MPA 611 DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION

Education as a tool for Poverty Eradication

The case of Vocational Training in Botswana
Mimmy Tshegofatso Basele 9605356

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Contents Page Chapter One 1.1 Introduction..3 1.2 Botswana Training Authority (BOTA).....3

Chapter Two 2.1Literature Review 2.1.1 Vocational Training for Poverty Alleviation..........5 2.1.2Vocational Training in the Informal Sector6 2.1.3 The Role and problems of Traditional Apprenticeships.....6 2.2.1 Issues Hampering the Success of TVET............................................................8 Chapter Three 3.1 Impact of Vocational Training on Poverty9 Chapter Four 4.1 Failures of Botswana`s VET system11 4.2 Successes of Botswana`s VET system.12 Chapter Five 5.1 Recommendations................................................................................................14 5.2 Conclusion............................................................................................................14 Bibliography..............................................................................................................15 Glossary of Terms.....................................................................................................16

Chapter One 1.1 Introduction Vocational training has been identified as a means of reducing the vulnerability of rural communities, and helping them to cope with changing socio-economic conditions. In poor and developing countries, preparing young people for work often means preparing them for the informal sector. Therefore not only should training provide learners with technical skills, but it should also develop the entrepreneurial spirit of the learner, such that they can become self employed. In China in 1999, the Ministry of Agriculture launched the Training of young farmers for the 21st Century national training programme, which was aimed at training young rural farmers with technical agricultural skills. A training impact survey was carried out in 2004 which showed that the average per capita income of the farmers, who had undergone training, was 24% higher than that of those farmers who had not undergone training. However, in environments where vocational training has been identified as a vehicle for poverty alleviation, there is usually the problem of capacity, in terms of the delivery system. The size and relevance is also often found to be mismatched. UNESCO has identified that there is a need to also provide adequate incentives to stimulate and improve the training capacity of the nongovernment providers. There also needs to be a deliberate effort by government to target the poor. 1.2 Botswana Training Authority (BOTA) The National Policy on Vocational Education and Training (1997) states that; Future economic growth will therefore rely on the ability of the nations workforce to apply advanced production technology and respond to change

demands of industry. This applies to both the formal and informal sectors of the economy if they are to participate effectively in the process of development1 This clearly identifies vocational training as a vehicle for poverty alleviation through the creation of employment, developing employable individuals and up-skilling those already employed to increase their level of production. The policy talks of the establishment of the Botswana Training Authority. BOTA was later established by The Vocational Training Act in 1998, and has as its overall mandate, to coordinate and promote vocational training in Botswana. This is achieved through the broader themes of creating equity and access to training, and accrediting, registering and monitoring training institutions, trainers and curriculum. It further bears the responsibility for regulating assessment and testing and to declare any trade to be an apprenticeable trade and regulate any matter relating to apprenticeship training2 Also of importance is the vocational Training Fund which is managed by BOTA on behalf of Government, wherein VAT registered entities with a turnover of more than half a million Pula, pay a certain percentage of this turnover into the fund in the form of a levy. Thereafter, entities can claim this money back with an additional incentive after training their employees, with the intention being to encourage them to train staff and facilitate lifelong learning. The above functions are not exhaustive, but are rather a broad summary of the key responsibilities of the Authority.

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P.1 national Policy on Vocational Education and Training, Botswana Government (1997) Section 17(m) Vocational Training Act 1998

Chapter 2 2.1 Literature Review 2.1.1Vocational Training for Poverty Alleviation The first Millenium Development Goal refers to the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger, which are ills that plaque a large portion of the developing world, as evidenced by countries such as Somalia and Ethiopia having experienced famine in the eighties, and the rest of the developing world having large portions of its populations living in poverty. Recent research has shown that 30% of Botswana`s population are living below the poverty datum line ($1/per day), with the highest portion of this population residing in the rural areas. (Mmegi 30th October 2009). The challenge is therefore to raise the productive capacity of the poor, the youth and the vulnerable of society, to enable economic growth. The most appropriate means of raising productive capacity of a society is through the development of relevant skills to meet the demands of the market. Botswana`s Vision 2016 refers to an educated and informed nation, making it clear that education is key in the pursuit of prosperity for all (Vision 2016:1997), and the following statement reinforces this pillar. Since education is considered the key to effective development strategies technical and vocational education and (TVET) must be the master key that can alleviate poverty, promote peace, conserve the environment improve the quality of life for all and help achieve sustainable development3 2.1.2Vocational Training in the Informal Sector In the Strategy to Revitalize Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Africa, the poverty reduction documents of Cameroon and Cote D`Ivoire make reference to developing and strengthening vocational training, which shows their acknowledgement of its role in poverty alleviation. Malawi on the other hand talks of the need to promote self-employment through
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p. 17 Strategy to Revitalise Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Africa. Presented at the meeting of the Bureau of the conference of ministers of Education of the African Union 29-31 May 2007, Addis Ababa

skills development. Vocational training specifically increases the productive capacity of individuals and their employability through the acquisition of skills related to the world of work. Largentaye (2006) has argued that in order to meet this end, vocational training ought to have a deliberate focus on the informal sector (even though in most economies it is based on the needs of the formal sector), as this will be the entry point for a large percentage of new labour market entrants. This creates an urgent need to provide skills to this sector, in order for them to compete effectively, and have sustainable enterprises. Another related aspect of the informal sector, is to ensure that learning which takes place in this environment is structured, regulated and given formal recognition. At the ILO labour conference on human resource development and training (2000), the following statement was made; Every person shall have the opportunity to have his or her experiences and skills gained work, through society or through formal and non formal training assessed recognised and certified4 Largentaye (2006) goes on to point out that there is a need to focus on sectors which are traditionally productive but vulnerable, such as agriculture, with the aim being to improve capacity and sustainability rather than to create employment. 2.1.3The Role and problems of Traditional Apprenticeships Perez and Hakim (2006) have stated that in the Middle-East and North Africa, Traditional Apprenticeships are the most common point of entry into vocational training. These apprenticeships have no training plan or pre-established training duration, which could lead to an apprentice working for less than his/her skill is worth, because they are not aware that the apprenticeship has ended. The lack of a training plan is problematic in that the intended outcome of the training is not clear. Only the master knows whether or not he will fully impart his skills to the apprentice or whether he will with-hold some things, as the parameters of learning are not stipulated. Furthermore, the quality of apprentices within the same field will vary from master to
p.20 Strategy to Revitalise Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Africa. Presented at the meeting of the Bureau of the conference of ministers of Education of the African Union 29-31 May 2007, Addis Ababa
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master as each will teach according to his own will and intent. Furthermore, apprenticeship tends to perpetuate traditional technologies and not keep abreast with technological changes within the field, diminishing their continued economic survival. Perez and Hakim (2006) have stated that the informal sector of the developing world is increasing, citing 70% of new entrants in Egypts labour market as entering the informal sector. They have described the informal sector as ranging from small subsistence activities to small businesses with a potential for growth, however the overriding common features of the informal sector are a lack of employment contracts and social insurance. The sector also has a high prevalence of illiteracy and low levels of education. Although some training or learning takes place within this sector, it does not provide the learner with broad skills which will improve his/her chances of increased employability or diversifying his/her career path, as it tends to impart limited knowledge and skill directly related to the core activities of the business. Lifelong learning is not a priority in this sector. However it has already been noted that in terms of increasing the employability of an individual and decreasing their vulnerability, training is a powerful tool, therefore implying that it is not a once off event, but rather a lifelong activity. The UNESCO IIEP newsletter (September 2006)has argued through various articles, for the increasing of informal sector skills to increase related incomes, whilst also pointing out that the acquisition of vocational skills help to ensure food security and rural development. Such targeted training is intended to reduce the vulnerability of rural societies, as currently many farmers in the developing world continue to use archaic methods and implements, which are highly susceptible to environmental and social shocks. 2.2.1 Issues Hampering the Success of TVET From the discussions above it is abundantly clear that the importance of vocational training in the developing world cannot be understated, however it is still however not reaching the scale or level of quality that is desirable or necessary for it to have a strong impact on poverty. The following reasons for the lack of success of TVET in poverty alleviation, have been put forward in the Strategy to Revitalize TVET (2007).

2.2.2Perception The public, learners and parents do not have a positive opinion of TVET and view it as a last resort rather than a path of choice. It is associated with under-achievement and failure. 2.2.3Gender Stereotyping Certain vocations are associated with a particular gender, making members of the opposite gender reluctant to pursue them even where they have interest or talent 2.7Instructor Training The quality of the delivery is dependent upon the theoretical competence and technical knowledge and skill of the trainer, whereas a lot of trainers in the developing world are lacking in these perspectives. 2.8Linkage with the Academic stream It should be possible for learners to progress from the vocational to the academic stream (and vice-versa) within their given field. Currently most systems run parallel to each other. 2.9Linkage between Formal and Informal TVET It should be possible for those who have acquired competencies informally to enter the formal TVET stream, most often the candidate may be required to begin the formal learning from the beginning rather than applying principles of recognition of prior learning. 2.10Linkage of TVET to the Labour Market Training must be market driven. 2.11Traditional Skills accompanied by Entrepreneurial and Management skills Programmes should develop traditional skills to prevent the erosion or disappearance of the crafts, but also teach practitioners skills which will allow them to increase their income from the crafts they produce.

Chapter Three 3.1 Impact of Vocational Training on Poverty 3.1.1Statistics on Employment of Vocational Training graduates In 2010, BOTA produced the results of a tracer study on the employment of VET graduates, focusing on the BTEP, CITF and BOTA graduates between 2007 and 2010. The findings reflect that a large percentage of the graduates (mean of 51%) are unemployed, with the highest level of unemployment being of BOTA graduates. 67.75 % of the unemployed BTEP graduates were from Textile, Building and Construction. Amongst the BOTA graduates, the highest unemployment rates were found in the grouping termed Commercial, Clerical, Business and Public Administration. Although high, it was still less than the CITF and BTEP rates. Close to a quarter of BTEP graduates chose to withhold their labour and not enter the workforce.

3.2 Reasons for Unemployment of Vocational Training Graduates Of the BTEP respondents in the tracer surveys, 12.8% cited salary being too low as their reason for unemployment. This makes it clear that the respondents found employment but chose to decline it. Siphambe (2007) is cited in the study, as making reference to a high reservation wage in Botswana, below which the labour force chooses to withhold its labour. The situation is enabled by family members being willing to support the graduate until s/he finds employment at or above the reservation wage. 18.1 % of the respondents cited lack of practice, skills and attachment as the cause of their failure to secure employment whereas 33.1% of the respondents cited a lack of jobs in their fields of learning. Of the BOTA graduates, 20.76% of respondents cited a lack of work experience as the cause of their failure to secure employment whilst 32% cited a lack of jobs in their fields of learning.

Of the employers included in the survey, 20% felt that graduates do not have relevant skills and they lacked industry experience, whilst 32% felt that the training was not based on the needs of industry. In summation, a small percentage of graduates choose to withhold their labour, whilst 32.5% (mean) cannot find employment in their fields meaning that their training is either irrelevant to the market or the market is saturated, and 19.43% (mean) are turned down by employers due to lack of skill and experience.

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Chapter Four 4.1 Failures of Botswana`s VET system 4.1.1 Lack of focus on Informal Sector Botswana has not taken any deliberate action to target vocational training or its regulation at the informal sector. This means that this large sector of the economy which research has shown to be a strategic target group for development has been left out, and any training which is taking place there is largely unregulated meaning that questionable skills which may not be relevant to sustainable employment, are possibly being passed on, which defeats the purpose of vocational training. 4.1.2 No focus on Traditionally productive sectors At present BOTA`s accreditation list does not have a single program targeting the agricultural sector accredited, even though 80% of the population are engaged in it (Government of Botswana: 2007), which suggests that BOTA has not emphasised the need for this focus to providers. 4.1.3 Apprenticeships In principle BOTA regulates apprenticeships through the Apprenticeship and Industrial Training regulations (1993). However, these still do not address the informal sector for two reasons, the first being that they are widely unaware of these regulations and secondly because BOTA is failing to be proactive and take such regulations to the people. 4.1.4 Poor Perception of TVET BOTA has aggressively marketed itself since it became operational in 2000, however there is still failure of the system in linking TVET to the academic stream in order to facilitate higher levels of learning in specific fields. This weakness should however be addressed by the merging of BOTA, The Tertiary Education Council and the Labour Market Observatory to form the Human Resource Development Council (expected in June 2012). 4.1.5 The Vocational Training Fund
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At the end of the 2009/10 financial year, the fund had 200 million Pula in unclaimed funds, showing that employers are not utilising it optimally, which implies that employers are not training their staff. This leads the writer to believe that there, may be weaknesses in the strategies used in the marketing of the fund. 4.2. Successes of TVET 4.2.1 Structured Training regulations (2008) These regulate workplace training, ensuring that it is appropriate and effectively delivered. 4.2.2 Tracer Studies The first was carried out in 2009 to establish the whereabouts of VET graduates, which allow successes and failures of the system to be measured. Others have been commisioned. 4.2.3 Record of lifelong learning Learners have their post-secondary record of learning kept in a single record, where credits are recorded as they are acquired. 4.2.4 Establishment of the Vocational Training Fund It is funded through a levy payable by employers, who are refunded (to the inclusion of an additional incentive) for training their employees. 4.2.5 Traditional Arts and Crafts BOTA has developed assessment tools and training standards for traditional arts and crafts such as song and dance and basketry. 4.2.6 Recognition of competence Individuals who have not gone through formal training can be assessed against their current levels of competence by Madirelo Trades Testing Centre.

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4.2.7 Trainer registration in Government VET Institutions The Department of Vocational Education and Training, has made BOTA trainer registration a pre-requisite for employment in Government VET institutions

4.2.8 Quality Assurance BOTA regulates all VET training through accreditation, which follows a quality assurance process. This ensures that all training is of a nationally acceptable standard.

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Chapter Five 5.1 Recommendations There is still a need for BOTA to seek out the informal sector and where training is taking place it needs to formalised and structured and regulated in order to ensure a consistent level of skills produced within particular fields, ensuring that assessments are carried out. There needs to be a deliberate focus on agriculture, with BOTA regulating the training carried out by extension workers. This would include ensuring that all trainers are registered with BOTA. BOTA should be enabled to deny accreditation of programmes which are not relevant to the market, as the intention is to develop market related skills. This could be done through refusing to accredit new applicants for programmes whereby the skill has been over-produced (e.g. secretarial courses), and making the public aware of the priority skills areas. This would help learners make informed choices about their career paths. 5.2 Conclusion Botswana has recognised the value of Vocational as a vehicle for poverty alleviation which can be seen in the Nations policy direction and documents. Vision 2016 talks of Building an educated and informed nation, acknowledging that education leads to a better quality of life for all. The focus that has been given to vocational training, serves as an acknowledgement of its possible contribution towards poverty alleviation. What is lacking so far is the full scale implementation of the Vocational Training Act and associated regulations, and research which are all required to ensure that vocational training reaches its full potential. BOTA is indeed the correct vehicle to steer vocational training towards creating sustainable development, through developing market related skills. At present Botswana does not necessarily lack skilled personnel, but they are not skilled in what the market requires. It is possible for Botswana to even become an exporter of manpower, rather than its importer.

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Bibliography Hakim G, Perez E (2006) Reforming Vocational Education and Training in the middle East and North Africa ETF, New York, World Bank UNESCO (September 2006) International Institute for Educational Planning newsletter Vol. XXIV No. 3 Atchoarena D. Building Skills for Poverty Reduction Ibid De Largentaye A. Promoting Pro-Poor growth: Employment, Vocational Training and the Informal Economy African Union. Strategy to Revitalize Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Africa. Presented at the meeting of the Bureau of the Conference of Ministers of Education of the African Union 29-31 May 2007. Addis-Ababa UNEVOC (1997) Technical and Vocational Education for Rural Development: Delivery patterns Paris, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation ILO (2000) International Labour Conference 88th Session 2000,Report V Training for Employment: Social Inclusion, Productivity and Youth Employment Geneva ILO Publications UNESCO (2003) Education for Rural Development: Towards new Policy Responses (A joint study conducted by FAO and UNESCO) Rome, Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations www.mmegi.bw Study uncovers pockets of severe poverty within Botswana Districts Thato Moseki. Vol. 26 No. 163, 30th October 2009. Accessed 29th March 2011.

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Glossary of Terms Apprenticeship: A person learning a skilled trade from an employer. (Oxford Dictionary) BTEP: Botswana Technical Education Programme CITF: Construction Industry Trust Fund IIEP: International Institute for Educational planning ILO: International Labour Organisation Millennium Development Goals: Adopted by world leaders in 2000 for achievement by 2015. Contains 8 goals with 21 quantifiable targets and 60 indicators for measurement. TVET/VET: Technical and Vocational Education and Training UNESCO: United Nations Educational and Scientific and Cultural Organisation VAT: Value Added tax Vision 2016: Botswana`s long term goals adopted in 1997 for achievement by 2016.

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