optical bers per m of minidishes should be as small as possible for eventual large-scale viability. Hence high concentration is required, which in turn demands high rim-angle dishes (Eq. (4)).

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Fig. 2. Photographs of our rst operational prototype in the eld. (a) Photograph of the assembled ber-optic mini-dish, dual-axis tracker, tracker sensors and scope for determining tracker accuracy (foreground). (b) Front view, with a 20-meter long optical ber, where the ber output has approximately 1 / 4 the brightness of the sun. (c) Side view of Fig. 2b. The solar ber-optic mini-dish is at the far left and the technician holding the distal ber end is at the far right. (d) Projection of the output from the 20-meter ber onto a white diffuse screen.

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4. High rim-angle dishes enjoin optical bers of high numerical aperture (NA). NA5sin(uair ), with 2uair denoting the full angular range of rays incident from air, that nominally is supported by the optical ber, i.e., for which total internal reection is respected. Therefore we constrained ourselves to commercially available bers of high NA and large core diameters. Our aim was to achieve the highest ux concentration at high radiative efciency for practical congurations. The ux concentration achievable in the mini-dish alone is proportional to (NA)2 . (Equivalently, the number of bers, per square meter of solar collecting area, is proportional to 1 /(NA)2 .) At us 5 0.005 radian, a dish with the dimensions noted above can be used between the extremes of (a) maximum concentration with d fiber 5 d min 5 1.2 mm; and (b) maximum efciency with d fiber 5 d max 5 2.0 mm. Realizable ux concentration is also proportional to the bers transmittance, so ber core materials with near-negligible attenuation integrated over the full solar spectrum are essential (such as pure quartz). Furthermore, the number of (expensive) optical bers, per square meter of solar collecting area, is proportional to 1 /(d fiber )2 . Therefore we aimed to use commercially available bers with the highest NA, lowest attenuation, and largest core diameter.
3. PRACTICAL CONCERNS

plastic buffer, and sit snugly inside the ber holder. Thus there is virtually no dust penetration. Moreover, we did not observe any condensation inside the dish at any time.

3.2. Achieving adequate mirror contour accuracy

We did not nd commercial off-the-shelf highquality parabolic mirrors for the dimensions required. The only practical fabrication technique for the rst handful of prototypes was diamond turning of an aluminum substrate followed by rst-surface silver coating and a protective thin layer of silica. Diamond turning can provide a dish contour accuracy of several microns, which translates into a mirror slope error of order 0.0001 radian. Several manufacturers have demonstrated comparable accuracy with plastic (coated) mirrors produced by mold injection (Avimo, 2001; Syntec, 2002; G-S, 2002). Improper diamond turning can result in deleterious diffraction losses that stem from excessive groove width. If the groove size is kept well below the wavelength range of the solar spectrum (which is readily achievable with commercial equipment), then diffraction losses can be rendered negligible.

3.3. Accurate alignment of all elements and positioning of the small at mirror
Alignment of the elements was achieved by producing the machined encasement on an accurate lathe. The positioning of the mirrors and glazing relative to the encasement was checked with a laser in our indoor laboratory. There was a tolerance of 60.1 mm in positioning the ber tip because the bers core diameter (d fiber 5 1.0 mm) was less than the diameter of the uniform ux core region in the focal plane of the dish (d min 5 1.2 mm). A small frame with adjustment screws that attached to the back of the mini-dish maintained the ber at its proper position and permitted ne-tuning of ber tip location in the x, y and z directions to within about 60.05 mm. Element alignment in future mass-produced units should be achievable with common manufacturing methods, such as those used for automatic pencils and plastic lenses. Our design introduces a small at mirror to re-direct rays reected from the dish downward, so that a rigidly-positioned optical ber can point upward and thereby obviate the practical problems associated with the conventional downwardfacing absorber in solar dishes. Furthermore, cleaning the protective glazing would be problematic were the bers to extend outwards and be

As we embarked upon the experimental program reported here, our principal practical concerns were:

3.1. Dust penetration and accumulation on the mirror or ber tip, as well as condensation in the space between the glazing and the mirror
These were not expected to pose a major problem, based on the success of related technologies for totally different applications. For example, the reectors in car headlights (of dimensions comparable to our mini-dish units) remain clean for years in demanding environments. We produced a tight encasement of the mirror, proximate ber tip and small at mirror with two O-rings: one between the glazing and the encasement, and the other between the mirror and the encasement. The opening in the center of the parabolic mirror (for insertion of the ber holder) was sealed by a small ange machined into the sleeve in a metal-to-metal seal. The optical bers are manufactured with a protective

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required to bend backwards behind the dish. This is particularly important for modules comprising tens to hundreds of mini-dishes. In eventual largevolume production, we recommend that the small mirror be deposited directly on the protective glazing. But for the rst prototypes, toward granting maximum operational exibility, we had the small mirror deposited on a pedestal that extends downward from the glazing.

3.4. Tracking precision

We identied several commercially-available small precision dual-axis trackers, of which two certied a tracking accuracy of better than 60.002 radian. Tracker details and test results are reported in Section 6.

3.5. Commercial availability of suitable lowattenuation optical bers that can withstand high solar ux
The attenuation of commercial quartz-core optical bers, integrated over the solar spectrum, is sufciently low that ux levels of order 10 kilosuns are easily accommodated (Polymicro, 2001; Feuermann et al., 2002). Whereas the bestsuited optical bers should have relatively large diameters and high NA, practical problems arose because: (a) ber stiffness is a strongly increasing function of ber diameter; and (b) we did not discover commercial bers with core diameters much above 1.0 mm that are suitable for concentrated sunlight. While ber manufacturers conrmed that there is no major material or technological factor that militates against high-NA bers, the highest NA bers that we found produced commercially have a nominal NA of 0.66, and could be purchased from only one company (Polymicro, 2001). We purchased samples of all the commercially-available so-called high-NA bers for comparative testing and evaluation. For the highest-NA bers, the core diameter is 1.0 mm. Some of the bers with a nominal NA of about 0.4 are available with core diameters up to 2.0 mm. Test results are summarized in Section 5.2.
4. LABORATORY EQUIPMENT

specular reectivities of both the small at mirror and the parabolic dish, transmission of the cover glazing, as well as attenuation and angular transmission of optical bers and sculpted ber tips. A source of collimated white light and a HeNe laser together with a calibrated integrating sphere were used to test optical properties of components in the visible and near infrared. The measurement procedures for the angular transmission and attenuation of optical bers were documented in Feuermann et al. (2002). Fig. 2a is a photograph of the assembled prototype installed outdoors. The installation comprised: (1) a battery-driven dual-axis solar tracker and stand, (2) a telescope-like device used in determining tracker accuracy (Section 6), (3) accommodation of the full ber-optic mini-dish assembly, and (4) a pyrometric power meter to measure radiative output at the bers distal end.

5. EVALUATION OF OPTICAL ELEMENTS

5.1. Mini-dish
We ordered several diamond-turned parabolic mirrors from two companies (referred to as A and B), and developed in-house procedures for assessing contour accuracy, reectivity and specularity. Lacking sophisticated proling equipment, we determined the contour accuracy by comparing the spot size produced in the dish focal plane by a distant (approximately point) light source against the theoretical result. Reectivity was measured with a laser and integrating sphere. Specularity was ascertained by comparing the observed spread of a laser beam reected from several points on the mirror to the calculated value for a parabola. Satisfactory accord between our in-house measurements, and those from an independent testing laboratory to which one of the mini-dishes was sent, established condence in our procedures for the precision required for our solar concentrator. Company A also independently supplied the mirrors measured spectral reectivity from a witness piece, which conrmed our measurements (a) with the laser and (b) integrated over the lamps (white-light) spectrum. Our measurements revealed that only Company As mirrors satised our specications, to wit, a specular reectivity (integrated over the solar spectrum) of 0.96, with a contour error commensurate with us not exceeding 0.005 radian. Fig. 3 highlights the distinction between the image produced with a surface that does not

Outdoor measurements on the assembled prototype are of limited value unless the performance of each component is rst characterized separately under controlled conditions. Consequently, individual components were tested in the laboratory prior to assembly. These measurements included the mini-dish contour accuracy, mirror

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Fig. 3. Illustration of diffraction losses. Photographs of a far-eld target irradiated by laser light or white light that has been reected from mini-dishes A and B. (a) Dish A, laser light. (b) Dish A, white light. (c) Dish B, laser light. (d) Dish B, white light.

appear to suffer from diffractive losses (Company A), and one that does (Company B). The reected spot should be a single disk of light. With Company Bs dish, optical interference results in a sizable fraction of the reected light being distributed at distances far beyond the diameter of the central spot.

5.2. Optical bers

The optical characterization of the bers was reported in Feuermann et al. (2002). In particular, we measured the transmission of the bers, as a function of incidence angle, for a broad-spectrum collimated light source. We divided optical losses into: (a) Fresnel reections off the air-quartz interfaces; (b) attenuation in the bers core; and (c) residual losses. The Fresnel reective losses (around 4%

per air-quartz interface) and attenuation in the core (no more than 1% for ber lengths of up to 10 m) were predictable from known material properties and the attenuation spectrum provided by the manufacturers. They were conrmed experimentally. Based on manufacturers claims, the residual losses were expected to be negligible. However, we discovered signicant transmission losses at off-normal incidence that increased dramatically with incidence angle within the bers NA. Sample measurements are plotted in Fig. 4. Integrated over the bers nominal NA, these residual losses reached 20% in some instances. At angles near (but less than) the bers NA, losses could exceed 50%. Transmission losses of this magnitude have also been documented in other laboratories (Irvin and Nakamura, 1991; Liang et al., 1997), al-

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Fig. 4. Measured angular response of commercial low-attenuation optical bers of nominal NA50.66, intended for high-ux solar applications. L / d5ratio of ber length to core diameter.

though a satisfactory model to account for the losses and predict how they depend on ber properties had not been forthcoming. We identied these losses as light leakage from the core to the cladding of the ber, and developed a theory to model the phenomenon (Feuermann et al., 2002). Fig. 5 is a photograph that highlights this sort of light leakage, with red laser light injected into one of the NA50.66 optical bers at an angle within the bers nominal NA. With our theoretical model, we can forecast how light leakage depends on: (1) the properties of the ber cladding, and (2) ber length. The highest degree of light leakage occurred in the highest-NA (teon-clad) bers, which mitigated our reaching the originally predicted maximum power densities. The shortfall is around 20% for ber lengths of a few meters. Our model can predict the improvements related to the use of superior existing cladding materials that can produce the same NA yet result in negligible leakage.

both sides, produced by WZW Ltd (Switzerland). The theoretical prediction for Fresnel reective losses was 1% at each airglass interface, plus a 1% absorption loss in the glazing. The small at mirror was specied to have a specular reectivity of 97% integrated over the solar spectrum. We measured the transmission of the glazings to be 0.9760.005, and the specular reectivity of the small at mirrors to be 0.9660.005.
6. SOLAR TRACKER

5.3. Protective glazing and small at mirror

We used BK7 Schott glass windows for good transmissivity, with anti-reective coatings on

We aimed for a tracking accuracy better than 60.18. Attainable ux concentration is proportional to 1 /(us )2 . us comprises the natural size of the solar disk (0.0047 radian) enlarged by contributions from: mirror contour errors, imperfect specularity of the mirrors, diffraction from the mini-dish, tracking inaccuracy, and alignment errors in the mini-dish and ber placement. The errors are viewed as statistically independent. So the effective (us )2 is the sum of the squares of these individual errors. For example, when a tracker accuracy of 0.058 (0.00087 rad) and a mini-dish contour and diffraction error of around 0.0015 radian are convolved with the nite size of the solar disk (Rabl, 1985), the effective us

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Fig. 5. Photograph to illustrate light leakage from the bers core through its cladding and buffer. Laser light was injected into the ber at an angle within the bers nominal NA. In this black-and-white reproduction, the ber appears white where light leakage occurs. In the absence of leakage, the light should only be visible at the entrance and exit of the ber (and not along its length). The light exiting the ber is projected onto a small screen.

increases to 0.005 radian. This is the value assumed in the analyses that follow. The agreement reported in Section 9 between experimental measurements of ux concentration and predictions based on us 5 0.005 radian supports this estimate. Standard accurate dual-axis solar trackers are produced for the mechanical loads commonly encountered in large solar dishes and heliostats (each unit being tens to hundreds of m 2 in area). We required only a small tracker that could accommodate at most a few prototypes. Two US companies, Small Power Systems Inc (SPS) and Enhancement Electronics Inc (EEI), claimed they could satisfy our specications with a robust device for continuous outdoor use. One tracker was purchased from each company. To measure tracker accuracy, we built a tubular pinhole camera, and compared the movement of the suns image at the tubes exit against a reference position. The tube has a high aspect ratio and is internally black (see Fig. 2a). It effectively absorbs all solar radiation outside the solar disk. Tracker accuracy measurements were performed under clear-sky conditions during the central daytime hours, with a sample run for the SPS tracker presented in Fig. 6. The SPS tracker exhibited an average accuracy of 60.058 with essentially continuous tracking motion. The EEI

tracker, however, moved in sharp distinct steps of 0.18. Namely, the tracker remains stationary until a tracking movement is required, and then abruptly advances by 0.18. Given the optical tolerances needed to reach power densities of order 10 W mm 22 , we proceeded with the SPS tracker.
7. SECOND-STAGE CONCENTRATORS

The applications being considered hereespecially solar surgerydemand ultra-high ux concentration. The concentration that can be achieved in the paraboloidal mini-dish at reasonably high collection efciency is less than half the thermodynamic limit (Eqs. (4) and (7)). Realizable concentration from the mini-dish alone is further reduced by the restricted NA in commerciallyavailable off-the-shelf optical bers of admissibly high transmission over the solar spectrum. Accordingly, from the start, our system designs incorporated second-stage nonimaging concentrators, with the intention of boosting ux concentration to the maximum extent possible. A second-stage concentration enhancement can in principle be performed either at the proximate ber end in the dish, or in the distal ber tip at the remote absorber. Introducing a maximum-concentration second stage in the dish necessitates bers with a NA near 1.0 (Feuermann and Gordon,

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Fig. 6. Absolute value of the measured tracking error of the SPS tracker, and the normal beam irradiation, for a typical clear day (7 May 2001).

1999). Such bers could in principle be produced, but would suffer from severe fragility and are not commercially available. Accordingly, we designed second-stage concentrators at the remote delivery point. We chose a one-ber-one-secondary-concentrator strategy with sculpted ber tips: the ability to generate immense ux concentration from individual units without the need for active cooling. We designed dielectric nonimaging concentrators that are sculpted directly from the distal tips of the optical bers. Our strategy was to design devices that, barring material imperfections, would produce ux levels approaching the thermodynamic limit. The actual measured performance of the manufactured concentrators would fall short of maximum concentration only due to aws in the materials and production processes. The thermodynamic limit for the secondary ux concentration boost C max from an optical ber 2 with numerical aperture NA is (Welford and Winston, 1989) n C max 5 ] 2 NA

(Eq. (9) being a generalization of Eq. (7)). For optical bers with NA50.66, C max 52.3 and 4.1 2 for light extraction into air and water, respectively (n51.331.34, which is also approximately that of many biological tissues). Our secondary concentrators are based on edgeray and V-cone designs (Welford and Winston, 1989), for an input NA of 0.66 and an exit NA of 1.00, i.e., an exit half-angle of 908. Concentrator cross-sections are drawn in Fig. 7. In these designs, the concentrator proles are tailored to

S D

(8)

where n denotes the refractive index of the medium into which the light is extracted. This secondary boost augments the maximum concentration produced by the mini-dish (Eq. (4)) to an overall concentration that in principle reaches the thermodynamic limit when light is extracted into a medium of refractive index n (Rabl, 1976) n max C flux 5 ] us

S D

(9)

Fig. 7. Cross-sections of our dielectric nonimaging sculpted ber tip secondary concentrators. Each concentrator is a natural extension of the optical ber used to transport sunlight concentrated in the mini-dish to a remote target (i.e., the concentrator tip is not cut separately and then attached).

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meridional rays only. Namely, it is a two-dimensional procedure applied to an axisymmetric 3D device. We performed 3D raytrace simulations, and conrmed that skew-ray rejection is at the 12% level for all the devices we designed. An exit NA of 1.00 creates a subtle problem for radiation measurement with commercial integrating spheres and power meters which typically are certied for light injection angles up to 6458. The exit-angle constraint posed no problem for the measurements depicted in the preceding sections, which were inherently restricted to NA values within around 0.7. We could not, however, obtain accurate radiative power measurements from the sculpted ber tips where a substantial fraction of the power emerges beyond 458. Presently we are exploring viable measurement techniques with readily available equipment. Polymicro Inc (Polymicro, 2001) agreed to

attempt to produce the sculpted ber tips drawn in Fig. 7. Fig. 8 offers photographs of two samples, with and without light transmission (8a and 8b, respectively). Fig. 8b reveals a less-than-perfect shape: light leakage from the sculpted tips due to imperfect manufacturing (mostly, above and beyond contour errors). As even visual inspection conrmed, light leakage remained at such high levels that these second-stage concentrators were deemed unsuitable for the planned solar experiments. Reports from other laboratories indicate that sculpted tips of these dimensions, with the required accuracy and negligible defects, can be produced, at least in-house (Liang et al., 1997). Currently we are investigating alternative routes for the commercial preparation of our sculpted ber tip secondary concentrators. For a properly produced tip, the expected boost in ux concentration is more than a factor of 2, to around

Fig. 8. Photographs of some sculpted tip secondary concentrators. (a) Without light transmission through the bers (magnied view, untapered ber diameter51.00 mm). (b) With laser light transmission through the ber, to illustrate light leakage that stems from imperfect manufacturing. Note the light leakage at the entrance to the sculpted tip and along its contour.

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25 kilosuns, for the extraction of sunlight into air, and a factor of 4, to around 45 kilosuns, for the extraction of light into water or tissue.
8. OPERATING PROTOTYPE AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Photographs of a completed prototype are presented in Fig. 2. We positioned the optical ber in the mini-dish with a two-pronged strategy. First, we calculated the precise position for the bers proximate tip and, guided by visual inspection, sited the ber accordingly. Then we exposed the mini-dish assembly to the sun (with dual-axis tracking in operation), and ne-tuned the bers position by simultaneously measuring the radiative output at the bers distal end and adjusting the position of the bers proximate tip. The nal position was chosen so as to maximize power output. Experiments were performed at Ben-Gurion Universitys Sede Boqer Campus, under clear-sky conditions, and covered periods within 64 h of solar noon for durations of up to several hours on

clear days distributed throughout the year. The power output at the bers distal end was measured with an Ophir Ltd pyrometer-detector power meter, and the normal solar beam irradiance was measured with an Eppley normalincidence pyrheliometer. There was no measurable degradation of the optical or mechanical elements due to outdoor exposure during our experiments. A future task is establishing whether the dearth of degradation persists with long-term continuous operation. The pyrheliometer has a full acceptance angle of 0.100 radian. Our concentrator, however, is designed for the far smaller angular extent of the solar disk. We had no direct measurement of circumsolar radiation. For solar climates similar to that in Sede Boqer, clear-day circumsolar fractions tend to be in the range of 16% (Rabl, 1985; Gueymard, 2001). We conservatively adopted a nominal uniform correction from measured solar beam to collectible radiation of 0.98. Typical measured values are: (1) a remote power delivery of 8 W, (2) at a collectible solar beam irradiance of 900 W m 22 . With a ber core

Table 1. Representative and repeatable experimental results for our solar ber-optic mini-dish prototype, for nominal ber lengths of 1, 7 and 20 m a Component Measured optical throughput Improved optical throughput attainable with existing materials or production techniques 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.99 0.99 0.87 0.82 0.79 0.99 0.71 0.66 0.64

Protective glazing with anti-reective coating Paraboloidal mini-dish mirror Small at secondary mirror Airquartz interface at the ber tips (per tip) Light leakage from ber core to cladding: 1 meter ber 7 meter ber 20 meter ber Attenuation in the ber core Net prototype throughput with: 1 meter ber 7 meter ber 20 meter ber

0.97 0.96 0.96 0.96

0.99 0.88

Maximum possible ux concentration in a loss-less system5(NA /us )2 517.4 kilosuns Maximum ux concentration with real materials and improved optical throughput515.3 kilosuns Representative experimental results for: Optical ber core diameter51.0060.03 mm, ber nominal NA50.66 Effective solar angular radius (incorporating all optical errors) us 5 0.005 radian Fiber length Measured power output from distal ber tip (W) 7.8560.3 8.160.3 8.160.3 Measured normal beam irradiance (W m 22 ) 838620 921620 931620 Power density attained experimentally (W m 22 ) 10.060.6 10.360.6 10.360.6 Corresponding ux concentration (kilosuns) 11.960.8 11.560.8 11.160.8 Predicted ux concentration including losses (kilosuns) 12.460.8 11.560.8 11.260.8

1.1 m 7.2 m 20.0 m

a We also include detailed accounting of optical performance on a component-by-component basis. The performance of each element individually is based on our indoor laboratory measurements.

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diameter of 1.0 mm, this corresponds to a ux concentration of more than 11 kilosuns. Representative measurements are summarized in Table 1 for three different ber lengths, along with the predictable optical losses associated solely with material properties. The predicted ux levels are consistent with our measured values, to within the experimental uncertainty. The agreement between the measured outdoor performance of the assembled prototype and the projections would appear to indicate that all key effects have been accounted for. Also included are the potential improvements attainable with existing materials and technologies, i.e., without the need for future advances in optical surfaces or production techniques.

9. OBSERVATIONS AND QUALIFICATIONS

Our mini-dish prototype was purposely slightly oversized in order to accommodate bers of varying diameter and NA. That means that the NA of the mini-dish (0.707) is larger than that of the optical ber (0.66), and that both the dish focal length and diameter could have been smaller. A mini-dish with the uniform-ux core region of its focal spot equal to the ber core diameter, d fiber 5 1.00 mm, would have F 5 100 mm and D 5 151 mm. Alternatively expressed, whereas our actual mini-dish typically intercepted 28 watts of collectible solar beam irradiation (of 900 W m 22 ), a mini-dish exactly matched to the bers would intercept 16 watts. Given known material properties and our ability to account for all system losses (Table 1), we can assess that the power density produced in the core region of the focal spot of the mini-dish was approximately 15.4 kilosuns. The attainable ux concentration can be noticeably improved exclusively through the use of superior existing materials and technologies, i.e., without the need for future advances in material or production technologies. Hence we have included in Table 1 what we view as tenable projections of the performance of solar ber-optic mini-dishes of the type we have designed, built and tested. Optical bers with core diameters up to 2.0 mm are commercially available, but only for noticeably lower NA. The highest nominal NA value, for which we found optical bers with core diameters of 1.5 and 2.0 mm at admissibly low attenuation over the solar spectrum, was 0.4. These largediameter bers have enough mechanical exibility to remain robust in solar concentrator systems.

They might enhance cost-effectiveness by reducing the number of bers per unit of collection area. Our mini-dishes were diamond turned. This was the only feasible method we identied for producing a handful of precision concentrators. Diamond-turned devices are inherently expensive, and could not be deemed economically feasible for large mini-dish systems. A workable alternative is preparing a die and mold-injecting minidishes in mass production (with subsequent mirror deposition). With a precision die, the price for creating and coating a mini-dish would be dramatically less than the diamond-turning procedure: about several US$ per mirrored mini-dish at very high volume production. But the precision die typically costs of the order of tens of thousands of US$ (G-S, 2002; Syntec, 2002). A future mini-dish system of sufcient extent could benet from this economy of scale, and could thereby advance the demonstration of economic and technical feasibility. Finally, a recent outgrowth of our experimental program is high-ux photovoltaic power generation with advanced multi-junction semiconductors. The concept was originally delineated in Feuermann and Gordon (2001a), and subsequently commissioned for experimental realization (Reddy et al., 2001).

10. SUMMARY

In the rst phase of our solar ber-optic minidish program, the primary milestones included: 1. The experimental realization of our proposed solar ber-optic mini-dish, including the design, construction, and testing of an operational prototype. We have demonstrated the collection, concentration and transmission of sunlight to remote targets. Discussions with producers of molds and injection-molded optical elements indicate that the miniaturized units (200 mm in diameter, with a focal length of 120 mm) are well suited to mass production. 2. The measurement of ux concentration exceeding 11 kilosuns at a remote receiver (20 m removed), solely from the ber-optic mini-dish (primary) concentrator. Flux levels in the encased mini-dish at the proximate ber tip exceed 15 kilosuns, for a system with a numerical aperture of 0.66. There appear to be no unaccounted-for loss mechanisms, i.e., we can condently project optical performance from known material properties. It should be feas-

Solar ber-optic mini-dish concentrators: rst experimental results and eld experience

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ible eventually to attain up to 30% higher ux concentration, based wholly on available materials and existing production technologies. 3. Testing the tracking accuracy of small dualaxis trackers suitable for miniaturized highconcentration units, and establishing a tolerance of 60.058. 4. An experimental study of the measurement of the angular transmission characteristics of optical bers suitable for high-ux solar uses, including the discovery of deleterious light leakage (Feuermann et al., 2002). A theoretical model that can account for these observations permits distinguishing between inherent limitations versus technological problems for the design and selection of optical bers for future systems. 5. The design, fabrication and preliminary testing of sculpted optical ber tips that serve as secondary concentrators intended to markedly increase delivered power density as desired for solar surgery. 6. The absence of noticeable thermal, optical or material degradation in any system component. The second phase of our experimental program will focus on: (a) the construction and testing of large multi-unit modules; (b) measuring long-term continuous outdoor performance toward establishing system robustness; (c) fabricating and demonstrating secondary concentrators relatively free of manufacturing defects, that can actually approach the thermodynamic limit to concentration; and (d) demonstrating solar surgical (biomedical) procedures.

f uair us

rim half-angle of the paraboloidal dish half-angle of acceptance of the optical ber effective solar angular radius

AcknowledgementsThis research was supported by grants from the Israel Ministry of National Infrastructures (Jerusalem) and the Rita Altura Foundation (Los Angeles, CA). We are indebted to Michael Altura for his encouragement and sponsorship. We thank Jonathan Molcho of Ben-Gurion Universitys Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering for generously granting the use of facilities and space in his laboratory, as well as his valuable recommendations in the selection of measurement equipment. We are also grateful to David Faiman of Ben-Gurion Universitys Blaustein Institute for Desert Research for the use of facilities and technical assistance at the Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center.

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NOMENCLATURE
Cflux C max flux C max 2 C core flux C avg flux D d fiber d min d max F f kilosun n NA ux concentration thermodynamic limit for (overall) ux concentration thermodynamic limit for the ux concentration boost from a secondary concentrator ux concentration in the uniform-ux core region of the focal spot of a paraboloidal dish ux concentration averaged over the full focal spot of a paraboloidal dish paraboloidal dish diameter optical ber core diameter diameter of the maximum-ux core region in the focal spot of the paraboloidal dish focal spot diameter that encompasses all reected rays of the paraboloidal dish focal length f-number of paraboloidal dish 10 3 suns (ux concentration) refractive index of the medium into which concentrated sunlight is extracted numerical aperture

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