LindaBillings,Ph.D. ResearchProfessor SchoolofMediaandPublicAffairs GeorgeWashingtonUniversity Washington,DC20052 And PrincipalInvestigator,NASAAstrobiologyProgram Ph.7036359799 billingslinda1@gmail.com CurrentsofChange,March1014,2010,Portland,OR JointannualmeetingoftheAmericanSocietyforEnvironmentalHistoryandtheNationalcouncilon PublicHistory Sustainablespaceexploration: goodfortheUniverse,goodfortheEarth,goodforthenation, orgoodfortheaerospaceindustry?

ry? Abstract InJanuary2004,PresidentGeorgeW.BushannouncedhisVisionforSpaceExploration,aplanfor returningpeopletotheMoon,establishingapermanentbasethere,andsendingpeopletoMars.The goalwastoadvanceU.S.scientific,security,andeconomicintereststhrougharobustspace explorationprogram.Theaimwastoimplementasustainedandaffordablehumanandrobotic programThePresidenttaskedtheNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration(NASA)with executingthisplan. Overthenextfiveyears,PresidentBushsappointeestoNASA,assistedbycivilservantsanda CoalitionforSpaceExplorationanindustrygrouporganizedandledbyNASAstwobiggesthuman spaceflightcontractors,BoeingandLockheedMartinproceededtopromotetheVisionto Congressandtocitizens,advocatingforasustainableeffort. Theideaofsustainablespaceexploration,aspromotedbyadvocatesofhumanexplorationand settlement,restsontheassumptionthathumanswilldevelopandsettlespaceandthatspace developmentandhumanexpansionintospaceareinherentlygood.Conceptsforspacedevelopment rangefromspacetourismtoasteroidminingtothecolonizationandindustrializationof extraterrestrialworlds.Legal,economic,andethicalrationalesforspacedevelopmentare,asyet,ill defined. Thisanalysisexploreswhatsustainablemeansintherhetoricofspaceexplorationand development,bothofficialandpopular,from2004tothepresentandconsiderwhetherachangein administrationhaspromptedorshouldpromptanychangeinthisrhetoric. Introduction Ourconferencethemeis"CurrentsofChange,"andamongtherelatedtopicswewereaskedto considerinframingourpresentationwastherelationshipofhumansettlementtoenvironmental transformation.ThisisthetopicImgoingtofocusontoday,moreorless.Imgoingtocomparethe conceptionofspaceexplorationasanenterpriseofdiscoveryandunderstandingwiththeconception ofspaceexplorationasanenterpriseofconquest,exploitation,andcolonization.Illcompareand contrasttheideaofsustainabilityinthefieldofenvironmentanddevelopmentwiththeideaof sustainabilityinthefieldofspaceexplorationanddevelopmentandconsiderwhethersustainable developmentonEarthandsustainabledevelopmentinspacearerelatedordifferent.

While there is reasonable agreement on whatsustainablemeansintheworldofenvironmentand development,sustainableappearstoconveyadifferentmeaning,ormeanings,intheworldof spaceexplorationanddevelopment.Whenspaceadvocatescallforsustainableexploration,they aretypicallycallingforfundingthatisgreatenoughtomeetalltheexpectationsoftheaerospace communitywhichissimplynotfiscallypossibleandastabilityofpolicyandpoliticsthatissimply notattainableinourU.S.systemofgovernment,withits24,and6yrelectioncycles,mixingof politicalappointeesandcivilservants,andthegrowingperniciousinfluenceofmoneyedspecial interests.Theyrealsooperatingontheassumptionthatgrowthisgood,andinevitable. Theideaofsustainablespaceexploration,aspromotedbyadvocatesofhumanexplorationand settlement,restsontheassumptionthathumanswilldevelopspaceandthatspacedevelopmentis inherentlygood,andeveninevitable.Conceptsforspacedevelopmentrangefromspacetourismto lunarandasteroidminingtothecolonizationandindustrializationofextraterrestrialworlds.Legal, economic,andethicalrationalesforspacedevelopmentare,asyet,illdefined. History SincetheverybeginningsoftheSpaceAge,beforeanybodylaunchedanythingintospace,thespace communityhasbeenfondoftheideaofouterspaceasawideopenplace,ablankslate,anew frontier.1Afewexamplesoftheearlyrhetoricofspaceexplorationillustratethiskindofthinking. RussianspacevisionaryKonstantinTsiolkovsky(18571935)wasanearlyadvocateofspace colonization,towardthegoalofcontrollingallofnaturetheentireuniverse.2Sciencefiction authorOlafStapledon(18861950)espousedasimilarphilosophy,arguingthathumankindshould colonizeotherplanetstoexploittheirresourcesforEarthsbenefitandincreasemanspowerover theenvironment.3RocketengineerKrafftEhricke(19171984),akeyplayerinthestartoftheU.S. spaceprogram,agreed,assertingthattheentiresolarsystem,andasmuchoftheuniverseashecan reacharehumankindsrightfulDomainbyexpandingthroughtheuniverse,manfulfillshisdestiny asanelementoflife,endowedwiththepowerofreasonandthewisdomofmorallaw.4 InthepostApolloera,withtheriseofenvironmentalism,tensionhasdevelopedbetweentheideaof seekingnewEdensonthespacefrontierandconcernsaboutthepossibilityoftrashing extraterrestrialenvironments,justaswevetrashedourownplanet.Thisconflictcanbeseenasan ideologicalstrugglebetweenthegoalofdominionandthegoalofstewardship. Whiletheologyisnotmyareaofexpertise,IllnotethatthediscourseonChristiantheology encompassestheideathatgodhasgivenhumansdominionovertheEarthgenerallyinterpretedto beadirectivetodowhatwewantwiththeplanetandthecontrastingideathatgodexpectshumans tobestewardsofEarththatis,topreserveandprotectit.ManyChristiansandChristiangroups whobelieveinstewardshiphavealliedthemselveswiththeenvironmentalmovementoratleast identifiedwithitsvalues. Inthediscourseonspacepolicyandplans,thesameconflictisapparent.Inkeepingwithhistorical tradition,theGeorgeW.Bushadministrationsspacepolicyreflectedthedominionistperspective. TheBushadministration,however,cooptedthevocabularyofsustainabilitytomakethecasefor economicdevelopmentofthespaceenvironmentresourceexploitationforhumanprofit. Conceptsofsustainability Inpreparingthispresentation,Istartedtocollectexamplesofthesustainabilitytrope,inbooks, researcharticles,collegecoursedescriptions,andsoon,thatconveythecommon,environmentand development,conceptionoftheterm.ButthenIrealizedthatmyaudiencewouldbeknowledgeable enoughaboutsustainabilitytobeabletoforegoaseriesofslidesonthisparticulartopic.Iwould, however,liketoestablishabaselinedefinitionofsustainabilityforthepurposesofthisanalysis,so IllgobacktothesocalledBrundtlandreport. Thecommonconceptionofsustainabilityaroseoutoftheenvironmentalcommunity,andthe1987 ReportoftheWorldCommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopment,OurCommonFuture,a.k.a.the

Brundtlandreport,iswidelyacceptedasthesourceofthestandarddefinitionofsustainability.The UnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyhadtaskedthiscommissionwithproposinglongterm environmentalstrategiesforachievingsustainabledevelopmentbytheyear2000andbeyonda globalagendaforchange. Thecommissionconcludedthatsustainableeconomicdevelopmentmustmeettheneedsofthe presentwithoutcompromisingtheabilityoffuturegenerationstomeettheirownneeds.Indefining sustainability,thecommissionrecognizedthattheremustbesomelimitstogrowthnotabsolute limitsbutlimitationsimposedbythepresentstateoftechnologyandsocialorganizationon environmentalresourcesandbytheabilityofthebiospheretoabsorbtheeffectsofhumanactivities andthatdevelopmentplanningmustfocusonalleviatingpoverty: Meetingessentialneedsrequiresnotonlyaneweraofeconomicgrowth fornationsinwhichthemajorityarepoor,butanassurancethatthosepoor gettheirfairshareoftheresourcesrequiredtosustainthatgrowth.Such equitywouldbeaidedbypoliticalsystemsthatsecureeffectivecitizenparticipationin decisionmakingandbygreaterdemocracyininternationaldecisionmaking.Sustainable globaldevelopmentrequiresthatthosewhoaremoreaffluentadoptlifestyleswithinthe planet'secologicalmeans.Sustainabledevelopmentisaprocessofchangeinwhichthe exploitationofresources,thedirectionofinvestments,theorientationoftechnological development,andinstitutionalchangearemadeconsistentwithfutureaswellaspresent needs.5 Therhetoricofgrassrootsspaceadvocates Movingfromtheworldofenvironmentanddevelopmenttotheworldofspaceexplorationand development,letsexaminesustainabilityintherhetoricofthespacecommunity. IllstartwiththeNationalSpaceSociety,aselfdescribedgrassrootsadvocacygroupthatdepends aboutequallyonindividualandcorporatecontributions.TheNSSwascreatedin1987withthe mergeroftheNationalSpaceInstitute,foundedbyWernervonBraunin1974,andtheL5Society, foundedbyfansofspacecolonizationadvocateGerardK.ONeillin1975. Inaproclamationissueduponitscreation,thenewNSSasserted:WedeclaretheSocietyslong rangegoalstobetocreateaspacefaringcivilizationwhichwillestablishcommunitiesbeyondthe Earth;topromotetheexplorationandeconomicdevelopmentofspace;toadvocatetheopeningof thespacefrontier,therebyenablinghumanitytotakeitsrightfulplaceintheSolarSystem. TheNSShasavisionforspaceexploration:peoplelivingandworkinginthrivingcommunities beyondtheEarth,andtheuseofthevastresourcesofspaceforthedramaticbettermentof humanity.Itsmissionis"topromotesocial,economic,technological,andpoliticalchangeinorderto expandcivilizationbeyondEarth,tosettlespaceandtousetheresultingresourcestobuildahopeful andprosperousfutureforhumanity."TheNSShasarticulatedadetailedrationaleforspace exploration,whichidentifiessurvivalofthehumanspeciesandEarthsbiosphereasakeygoal: SpacetechnologyprovidesbothmeanstomonitorthreatstolifeonEarthandwaystohelpcurtail them.Spaceindustrializationandsettlementprovidesafetyvalvestorelievethepressuresthatcause Earthboundthreats.Theyalsoprovideescaperoutesincaseofcatastrophicmanmadeor extraterrestrialthreats.HumanityhasinheritedthestewardshipoftheplanetEarth.Itwilltherefore needthevastresourcesofouterspacetoreversethedamageithascausedtotheEarthsbiosphere, andultimatelyenhancealllifeonEarth.Therationalealsoadvocatesforspaceexplorationasa meansofgrowthunlimitedroomforexpansionandprosperityunlimitedresources.Among theSocietysbeliefsareindividualrights,unrestrictedaccesstospace,personalpropertyrights, freemarketeconomics,governmentfundingofhighriskR&D,internationalcooperation,democratic values,enhancementofEarthsecology,andprotectionofnewenvironments.6 IthinkofNSSasastandardbearerfortheconquestandexploitationofspace,andlaterIllgetback towhyIthinkthisissignificant.Otherspaceadvocacygroupspropagatesimilarrhetoricsof

conquestandexploitationentitlement,asitwereamongthem,theSpaceFrontierFoundation,the SpaceStudiesInstitute,andtheMarsSociety. ThestatedmissionoftheSpaceFrontierFoundationisopeningthespacefrontiertohuman settlementasrapidlyaspossible.Itspurposeistounleashthepoweroffreeenterpriseandleada unitedhumanitypermanentlyintotheSolarSystem.AmongitsgoalsareprotectingtheEarths fragilebiosphereandcreatingafreerandmoreprosperouslifeforeachgenerationbyusingthe unlimitedenergyandmaterialresourcesofspace.Thefoundationoffersthisvisionofthehuman future:Weseeourcivilizationatacrossroads.Downonepathisafutureoflimitstogrowth, environmentaldegradationandultimatelyextinction.Downtheotherpathlielimitlessgrowth,an environmentallypristineEarthandanopenandfreefrontierinspace.7 TheMarsSociety,initsfoundingdeclaration,articulatesasimilarvision:Thesettlingofthe MartianNewWorldisanopportunityforanobleexperimentinwhichhumanityhasanotherchance toshedoldbaggageandbegintheworldanew;carryingforwardasmuchofthebestofourheritage aspossibleandleavingtheworstbehindExplorationandsettlementofMarsisoneofthegreatest humanendeavorspossibleinourtime.Nonoblercausehaseverbeen.8 Anearlyreferencetosustainabilityinspacepolicyrhetoricturnsupina1993paperbyeconomist andspacepolicyanalystMollyMacauley,aseniorfellowatResourcesfortheFuture.9Macauleys conceptionofsustainablespaceactivitieshasmoretodowithenvironmentalpreservationand protectionEarthandspaceenvironmentsthanitdoeswithenablingeconomicgrowth.Shes concernedaboutcontrollingorbitaldebris,regulatingtheuseoftheelectromagneticspectrum,and enforcingplanetaryprotectionpoliciestoensurethatspacemissionsdontcontaminate extraterrestrialenvironmentsinthecourseofexploringthem. Othersinthespacepolicycommunityareconcernedaboutwhattheynowcallspacesecurity maintainingspaceforpeacefuluses,asdictatedbythe1967UnitedNationsTreatyonPrinciples GoverningtheActivitiesofStatesintheExplorationandUseofOuterSpace,IncludingtheMoonand OtherCelestialBodies(knownastheOuterSpaceTreaty)10andprotectingspacebasedassetsfrom encounterswithnaturalandartificialdebrisaswellasfrommilitaryaggression. AttheUnitedNations,spacetechnologyhasbeencoupledwiththegoalofsustainabledevelopment inawaythatmakessense.Alistofspacerelatedinitiativesandprogramscarriedoutbymember statesoftheU.N.CommitteeonthePeacefulUsesofOuterSpacethatrespondtospecific recommendationscontainedintheJohannesburgPlanofImplementationoftheWorldSummiton SustainableDevelopmentprovidesacomprehensivesurveyofthespacecommunity'sresponseto theWSSDoutcomes.11 Whilethere is reasonable agreement on whatsustainablemeansintheworldofenvironmentand development.Intheworldofspaceexplorationanddevelopment,sustainableappearstoconveya differentmeaning,ormeanings.Whenspaceadvocatescallforsustainableexploration,theyare typicallycallingforfundingthatisgreatenoughtomeetalltheexpectationsoftheaerospace communitywhichissimplynotfiscallypossibleandastabilityofpolicyandpoliticsthatissimply notattainableinourU.S.systemofgovernment,withits24,and6yrelectioncycles,mixingof politicalappointeesandcivilservants,andthegrowingperniciousinfluenceofmoneyedspecial interests.Theyrealsooperatingontheassumptionthatgrowthisgood,andinevitable. Officialgovernmentrhetoricaboutspaceexplorationtypicallyhasembodiedthebeliefthatgrowthis good,eveninthepostApolloera.In1986,theNationalCommissiononSpaceapanelofexperts appointedbyPresidentReagantorecommenddirectionsforthenext25yearsofspaceexploration advocatedapioneeringmissionfor21stcenturyAmericatoleadtheexplorationanddevelopment ofthespacefrontier.Humankindisdestinedtoexpandtootherworlds,theCommissionopined, andourpurposeistoestablishfreesocietiesonnewworlds.12

AccordingtotheGeorgeF.W.Bushadministration,Americasspaceprogramiswhatcivilization needs.America,withitstremendousresources,isuniquelyqualifiedforleadershipinspace.Our successwillbeguaranteedbytheAmericanspiritthatsamespiritthattamedtheNorthAmerican continentandbuiltenduringdemocracy.13TheClintonadministrationperpetuatedthisrhetoricof Americanexceptionalismaswell. Therhetoricaltropeofsustainablespaceexplorationbecamepopularinspacepolicyrhetoricofthe GeorgeW.Bushadministration.Perhapsthisturnwasmeanttotemperthemanifestdestinyladen conceptionofspaceexplorationembeddedinspacepolicyrhetorictodate.14Butdespiteits environmentalroots,thistropeasappliedinspacepolicyrhetoricoftheG.W.Bushadministration continuedtoconveytheideathattheonlywaytosustainhumancivilizationistomigrateoutinto thespaceenvironment,colonizingandexploitingotherworlds.Reasonsgivenforpursuingthis coursearticulatedintherhetoricofspaceadvocacyfordecadeswerethedirestateofthe terrestrialenvironment,thethreatofimpactswithsocalledcivilizationendingasteroidsand comets,thehumanimperativetospreadourseeds,andtheneedtosupportourgrowingand insatiableappetitefornaturalresources. InJanuary2004,PresidentGeorgeW.BushannouncedhisVisionforSpaceExplorationtoreturn totheMoonandestablishapermanentbasethere,eventuallysendingpeopletoMars.ThePresident taskedtheNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministrationwithexecutingthisplan,andtheagency organizedanewSpaceExplorationMissionDirectoratetodothework.NASAAdministratorSean OKeefe,aBushappointee,saidtheaimofthevisionwastoexploreinasustainable,affordable, andflexiblemanner,towardthegoalofadvanc[ing]U.S.scientific,security,andeconomicinterests througharobustspaceexplorationprogram: Insupportofthisgoal,theUnitedStateswillimplementasustainedandaffordablehumanand roboticprogramtoexplorethesolarsystemandbeyondExplorationanddiscoveryarekeyagents ofgrowthinsocietytechnologically,economically,socially,internationally,andintellectually.This plansetsinmotionactivitiesthatwillcontributetochangeandgrowthintheU.S.andtheworldover thenextcentury.15 ANASAbrochureonthevisioncitedthegoalofsustainableandsustainedspaceexplorationa totalof15times.Disturbingly,italsofeaturedthisquotefromtheEnglishpoetJohnDonne(1572 1631):Manhathweavedoutanet,andthisnetthrowneupontheHeavens,andnowtheyarehis own.16 From2004through2008,thePresidentsappointeestoNASAandOSTP,assistedbycivilservants andaCoalitionforSpaceExplorationanindustrygrouporganizedandledbyNASAstwobiggest contractors,BoeingandLockheedMartinproceededtomarkettheVisiontoCongressandto citizens.In2005,OKeefeleftNASAandthePresidentappointedMikeGriffintoheadNASA.Untilhe lefttheagencyin2008,Griffin,alongwithotheradministrationofficials,advocatedforeconomic expansionintospace. Theaimofspaceexploration,Griffinclaimed,istomaketheexpansionanddevelopmentofthe spacefrontieranintegralpartofwhatitisthathumansocietiesdo.17Echoingdecadesofofficial rhetoric,hesaid,NorthAmericansarethewaywearebecauseofthechallengesofthefrontier.And further,hesaid,IbelievethatWesternthought,civilization,andidealsrepresentasuperiorsetof values,thesevaluesareirretrievablylinkedtoexpansion,andnowthisexpansion willcontinueintospace.18 In2006,WhiteHouseOfficeofScienceandTechnologyPolicyDirectorJohnMarburgerdelivereda keynoteaddressattheGoddardMemorialSymposium,anannualeventheldbytheAmerican AstronauticalSociety.Marburgertoldtheaudienceofaerospaceprofessionals: QuestionsaboutthevisionboildowntowhetherwewanttoincorporatetheSolarSystemin

oureconomicsphere,ornot.Ournationalpolicy,declaredbyPresidentBushandendorsed byCongresslastDecemberaffirmsthat,Thefundamentalgoalofthisvisionistoadvance U.S.scientific,security,andeconomicintereststhrougharobustspaceexplorationprogram. Soatleastfornowthequestionhasbeendecidedintheaffirmative. Thevisionisnotoneforafewdecades,butforamuchlongerperiodofspacedevelopment. ThatiswhythevisionemphasizestheneedtoImplementasustainedandaffordablehuman androboticprogramtoexplorethesolarsystemandbeyond.Tobesustainablethespace explorationbudgetmustgrowatthesamerateasthedomesticdiscretionarybudget.Tobe affordableitsfractionofthatbudgetmustbesmallenoughtobestableagainstcompetition fromotherpartsofthebudget.19 In2008,MarburgeragaindeliveredthekeynoteaddressattheGoddardMemorialSymposium, whereheexpoundedfurtherontheideaofsustainablespaceexploration: Icannotproveitexceptbypointingtothehistory,butitseemsthatthepaceandscaleofthe Apolloprogramwasunsustainable.Inanycaseitwasnotsustained,anditsrapiddemise createdseriouslongtermdifficultiesforNASAmanagement.Wedefinitelyneedstable budgetsthatgrowwithinflationinordertoavoidcostlyinterruptionsofmultiyear programsandconstructionschedules. ItwasnotonlytheApollobudgetthatwasunsustainable.TheentiremotivationforApollo wasaproductofauniquetime.Itwasmagnificent,bututterlyanomalous,andifwewantto sustaintheexpansionofhumanactivityintospacewehavetooperateinamorenormalway ofdoingbusiness.20 Theassumptionthatgrowthandexpansionareinherentlygoodisfirmlyembeddedina2009white paperpreparedbyanoutfitcalledtheAerospaceTechnologyWorkingGroup,presumablyfor PresidentObamasincomingNASAapppointees: Thenationalspaceenterprisehasnotsuccessfullyaddressedtheissuesof affordabilityandsustainabilityinspaceexploration,andaffordabilityand profitabilityinspacecommercedevelopment. Thecommercialdevelopmentofspacepromisestoprovideextraordinary opportunitiestodevelopneweconomiccapabilitiesthatwillmostlikelyhelp overcomeglobalchallengesandcrisesinenergy,climatechangeandresourceshortages. Humandevelopmentandeconomicexpansionintospacecouldevenhelpacceleratethe evolutionofhumancivilization,andalsohelpinspirehumancollaborativeandeffective diplomacy,thusenhancingbondsbetweennationsandfosteringanenduringworldpeace... Humanityhasachievedthehorizontalexplorationandeconomic expansionaroundourplanetthroughthousandsofyearsofhumanhistory, andnowitistimeforhumanitytoembarkontheoutwardexpansioninto spacetoenableawaveofspacebasedeconomicandcommercial developmentandspaceindustrializationonthehighfrontier.21 Thissortofthinking,whichisnotonlycommonbutalsowidelyacceptedintheaerospace community,isimpracticalawaveofspacebasedeconomicandcommercialdevelopmentand spaceindustrializationinspacewouldbeprohibitivelyexpensive,forstartersand,arguably, magicaltheclaimthatcommercialdevelopmentofspacecouldhelpsolveourenergyand environmentalcrisesandfosterworldpeaceisfarfetched,atbest. Ideological/rhetoricalshiftfromBushtoObama? WhenIfirstproposedthispresentation,Iwasthinkingthattheconceptofsustainablespace exploration,asarticulatedbypoliticalappointeesandcivilservantsoftheGeorgeW.Bush administration,wasarhetoricalproductofthisadministration.ButIwasntsure,asBarackObama

hadjustbeenelectedpresidentandhadnotyetappointedaNASAadministrator.Sincethen,Ive collectedenoughspaceexplorationrhetoricfromObamaadministrationofficialstobegintomake somecomparisons. ItappearsthattheObamaadministrationhasdroppedtherhetoricaltropeofsustainabilityinspace. Icantmakeafaircomparison,asIhaveseveralyearsofBushadministrationrhetorictoexamine andonlyoneyearsworthfromtheObamaadministration.Butsofar,itlookslikethecurrent administrationispursuingadifferentpath,rhetoricallyandotherwise.Thoughthetropeof sustainablespaceexplorationsurvivesinthespacecommunity,itisnolongerprominentinofficial rhetoric. Thatsaid,itsimportanttoconsiderthatNASAAdministratorCharlieBoldenstoptwopolitically appointedaides,DeputyAdministratorLoriGarverandChiefofStaffGeorgeWhitesides,areboth formerexecutivedirectorsoftheNationalSpaceSociety,thegrassrootsgroupwhoserhetoric stronglyadvocatesforthedevelopment,colonization,andexploitationofspace. In2009,theObamaAdministrationconvenedacommitteeofexpertstoreviewNASAshumanspace flightplans.InAugust2009,atapublicmeetingofthethisReviewofHumanSpaceFlightPlans Committee,JohnMarburger,WhiteHousescienceadvisorintheGeorgeW.Bushadministration,told thecommitteethatitsimportanttokeepsustainabilityinmindinplanningforhumanspaceflight. WhilenooneaskedMarburgertodefinesustainability,CommitteememberChrisChybadidask MarburgerifhethoughtNASAscurrenthumanexplorationprogramwassustainable. Marburgerrespondedthatitwashardtotell.Sustainabilityhasalottodowithwhatsocietycan tolerate,hesaid.Itsimportanttocraftaspaceexplorationstrategythatsnotvulnerableto exigenciesforexample,changesinadministration.Themostimportantfactorinsuchastrategyis sustainingtheworkforce.Idontknowifthecurrentprogramissustainableinthissense. Onthecommitteeswebsite,thesubjectofsustainabilityreceivesonlythefollowingbrief consideration: Q: WilltheCommitteeexaminetheeconomical&ecologicalsustainabilityoftheShuttle's replacement? A: ThecommitteewillutilizeanumberofFiguresofMeritfortheevaluationofvariousoptions. Sustainabilityinseveralformsisanextremelyimportantparameter.22 Todayonecanfindmanytreatisesadvocatingsustainedorsustainablespaceexplorationallover theWebandinprintmost,ifnotall,writtenbymen,andmost,ifnotall,builtontheassumption thatgrowthandexpansionaregoodandinevitable. Forexample,inapresentationonspacetourismandsustainabledevelopment,aspaceenthusiast affiliatedwiththeBritishInterplanetarySocietyasserts: Spacetourismandsustainabledevelopmentmayseemincompatiblebut[thereare]linkson fivelevels:operational,cultural,economic,resources,survival. Possibleeffectsofspacetourismonculture:environmentalconsciousness,inspirationofthe young,thefrontierculture,senseofpurpose,optimism. Sustainableresourcesdevelopment?Asteroidmining,lunarhelium3mining,solarpower satellitesystems.

Spacetourismisagrowingindustry,sustainabledevelopmentreflectsrealproblems, sustainabledevelopmentisabusinessopportunity,spacetourismlinksdirectlyto sustainabledevelopmentthroughoperations,culture,economics,resources,survival. Anotherexamplecomesfromamoreauthoritativesource,agroupofnationscollaboratingonspace exploration: WeareresolvedtoexploreournearestcompanionstheMoon,Marsandsomenearby asteroids.Ourgoalisnotafewquickvisits,butratherasustainedandultimatelyself sufficienthumanpresencebeyondEarth. Sustainablespaceexplorationisachallengethatnoonenationcandoonitsown. ThisGlobalExplorationStrategywillbringsignificantsocial,intellectualandeconomic benefitstopeopleonEarth.Wewilllearnabouttheevolutionofthesolarsystemandhowto protectagainstharshenvironments.Byunderstandinghowplanetswork,welearnmore aboutourEarth.Thetechnologiescreatedwillhelpbuildamoresustainablesociety. Itishopedthatentrepreneurswillcreatebusinessestoexploitresourcesorprovide commercialservices.Thus,spaceexplorationwillbecomemoresustainableand governmentresourcesmaybereleasedtopushtheboundsofhumanknowledge. WewillneedtosupporthumanandbiologicallifefarfromEarthbyconservingresources andrecyclingasmuchaspossible.Meetingthesechallengeswillfosterspinoffopportunities infieldssuchasmedicine,agricultureandenvironmentalmanagement,andhelpachieve sustainabledevelopmentonEarth.24 Thisrhetoricofsustainablespaceexploration/exploitationistroubling.Arecentarticleinthejournal Sustainabilitygetstotheheartofthematter.InanarticleentitledTheGrowthDelusion,BobLloyd pointsoutthatwhiletheWorlddoesnotwanttogiveuptheideaofcontinuingeconomicgrowth, thisideais,nonetheless,anirrationalbelief.25 Ivealreadymentionedonealternativeconceptionofsustainablespaceexploration,comingoutofthe socalledspacesecuritycommunity.Amongthoseconcernedaboutspacesecuritykeepingspace freeofweaponsandotherwisesafeandsecureforpeacefulcivilianusesasustainablespace environmentisidentifiedaskeytofuture,peaceful,globalspaceactivities.Whatsneededto maintainasustainablespaceenvironmentareorbitaldebriscontrolandotherinternationalrulesof theroadforspaceoperations.Inthediscourseonspacesecurity,thevalueofeconomicgrowthis backgroundedwhilethevalueofprotectionandpreservationisforegrounded. TheUnitedNationsInstituteforDisarmamentResearchisaleadingadvocateofthisconceptionof sustainablespace,holdingannualconferencesonBuildingtheArchitectureforSustainableSpace Securityincooperationwithinterestedmemberstates,researchinstitutes,andnongovernmental organizations.(Ref) Conclusions Intheend,then,whatissustainablespaceexploration? IntheGeorgeW.Bushadministration,thisphrasereferredtoprospectsforcontinuedhighlevelsof federalfundingforBushsVisionforSpaceExploration.Itturnedouttobebudgetarily unsustainable.TheObamaadministrationhasrejectedtheBushvisionandcomeupwithwhatitsays isamoreaffordableplanafiscallysustainableplan,asitwere.DefendersoftheBushvisionare nowexploringwhethertheirolder,bigger,planispoliticallysustainable.Whethervestedinterestsin Congressandindustrycan,orcannot,preservethevisioninthepoliticalarena,theycandolittle,if anything,toensurethatitisfiscallysustainable.

WouldsustainablespaceexplorationastheBushadministrationconceiveditbegoodfortheEarth? Probablynot,inthesensethatitwouldhaveexpandedintospacetheprovenindustrialpracticeof profitdrivenresourceexploitationwithinsufficientregardforenvironmentallossesinpossible violationoftheU.N.OuterSpaceTreaty. Wouldithavebeengoodforthenation?Itwouldhavebeengoodforthosebusinesssectorsthat wouldhaveprofited.Wouldithavebeengoodfortheaerospaceindustry?Mostdefinitely.Itwould havebeengoodforbusiness,butlikelynotforpeopleexceptperhapsforthoseemployedbythe aerospaceindustry. SowhataretheprospectsforPresidentObamasplanforspaceexploration?ThePresidentandNASA AdministratorBoldenarepragmatists.Theyseetheworldasitis,notastheywishitwouldbeor believeitoughttobe.Theyaretryingtobepracticalandsensibleinformulatingplansforthespace program,figuringoutwhattheycandointhecurrenteconomic,political,andculturalenvironment. Inthepoliticalenvironment,reactionhasbeenpredictableaconcertedcampaigntodefendthe statusquo.Advocatesofunlimitedgrowthandexpansionaffordable,sustainable,ornotare lobbyingtoadvancetheirinterests.Thediscoursehasturnedugly.Itremainstobeseenhowthis dramawillplayout. Meanwhile,thespacesciencecommunityisdevotingsomesmallamountofattentiontotheideaof preservingandprotectingpristineextraterrestrialenvironmentsnotsimplyforfuturesciencebutfor theirownsakeasplanetaryparks,sotospeak.Inthecommunityofscientistsconcernedwith enforcingplanetaryprotectionpolicies,anoutgrowthoftheU.N.OuterSpaceTreaty,thisideais gainingpopularity.Ontheotherhand,therescontinuedtalkamongsomespacescientistsabout terraformingalsocalledplanetaryengineeringthatis,purposelyalteringanotherplanets environmenttosupportEarthlife. Regardingtheassumptionamongspaceadvocatesthatpeoplewill,orevenmust,colonize,settle,and exploittheresourcesofouterspace,Iask:Dowehavetheright?Asidefrompracticalconsiderations, isitethical?Moral?Legal?Ifso,whichpeoplegettodoit?Therichones?Theoneswhoalreadyhave enough?Nations,corporations,transnationalgroups?TheU.S.,China,France,andRussia?Howabout ElSalvador,Indonesia,Nigeria,Palestine,Rwanda?Thesesortsofquestionsaregristforplentyof nightmaresciencefictionvisionsofthefuture. ChinaandIndiahavemadeitloudandcleartotherestoftheworldthattheyarenolongerpoverty strickennationsbutplayersintheglobalpoliticaleconomy.Theirvigorousspaceprogramshave helpedtoconveythatmessage.Iranclaimsitwillbenexttoputahumanintospace(aclaimmadeto makeapointmorethanstateafact).ThetwoKoreasnorthandsouthareinlinetojointheclubof spacefaringnations,buildingtheirownsatellitesandlaunchvehicles. RereadingtheBrundtlandreport,onceagain,hasledmetowonderwhethersustainablespace exploration,bythatreportsdefinitionofsustainable,isatallpossible.Ifthesolutiontoour inabilityandunwillingnesstocopewithoverpopulationandoverconsumptionhereonEarthistogo elsewhereanddothesame,thenmaybeweshouldforgetthewholething. Notes 1. Linda Billings, Ideology, advocacy, and space flight evolution of a cultural narrative, Chapter 25 in Steven J. Dick and Roger D. Launius, Eds., Societal Impact of Space Flight (SP-200-4801), NASA History Division, Washington, DC, 2007. 2.Tsiolkovsky,asquotedinWilliam E. Burrows, This New Ocean: The Story of the First Space Age, New York: Random House, 1998, p. 42.

3. Olaf Stapledon, Interplanetary man, pp. 221-229, in Arthur C. Clarke (ed.), The Coming of the Space Age, New York: Meredith Press, 1967, p. 255. 4. Krafft Ehricke, The anthropology of space flight (pp. 261-267), in Arthur C. Clarke (ed.), The Coming of the Space Age, New York: Meredith Press, 1967, p. 263. 5.ReportoftheWorldCommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopment,OurCommonFuture,1987, TransmittedtotheGeneralAssemblyasanAnnextodocumentA/42/427Developmentand InternationalCooperation:Environment.http://www.undocuments.net/wcedocf.htm 6.Seehttp://www.nss.org. 7.Seehttp://www.sff.org. 8.Seehttp://www.marssociety.org. 9.MollyMacauley,InPursuitofaSustainableSpaceEnvironment:EconomicIssuesin RegulatingSpaceDebris,Resources,Summer1993(112). http://www.rff.org/Publications/Pages/PublicationDetails.aspx?PublicationID=11224Alsosee MollyMacauley,Spaceasthecanonicalglobalcommons:anintroductiontoitseconomics, Resources,Spring2008(168).http://www.rff.org/RFF/Documents/RFFResources168_Space.pdf 10.Http://www.oosa.unvienna.org/oosa/SpaceLaw/outerspt.html 11.Http://www.uncosa.unvienna.org/uncosa/wssd/index.html 12. National Commission on Space, Pioneering the Space Frontier (New York, NY: Bantam Books, 1986), pp. 2-3. 13. National Space Council, Report to the President. Washington, DC: Office of the Vice President, 1990, p. 17. 14.Billings,2007. 15.TheVisionforSpaceExploration,Washington,D.C.:NASAHeadquarters,February2004 16.Ibid. 17. Griffin made these remarks at a conference sponsored by the Center for Strategic and International Studies, November 1, 2005, Washington, D.C. The author attended this event. 18. Griffin made these remarks at a meeting of the NASA Advisory Councils science subcommittee in Washington, D.C., on July 6, 2006. The author attended this event. 19.JohnMarburger,Director,WhiteHouseOfficeofScienceandTechnologyPolicy,KeynoteAddress, 44thRobertH.GoddardMemorialSymposium,Greenbelt,Maryland,March15,2006. 20.JohnMarburger,Director,WhiteHouseOfficeofScienceandTechnologyPolicy,KeynoteAddress, 46thRobertH.GoddardMemorialSymposium,Greenbelt,Maryland,March6,2008. 21.FengHsuandKenCox,SustainableSpaceExplorationandSpaceDevelopment:AUnified StrategicVision,AnAerospaceTechnologyWorkingGroupWhitePaper,Version2.1.1,March29, 2009.Http://www.atwg.org 22.ForinformationontheReviewofHumanSpaceFlightPlansCommittee,see:http://hsf.nasa.gov.

 23.StevenFawkes,Spacetourismandsustainabledevelopment,EuropeanDevelopmentsin SpaceTourismSymposium,London,November29,2006. 24.TheGlobalExplorationStrategy:TheFrameworkforCoordination,May31,2007, http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/178109main_ges_framework.pdf. 25.BobLloyd,Thegrowthdelusion,Sustainability,2009,1,516536. Http://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability 26.See,forexample,http://www.secureworldfoundation.org/. 27.UnitedNationsInstituteforDisarmamentResearch,BuildingtheArchitectureforSustainable SpaceSecurity(ConferenceReport,3031March2006),November2006,UnitedNations, GV.E.06.0.14. 28.Forinformationonnationalandinternationalplanetaryprotectionpolicies,see http://planetaryprotection.nasa.gov.