Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Tampere 2006
FOREWORD
Modern architecture built in 1960s-1970s forms an essential part of European cultural heritage. From the cultural sustainability point of view, recent heritage and especially suburban landscapes are endangered by long-term repair activity. In many cases, repair measures applied as part of standard maintenance change the original nature of buildings considerably. This Guideline deals with the conservation and maintenance of concrete suburban areas with special emphasis on mass produced concrete panels. The aim of the Guideline is to be a tool that makes it easier to understand the technical aspects related to conservation cases of concrete. The Guideline is part of MAC , Modern Architecture Conservation Research and Training Project, which is a European research project to study the prerequisites of conservation of modern suburban architecture. The project received a grant from the European Commission Culture 2000 Framework Program in 2005 and
2006
was implemented within one year starting from September 2005. The research was conducted at Tampere University of Technology (TUT), Institute of Structural Engineering. The report was written by Saija Varjonen, M.Sc. (Civ.Eng.), and the commentary committee was comprised of Prof. Matti Pentti, Dr Jussi Mattila and Jukka Lahdensivu, Lic.Tech. The work on the Guideline was supervised by a Project Group, which was comprised of Claes Caldenby of Chalmers University of Technology, Joseph King of ICCROM, Jukka Lahdensivu of TUT, Tommi Lindh of the National Board of Antiquities, Jussi Mattila of TUT, Mona Schalin of Kati Salonen & Mona Schalin Architects Ltd, Esko Sistonen of Helsinki University of Technology, Saija Varjonen of TUT and Ola Wedebrunn of The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts.
Contact information: Tampere University of Technology Institute of Structural Engineering P.O. Box 600 FI-33101 Tampere FINLAND Tel. +358 (0)3 3115 11 Fax. +358 (0)3 3115 2811 Email. forename.surname@tut.fi www.tut.fi/rtek
TABLE OF CONTENTS
GENERAL ASPECTS OF SUBURB CONSERVATION ..............................................................................5 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................5 SUBURBS AS A TARGET OF CONSERVATION ..................................................................................................5 TECHNICAL ASPECTS RELATED TO CONSERVATION ......................................................................................6 Deterioration in Concrete .....................................................................................................................6 Protective Measures .............................................................................................................................6 Procedure for Determining Eligibility for Conservation.........................................................................6 DEGRADATION OF CONCRETE ................................................................................................................7 CORROSION OF STEEL ................................................................................................................................7 Carbonation ..........................................................................................................................................7 Chloride Contamination ........................................................................................................................8 Active Corrosion ...................................................................................................................................8 DISINTEGRATION OF CONCRETE...................................................................................................................9 Disintegration by Freeze - Thaw Exposure ....................................................................................... 10 Formation of Ettringite ....................................................................................................................... 10 Alkali Reactivity of Aggregate ............................................................................................................ 11 MALFUNCTION IN THE MOISTURE BEHAVIOUR OF STRUCTURES .................................................................. 11 REDUCED BEARING CAPACITY OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS OR W EAKENING OF FIXINGS OR TIES.................. 12 DELAMINATION OF TILES ........................................................................................................................... 12 DEGRADATION OF COATINGS .................................................................................................................... 12 DEFORMATION AND CRACKING.................................................................................................................. 13 MEASURES TO RETARD DETERIORATION .......................................................................................... 14 GENERAL................................................................................................................................................. 14 MONITORING OF CONDITION ..................................................................................................................... 14 RENEWAL OF SURFACE TREATMENT ......................................................................................................... 14 PATCH REPAIR......................................................................................................................................... 15 ELECTROCHEMICAL REPAIR METHODS ...................................................................................................... 16 MIGRATING CORROSION INHIBITORS ......................................................................................................... 17 DEMOLITION AND REBUILDING................................................................................................................... 17 MEASURES THAT ALTER APPEARANCE ...................................................................................................... 17 PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE CONDITION (CONDITION INVESTIGATION) ...................................... 18 DETERMINING THE STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS ...................................................................................... 19 EVALUATION OF POTENTIAL DEGRADATION MECHANISMS AND TYPES OF MALFUNCTION.............................. 19 Reinforcement Corrosion Due to Carbonation or Chlorides in Concrete .......................................... 19 Disintegration of Concrete ................................................................................................................. 21 Decrease in Bearing Capacity ........................................................................................................... 22 Other Malfunctions ............................................................................................................................ 22 PREREQUISITES FOR CONSERVATION ............................................................................................... 23 INSTRUCTIONS FOR PRO-ACTIVE MAINTENANCE ............................................................................ 25 USEFUL LITERATURE ............................................................................................................................. 27
Deterioration in Concrete The service-life of reinforced concrete structures, like concrete panel facades, is often strongly limited by deterioration due to several mechanisms. Therefore, some kinds of repair measures become, sooner or later, necessary to maintain the aesthetics and safety of the structures. If the quality of a structure is poor and its exposure is severe, and if maintenance is neglected, heavy repairs are usually needed to restore the technical performance of the structure. Such repairs often change the original appearance significantly. Therefore, it is important to take into account the properties of the structure as well as the effects of deterioration in determining the need of maintenance in the future, when the eligibility of a target building for conservation is evaluated. The deteriorative mechanisms are dealt with in the chapter on Degradation of Concrete.
Protective Measures By applying suitable relatively light measures well in advance, it is usually possible to prevent damage or at least retard the propagation of deterioration to prolong the service-life significantly and postpone the need of heavy repair. Therefore, it is important to be aware of the availability and impact of maintenance-type repair methods. These are discussed in the chapter on Measures to Retard Deterioration. Procedure for Conservation Determining Eligibility for
The durability of a concrete structure, the possible propagation of deterioration and the remaining service-life determine the need for repair. These factors cannot be determined by visual inspection if the damage is not already severe. They can only be established by an investigation procedure, which should be carried out by a skilled investigating engineer whenever repairs are considered. The procedure is described in the chapter on Procedure for Determining Condition.
Degradation of Concrete
Concrete facades as well as all other concrete structures exposed to European outdoor climate are affected by several degradation mechanisms such as reinforcement corrosion and disintegration by different mechanisms. Degradation may limit the service life of structures and, therefore, the possibility of retaining the present or original appearance of buildings and suburbs. This is why it is important to know the basics of the degradation mechanisms of concrete to be able to successfully use suitable renovation measures. Recognition and description of different types of degradation mechanisms, which limit the service life of a structure, will be presented below. Potential problems in structures may be caused either by different kinds of deterioration mechanisms or by malfunction of structures, for example problems with moisture behaviour. Usually, degradation, like the corrosion of reinforcing steel, may proceed for relatively long in a structure before becoming visible. Degradation may result in, for instance, aesthetic problems or even reduced bearing capacity of structures. From experience it is known that defective moisture performance of joints and different connection details may cause localised damage thereby accelerating the propagation of deterioration.
Fig 4. Stained and degraded coating causing aesthetic problems, Prnu KEK, Estonia.
Corrosion of Steel
One of the most common degradation mechanisms causing the need to repair concrete facades, and concrete structures in general is the corrosion of reinforcement due to carbonation or chlorides. Reinforcing bars within concrete are normally well protected from corrosion due to the high alkalinity of concrete pore water. Corrosion may start when the passivity is destroyed, either by chloride penetration or due to the lowering of the pH in the carbonated concrete. Carbonation Carbonation is a chemical reaction where atmospheric carbon dioxide diffuses into the pore system of concrete and reacts with the alkaline hydroxides of concrete. Due to carbonation, the pH of the concrete decreases from the level of 13 to the level of 8.5 and the passivity of reinforcing steel loses its passivity. This initiates active corrosion if there is enough moisture and oxygen available in the concrete. Carbonation begins at the surface of a newly constructed member and propagates slowly as a front at a decelerating rate deeper into the structure (Fig 5). The speed of propagation is influenced mainly by the quality of concrete (amount of cement and porosity of concrete) as well as moisture exposure. Heavy moisture exposure, for example due to rainfall, slows down carbonation because water blocks the pores from CO2. Therefore, for example, carbonation is much slower on the upper surfaces of balcony slabs than on the soffits, which are sheltered from rain.
extremely low, i.e. around 0.03 - 0.07 weight percent. Whereas carbonation-induced corrosion leads to more or less uniform corrosion, chloride attack usually causes localised corrosion, i.e. small areas suffering from severe corrosion. This is known as pitting corrosion and can result in severe reduction in steel diameter. Chloride-induced corrosion becomes highly accelerated when carbonation reaches reinforcement depth. This means that the extent of visible corrosion damage may increase strongly in a short time. Active Corrosion
Fig 5. Carbonation propagates as a front into the structure.
Carbonation cannot be seen. The determination of the carbonation depth of concrete always requires sampling and laboratory testing. The most typical carbonation depths of concrete facades constructed in the 1960s and 1970s are nowadays around 10 20 mm if the concrete quality is normal. The depth of the concrete cover varies a lot, but quite often the reinforcement is in carbonated concrete. From this it can be concluded that the corrosion problems are actually caused by insufficient cover depths of reinforcement.
Chloride Contamination The passivity of steel may be destroyed also by the presence of chlorine ions derived either from the environment or from the use of contaminated constituents of concrete. Chlorides act as catalysts to corrosion and, therefore, the corrosion process may proceed rather quickly. The threshold value of chloride contamination for corrosion to start in non-carbonated concrete is
Once the passivity is destroyed either by carbonation or by chloride contamination, active corrosion may start in the presence of moisture and oxygen. The rate of corrosion depends strongly on the moisture content of concrete and proceeds significantly only if the relative humidity of concrete exceeds 80 %. Due to corrosion, the diameter of steel bars becomes smaller and their tensile capacity is weakened. Thus, besides aesthetic problems, corrosion may also cause a safety hazard. Corrosion may run for a long time before it can be noticed on the surface of the structure. Eventually, corrosion products accumulate on the steel surface and occupy a 3 to 6 times larger volume than the original metal. This generates an internal pressure, which leads to cracking or spalling of the concrete cover (Fig 6, Fig 7). Visible damage appears first on the spots where the concrete cover is thinnest. The service-life of concrete with respect to carbonation-induced corrosion consists of two phases: the carbonation and corrosion phases (Fig 8). It must be noted that, for instance, moisture exposure effects carbonation and corrosion differently. In moist conditions, the carbonation reaction is slow whereas the corrosion reaction proceeds actively.
Fig 6. Corrosion products generate a pressure, which leads to spalling of the concrete cover.
Fig 8. The service-life of a concrete structure consists of two phases: carbonation and corrosion phases.
Disintegration of Concrete
Concrete is a very brittle material. It can stand only extremely limited tensile strains without cracking. Internal tensile stresses due to expansion processes inside concrete may result in internal cracking and, therefore, disintegration of concrete (Fig 9). Concrete may disintegrate as a result of several phenomenona, such as frost weathering, formation of late ettringite or alkaliaggregate reaction, which results in internal expansion.
Fig 9. Internal cracks caused by freeze-thaw action. Picture shows polished section of concrete taken from a concrete facade.
Disintegration by Freeze - Thaw Exposure Concrete is a porous material whose pore system may hold varying amounts of water, easily more than 10 % of its volume. As the water in the pores freezes, it expands about 9 % by volume, which creates hydraulic pressure in the system. If the level of water saturation of the system is high, the overpressure cannot escape into air-filled pores and thus causes mechanical damage to the internal structure of the concrete resulting finally in total loss of strength. Frost resistant concrete can be produced by airentrainment, which means that a sufficient amount of permanently air-filled so-called protective pores are created in the concrete by adding a suitable agent to the concrete mix. The idea of the protective pores is that the pressure from the freezing dilation of water can escape into these air-filled pores (Fig 10). Most of the concrete cast in the 1960s and 1970s is not frost-resistant, which is why its moisture behaviour and level of moisture exposure have a strong impact on probability of frost damage. Because the propagation of frost damage requires that the pores are almost totally filled with water, a reduction in moisture exposure * * * Formation of Ettringite The formation of ettringite is a chemical reaction caused by sulphate minerals that occur in hydrated cement. Ettringite may form in concrete as a result of excessive thermal treatment during the curing of concrete or if the concrete is for some reason contaminated by sulphates. An ettringite reaction involves a strong volume expansion of reaction products, i.e. swelling, since the volume of ettringite is roughly 300-fold compared to the volume of the reactants. The forming ettringite mineral crystallises onto the walls of the air-filled pores whereby the volume of protective pores and the frost resistance of concrete decrease. An ettringite reaction leads to concrete degradation either as a result of frost weathering or as the pressure created by the filling of pores causes cracking of the concrete. Finally, the deteriorated concrete loses its strength. The formation of ettringite requires that the concrete is very moist at least periodically. is an efficient way to reduce the risk of damage. For instance, the risk of frost-damage to a balcony slab can be reduced by proper waterproofing.
Fig 10. Sufficient air voids in the cement paste ensure frost resistance. The arrows represent the flux of water in freezing concrete.
Fig. 11. Ettringite mineral crystals formed onto the walls of the air-filled pores decrease the volume of protective pores and the frost resistance of concrete. The shown area is about 0.6 mm x 0.5 mm (Photo: A. Koskiahde, Betonialan Ohuthiekeskus FCM Oy)
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Alkali Reactivity of Aggregate An alkali-aggregate reaction is an expansion process between alkali and aggregate grains in hardened concrete. Due to the alkalinity of hydrated cement, certain types of aggregate may degrade producing expansive products. The reaction requires that the cement contains an abundance of alkalis (Na, K), the aggregate includes minerals with low alkali resistance, and the moisture content of the concrete is sufficiently high. Alkali-aggregate reactions are divided into three general types: alkali-silicon, alkalicarbonate and alkali-silicate reactions depending on the reacting aggregate. An alkali-aggregate reaction is a common cause of concrete cracking in areas where alkalisusceptible aggregates are used usually relatively young sediment-type aggregates containing siliceous minerals such as opal, chert, chalcedony, tridymite, cristobalite or strained quartz. Dense deep-seated aggregates generally have high chemical resistance. A concrete structure affected by an alkaliaggregate reaction is typically stained by surface moisture, exhibits irregular pattern cracking and swelling, and has a gel-like reaction product oozing out of the cracks. The damage caused by the alkali-aggregate reaction resembles the cracking due to frost weathering and both often appear simultaneously.
Fig. 12. Frost damage from extremely severe moisture exposure due to faulty balcony glazing.
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Delamination of Tiles
Many kinds of tiles (ceramic, clay brick, natural stone) have been used in concrete facades. They are generally attached to the concrete surface by a bond between the tiles and concrete (concrete is cast on the tiles) or by fixing mortar (tiles are fixed to hardened concrete). Tiles are usually durable, but weathering may weaken their bond. In the case of impermeable tiles (ceramic and natural stone) accumulation of moisture behind the tiles is possible. This can lead to disbonding due to frost damage. It is also possible that the concrete substrate disintegrates. If the cover depths behind the tiles are small, tiles can be disbonded by corrosion.
Fig. 14. Delamination of ceramic tiles.
Degradation of Coatings
The typical service-life for an ordinary coating on a concrete facade is somewhere around 20 years. Because coatings have traditionally been used on concrete structures purely for aesthetic reasons, normal degradation is usually not a big problem. Whenever the appearance of the surface is no longer appealing enough, it is simply recoated. That is a relatively straightforward procedure provided that the concrete structure itself is in good condition. It must be noted that even if the coating seems to be in good condition, the structure underneath may be deteriorated.
Fig. 15. Degradation of coating is typical in concrete facades and balconies.
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Fig. 16. Cracking in concrete panels. On the left the cracking is caused by freeze-thaw action.
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It is important that the feasibility of the maintenance and repair techniques to be used are considered by a professional structural engineering on the basis of the results of the condition investigation. The service-life of a repair method depends mainly on three factors: the proper selection of a repair in each case, the work performance and environmental circumstances. The service lives mentioned below represent a successful implementation of repair where all the above factors have been considered.
Monitoring of Condition
It is not always necessary to apply repair measures to the structure or building immediately although a deterioration process is clearly going on. Sometimes better and more economical results can be achieved by postponing repair measures. For example, a structure may still look good but some corrosion damage is expected due to minimal cover depths. If that does not cause a safety hazard and the surface is such that it allows easy repair of damage, the repair can wait until the damage has occurred. Monitoring of a structure means that the state of its deterioration process is followed to detect any unexpected damage. It is also important to keep an eye on the structure to ensure that no significant changes in its exposure conditions for the worse take place.
Patch repair of local visible damage and renewal of elastic joints are usually connected to standard painting procedure.
Protective Coatings may be utilised if the structure is still in good shape but there is risk of future damage. Concrete that is not air-entrained or is made with alkali-susceptible aggregate or where the carbonation front has advanced near the reinforcement are examples where a protective coating may be a good solution for retarding deterioration. It should be pointed out that protective coatings may not function as expected if the concrete is already damaged. A typical service-life for a protective coating on a concrete faade is around 20 25 years. Impregnation means treatment of surfaces by a material, which penetrates into concrete and provides it with water-repellent properties without changing the colour or forming a film on the surface. Impregnation can be made with a liquid, gel or cream type material, which usually contains silane. Impregnation reduces the amount of water absorbed by concrete e.g. from rainfall. However, it is important to realise that when the surface turns non-absorbing, the amount of water penetrating the surface locally, for example through cracks and other leakage points, will increase.
Fig. 17. Repair of local visible damage by patch repair and renewal of elastic joints are usually connected to standard painting procedure.
Patch Repair
Patch repair is a traditional way of repairing local damage in all kinds of concrete structures. It can be a light method in connection with coating renewal, but also involve heavy repair. In the heavy alternative, also areas where the damage is still unseen are repaired. The basic idea of a patch repair is to remove deteriorated concrete and expose corroding steel, and then replace the removed concrete with new material. Cast concrete, shotcrete or, most usually, special repair mortar is used in the work. The surface of the repaired area is finished by different methods depending on the surface type. In the case of painted plain concrete surfaces the whole faade may be treated with finishing mortar and then recoated. Patch repairs are usually exposed to nearly the same environmental and other loads as the structure before the repair, particularly if no protection, like a protective coating, is applied as part of the repair. Since the materials used in the repair work are usually cementatious like concrete, the repaired area will be subjected to nearly the same harmful processes as the surrounding structure.
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It is important to note that the service-life of a repaired structure does not depend merely on the durability of the repaired areas but also essentially on the durability of other parts of the structure that have not yet been repaired. In many cases, the degradation of parts other than the repaired ones will determine the actual service-life of repaired structures. Patch repair is a feasible method when the amount of damage is very limited, like slight corrosion damage or small local incipient disintegration and the repair work is easy and simple. A good rule of thumb is that local repair should be applied only to local damage. Prior to planning of repair, a careful condition investigation has to be always carried out to find out the real extent of the damage to be repaired. In principle, patch repairs are suitable when the aim is to conserve the present appearance of the building. If the surface cannot be coated or it is highly textured, it is possible that the repaired
areas stand out too clearly from the original surface. A typical service-life for a thorough patch repair on a concrete faade is around 20 - 30 years.
Fig. 19. The repaired areas stand out clearly from the original surface in concrete panels with an exposed aggregate surface.
Fig. 20. Temporary anode system is attached to the old faade surface and is coated with wet-sprayed cellulose.
Fig 21. Overcladding may change the original appearance of the building considerably.
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Fig. 22. Field and laboratory tests are essential parts of a condition investigation.
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Fig. 23. Construction documents are an important information source, but they cannot be trusted absolutely.
Reinforcement Corrosion Due to Carbonation or Chlorides in Concrete Initial data for the study of the corrosion of reinforcing steel is gathered from the documents and by visual inspection. By visual inspection it is possible to estimate: - the amount and location of visible damage (spalls, cracks, rust stains or spots), the depth of concrete cover in damaged spots, and the moisture behaviour that affects the rate of active corrosion.
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The cause and exact extent of corrosion damage are determined by laboratory and field tests. The assessment of the amount of steel in active corrosion state at various depths is based on samples of carbonation depths and cover depths of reinforcement. In the field, the distribution of cover depths is measured by a covermeter separately from each group of structures. In the laboratory, it is possible to determine the penetration of carbonation from core samples by using a phenolphthalein indicator, which colours the non-carbonated concrete purple. It must be noted that the carbonation front usually varies a lot across the structure. Therefore, several samples must be taken to get a correct view of carbonation. Chloride contamination is measured from drilled powder samples, for example, by titration. In the case of concrete structures exposed to chloride, such as bridges, chloride content is determined from samples taken from different depths to find out the penetration depth. In the case of mixed-in chlorides (added on purpose to accelerate the hardening process) the amount is equal throughout the concrete and usually exceeds the critical chloride content significantly.
carbonation n
The extent of corroding reinforcement can be estimated by comparing the carbonation or chloride depth distribution of concrete to the cover depth distribution of rebars according to Figure 26. It shows, for example, that rebars located closer than 12 mm to the surface may be corroding.
Fig. 25. The phenolphthalein indicator leaves the carbonated concrete colourless.
cover depth
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
depth [mm]
Fig 26. An example of histograms of measured carbonation and cover depth distributions.
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Disintegration of Concrete The assessment of disintegration of concrete requires examining two basically different issues, i.e. whether the concrete is susceptible to this type deterioration (frost resistant, contains susceptible aggregate or harmful sulphates) and whether it has already suffered damage. The existence, degree and extent of degradation must be investigated by several different methods. Visual inspection is only capable of revealing far advanced damage. It is used to assess the extent and location of visible degradation and various signs indicating degradation such as type of cracking pattern of concrete surfaces, efflorescence from cracks, warping of precast panels (Fig. 27) and compression of panel joints (Fig. 28). Field investigation of disintegration consists of core sampling and careful hammering of concrete surfaces. Far advanced damage can be detected and its extent evaluated by hammering a concrete surface with a heavy hammer.
The actual damage state due to disintegration is usually determined in a laboratory from samples indirectly by tensile strength tests or directly by, so-called thin-section analysis. This means that the micro-structure of the concrete is studied with an optical microscope. This requires that a very thin (20 m) sample is prepared from the core sample. The assessment of the propagation of a disintegration process in concrete is considerably more difficult compared to that of steel corrosion. Concrete structures found to be susceptible to disintegration do not necessarily show any damage in practise. Besides material properties, the moisture stress level also affects essentially the occurrence of damage. In general, it can be stated that the disintegration process usually accelerates with time. This is because the propagation of damage increases cracking, which increases permeability. Thus, the progress
of damage usually raises the moisture content of concrete. The progress of disintegration should be monitored by regular testing, for example by tensile strength tests.
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Decrease in Bearing Capacity One of the most important tasks of a condition investigation is to find out any possible decrease in the bearing capacity of structural members or weakening of the structural fixings or ties of a structure (for example weakening of the ties of sandwich panels due to corrosion). The condition of structural members, fixings and ties is examined in the field usually from drilled or * * * Other Malfunctions Other malfunctions are usually related to flaws in the moisture behaviour of the structure. They are usually discovered by means of visual inspection. Moisture measurements cannot usually determine moisture performance, because the moisture content of structures varies significantly depending on seasonal changes and recent weather conditions. Visual inspection to evaluate moisture behaviour includes examination of defects in elastic joints and other exposed joints, connections and details, performance of possible ventilation inside the structure, defects in paints and coatings, defects in facade tilings (ceramic, clay brick or natural stone tiles), harmful cracking or deformations in concrete, defects due to the use of the structure (for example normal wear), etc. chiselled holes by visual inspection. It should be pointed out that if the condition seems to be good, examinations have to be carried out in several spots and also in the most exposed areas to confirm the initial result. The proving of bad condition requires examinations in much fewer spots.
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DIFFICULTY INCREASES
Structured surfaces: - Uncoated plain concrete (Fig. 30) - Brushed concrete (Fig. 31) - Exposed aggregate concrete (Fig. 32, 33) - Ceramic tile finishing (Fig. 34) - Pigmented uncoated concrete - Patterned concrete (Fig. 35) - Special surface textures (Fig. 36)
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Useful Literature
Broomfield, J. Corrosion of steel in concrete, understanding, investigation and repair. E&FN Spon. 1997. Glendinning, M. and Muthesius, S. Tower Block: Modern Public Housing in England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland Yale University Press 1994 Kalm, M. and Ruudi, I. (editors) Constructed happiness-Domestic Environment in the Cold War Era. Estonian Academy of Arts, Proceedings 16. Tallinn 2005 Mattila, J. On the Durability of Cement-Based Patch Repairs of Finnish Concrete Facades and Balconies. Doctoral Thesis. Tampere University of Technology 2003 MacDonald, S. Concrete: Building Pathology. Blackwell Publishing 2002 Pigeon, M. and Pleau R. Durability of concrete in cold climates. E&FN Spon. 1995. Pentti, M. The Accuracy of the Extent-of-Corrosion Estimate Based on the Sampling of Carbonation and Cover Depths of Reinforced Concrete Faade Panels. Doctoral thesis. Tampere University of Technology 1999
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91 90 89 88 87
Binamu, A., Lindberg, R., The Impact of Air Tightness of The Building Envelope on The Efficiency of Ventilation Systems with Heat Recovery. TTKK 2001. 62 p. + 7 app., 25 Leivo, V., Rantala, J., Maanvaraisten alapohjarakenteiden kosteuskyttytyminen. TTKK 2000. 124 s. 34 Junttila, T. (toim.), Venjn federaation kaavoitus- ja rakennuslaki. TTKK 2000. 49 s. 34 Niemel, T., Vinha, J., Lindberg, R., Carbon Dioxide Permeability of Cellulose-Insulated Wall Structures. TUT 2000. 46 p. + 9 app. 25 Vinha, J., Kkel, P., Water Vapour Transmission in Wall Structures Due to Diffusion and Convection. TUT 1999. 110 s. 34 Suonketo, J., Pessi, A-M., Pentti, M., Pessi, A-M., Suonketo, J., Pentti, M., Raunio-Lehtimki, A. Betonielementtijulkisivujen mikrobiologinen toimivuus. TTKK. 1999. 88 s. + 6 liites. 42 Pentti, M., Haukijrvi, M., Betonijulkisivujen saumausten suunnittelu ja laadunvarmistus. TTKK 2000. 2. tydennetty painos. 78 s. + 3 liites. 42 Torikka, K., Hyyplinen, T., Mattila, J., Lindberg, R., Kosteusvauriokorjausten laadunvarmistus. TTKK 1999. 106 s. + 37 liites. 34 Mattila, J., Peuhkurinen, T., Lhikerrostalon lisrakentamishankkeen tekninen esiselvitysmenettely. Korjaus- ja LVIS-tekninen osuus. TTKK 1999. 48 s. Kylliinen, M., Keronen, A., Lisrakentamisen rakennetekniset mahdollisuudet lhiiden asuinkerrostaloissa. TTKK 1999. 59 s. + 37 liites. 34 Vinha, J., Kkel, P., Vesihyryn siirtyminen seinrakenteissa diffuusion ja konvektion vaikutuksesta. TTKK 2001. 3 painos. 81 s. + 29 liites. 34 Leivo, V. (toim.), Opas kosteusongelmiin rakennustekninen, mikrobiologinen ja lketieteellinen nkkulma. TTKK 1998. 157 s. 25 Pentti, M., Hyyplinen, T., Ulkoseinrakenteiden kosteustekninen suunnittelu. TTKK 1999. 150 s. + 40 liites. 42 Lepo, K., Laatujrjestelmn kelpoisuus. TTKK 1998. 101 s. + 50 liites. Berg, P., Malinen, P., Leivo, V., Internal Monitoring of The Technology Programme for Improving Product Development Efficiency in Manufacturing Industries Rapid Programme. TUT 1998. 81 s. + 93 liites. Berg, P., Salminen, K., Leivo, V., Nopeat tuotantojrjestelmt teknologiaohjelman painoalueet vuosille 1998-2000 sek ohjelman arviointi- ja ohjaussuunnitelma. TTKK 1998. 55 s. + 37 liites. Lindberg, R., Kernen, H., Teikari, M., Ulkoseinrakenteen vaikutus rakennuksen energiankulutukseen. TTKK 1998. 34 s. + 26 liites. Pentti, M., Huttunen, I., Vepslinen, K., Olenius, K., Betonijulkisivujen ja parvekkeiden korjaus. Osa III Korjaushanke. TTKK 1998. 124 s. + 23 liites. 42 Julkaisematon Pentti, M., Huttunen, I., Vepslinen, K., Olenius, K., Betonijulkisivujen ja parvekkeiden korjaus. Osa III Korjaushanke. TTKK 1998. 124 s. + 23 liites. 42
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