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Amplitude modulation (AM) is a technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier

wave. AM works by varying the strength of the transmitted signal in relation to the information being sent. For example, changes in the signal strength can be used to specify the sounds to be reproduced by a loudspeaker, or the light intensity of television pixels. (Contrast this with frequency modulation, also commonly used for sound transmissions, in which the frequency is varied; and phase modulation, often used in remote controls, in which the phase is varied) In the mid-1870s, a form of amplitude modulationinitially called "undulatory currents"was the first method to successfully produce quality audio over telephone lines. Beginning with Reginald Fessenden's audio demonstrations in 1906, it was also the original method used for audio radio transmissions, and remains in use today by many forms of communication"AM" is often used to refer to the mediumwave broadcast band (see AM radio).

In radio communication, a continuous wave radio-frequency signal (a sinusoidal carrier wave) has its amplitude modulated by an audio waveform before being transmitted. In the frequency domain, amplitude modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at the carrier frequency and in two adjacent sidebands. Each sideband is equal in bandwidth to that of the modulating signal and is a mirror image of the other. Amplitude modulation that results in two sidebands and a carrier is often called double-sideband amplitude modulation (DSB-AM). Amplitude modulation is inefficient in terms of power usage. At least two-thirds of the power is concentrated in the carrier signal, which carries no useful information (beyond the fact that a signal is present). To increase transmitter efficiency, the carrier can be removed (suppressed) from the AM signal. This produces a reduced-carrier transmission or double-sideband suppressed-carrier (DSBSC) signal. A suppressed-carrier amplitude modulation scheme is three times more power-efficient than traditional DSB-AM. If the carrier is only partially suppressed, a double-sideband reduced-carrier (DSBRC) signal results. DSBSC and DSBRC signals need their carrier to be regenerated (by a beat frequency oscillator, for instance) to be demodulated using conventional techniques. Improved bandwidth efficiency is achievedat the expense of increased transmitter and receiver complexityby completely suppressing both the carrier and one of the sidebands. This is single-sideband modulation, widely used in amateur radio due to its efficient use of both power and bandwidth. A simple form of AM often used for digital communications is on-off keying, a type of amplitude-shift keying by which binary data is represented as the presence or

absence of a carrier wave. This is commonly used at radio frequencies to transmit Morse code, referred to as continuous wave (CW) operation. In terms of the positive frequencies, the transmission bandwidth of AM is twice the signal's original (baseband) bandwidthsince both the positive and negative sidebands are shifted up to the carrier frequency. Thus, double-sideband AM (DSBAM) is spectrally inefficient, meaning that fewer radio stations can be accommodated in a given broadcast band. The various suppression methods in Forms of AM can be readily understood in terms of the diagram in Figure 2. With the carrier suppressed there would be no energy at the center of a group. And with a sideband suppressed, the "group" would have the same bandwidth as the positive frequencies of The transmitter power efficiency of DSB-AM is relatively poor (about 33%). The benefit of this system is that receivers are cheaper to produce. The forms of AM with suppressed carriers are found to be 100% power efficient, since no power is wasted on the carrier signal which conveys no information. [edit]Modulation index

It can be defined as the measure of extent of amplitude variation about an unmodulated maximum carrier. As with other modulation indices, in AM, this quantity, also called modulation depth, indicates by how much the modulated variable varies around its 'original' level. For AM, it relates to the variations in the carrier amplitude and is defined as: where and were introduced above. So if h = 0.5, the carrier amplitude varies by 50% above and below its unmodulated level, and for h = 1.0 it varies by 100%. To avoid distortion in the A3E transmission mode, modulation depth greater than 100% must be avoided. Practical transmitter systems will usually incorporate some kind of limiter circuit, such as a VOGAD, to ensure this. However, AM demodulators can be designed to detect the inversion (or 180 degree phase reversal) that occurs when modulation exceeds 100% and automatically correct for this effect.[citation needed] Variations of modulated signal with percentage modulation are shown below. In each image, the maximum amplitude is higher than in the previous image. Note that the scale changes from one image to the next. Modulation circuit designs can be broadly divided into low and high level. [edit]Low-Level Generation In many recent radio systems, modulated signals are generated via digital signal processing (DSP). With DSP, many forms of AM modulation are feasible under software control, including traditional double sideband with carrier, but also single

sideband suppressed carrier, independent sideband, etc. The calculated digital samples are converted to voltages with a digital to analog converter, typically at a frequency less than the desired RF output frequency. The analog signal must then be shifted and linearly amplified to the desired frequency and power level. Linear amplification must be used to prevent modulation distortion. [1] The low-level method for AM is used in many current Amateur Radio transceivers. [2] AM can also be generated at low level using various analog methods described in the next section. [edit]High-Level Generation Present-day high-power AM transmitters (e.g., for MF broadcasting) are based on high efficiency class-D and class-E power amplifier stages modulated by varying the supply voltage. [3] Older designs for broadcast and amateur AM radio also generated AM by controlling the gain of a transmitters final amplifier, which was generally a class-C type for good efficiency. The following types are for vacuum tube transmitters, but similar options are available with transistors.[4] Plate Modulation. In plate modulation, the plate voltage of the RF amplifier is modulated with the audio signal. The audio power requirement is 50% of the RF carrier power. Heising (Constant-Current) Modulation. The RF amplifier plate voltage is fed through a choke (high value inductor). The AM modulation tube plate is fed through the same inductor, so that the modulator tube diverts current from the RF amplifier. The choke acts as a constant current source in the audio range. This system has low power efficiency. Control Grid Modulation. The operating bias and gain of the final RF amplifier can be controlled by varying the voltage of the control grid. This method requires little audio power, but special care must be taken to reduce distortion. Clamp Tube (Screen Grid) Modulation. The screen grid bias may be controlled through a clamp tube that reduces voltage according to the modulation signal. It is difficult to approach 100% modulation while maintaining low distortion with this system. [edit]AM demodulation methods

The simplest form of AM demodulator consists of a diode which is configured to act as envelope detector. Another type of demodulator, the product detector, can provide better quality demodulation, at the cost of added circuit complexity.

n telecommunications and signal processing, frequency modulation (FM) conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its instantaneous frequency. This is in contrast with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier is varied while its frequency remains constant. In analog applications, the difference between the instantaneous and the base frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal amplitude. Digital data can be sent by shifting the carrier's frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying.

Frequency modulation can be regarded as phase modulation where the carrier phase modulation is the time integral of the FM modulating signal. FM is widely used for broadcasting of music and speech, and in two-way radio systems, in magnetic tape recording systems, and certain video transmission systems. In radio systems, frequency modulation with sufficient bandwidth provides an advantage in cancelling naturally-occurring noise. Frequency-shift keying (digital FM) is widely used in data and fax modems. Modulation FM signals can be generated using either direct or indirect frequency modulation. Direct FM modulation can be achieved by directly feeding the message into the input of a VCO. For indirect FM modulation, the message signal is integrated to generate a phase modulated signal. This is used to modulate a crystal controlled oscillator, and the result is passed through a frequency multiplier to give an FM signal.[3] [edit]Demodulation Main article: Detector_(radio)#Frequency_and_phase_modulation_detectors Many FM detector circuits exist. One common method for recovering the information signal is through a Foster-Seeley discriminator. A phase-locked loop can be used as an FM demodulator. Slope detection demodulates an FM signal by using a tuned circuit, which has its resonant frequency slightly offset from the carrier frequency. As the frequency rises

and falls, the tuned circuit provides a changing amplitude of response, converting FM to AM. AM receivers may detect some FM transmissions by this means, though it does not provide an efficient method of detection for FM broadcasts. [edit]Applications

[edit]Magnetic tape storage FM is also used at intermediate frequencies by all analog VCR systems, including VHS, to record both the luminance (black and white) portions of the video signal. Commonly, the chrome component is recorded as a conventional AM signal, using the higher-frequency FM signal as bias. FM is the only feasible method of recording the luminance ("black and white") component of video to and retrieving video from Magnetic tape without extreme distortion, as video signals have a very large range of frequency components from a few hertz to several megahertz, too wide for equalizers to work with due to electronic noise below 60 dB. FM also keeps the tape at saturation level, and therefore acts as a form of noise reduction, and a simple limiter can mask variations in the playback output, and the FM capture effect removes print-through and pre-echo. A continuous pilot-tone, if added to the signal as was done on V2000 and many Hi-band formats can keep mechanical jitter under control and assist timebase correction. These FM systems are unusual in that they have a ratio of carrier to maximum modulation frequency of less than two; contrast this with FM audio broadcasting where the ratio is around 10,000. Consider for example a 6 MHz carrier modulated at a 3.5 MHz rate; by Bessel analysis the first sidebands are on 9.5 and 2.5 MHz, while the second sidebands are on 13 MHz and 1 MHz. The result is a sideband of reversed phase on +1 MHz; on demodulation, this results in an unwanted output at 61 = 5 MHz. The system must be designed so that this is at an acceptable level. [4] [edit]Sound FM is also used at audio frequencies to synthesize sound. This technique, known as FM synthesis, was popularized by early digital synthesizers and became a standard feature for several generations of personal computer sound cards. [edit]Radio Main article: FM broadcasting Edwin Howard Armstrong (18901954) was an American electrical engineer who invented wideband frequency modulation (FM) radio.[5] He patented the regenerative circuit in 1914, the superheterodyne receiver in 1918 and the superregenerative circuit in 1922.[6] He presented his paper: "A Method of Reducing

Disturbances in Radio Signaling by a System of Frequency Modulation", which first described FM radio, before the New York section of the Institute of Radio Engineers on November 6, 1935. The paper was published in 1936.[7] As the name implies, wideband FM (WFM) requires a wider signal bandwidth than amplitude modulation by an equivalent modulating signal, but this also makes the signal more robust against noise and interference. Frequency modulation is also more robust against simple signal amplitude fading phenomena. As a result, FM was chosen as the modulation standard for high frequency, high fidelity radio transmission: hence the term "FM radio" (although for many years the BBC called it "VHF radio", because commercial FM broadcasting uses a well-known part of the VHF bandthe FM broadcast band). FM receivers employ a special detector for FM signals and exhibit a phenomenon called capture effect, where the tuner is able to clearly receive the stronger of two stations being broadcast on the same frequency. Problematically however, frequency drift or lack of selectivity may cause one station or signal to be suddenly overtaken by another on an adjacent channel. Frequency drift typically constituted a problem on very old or inexpensive receivers, while inadequate selectivity may plague any tuner. An FM signal can also be used to carry a stereo signal: see FM stereo. However, this is done by using multiplexing and demultiplexing before and after the FM process. The rest of this article ignores the stereo multiplexing and demultiplexing process used in "stereo FM", and concentrates on the FM modulation and demodulation process, which is identical in stereo and mono processes. A high-efficiency radio-frequency switching amplifier can be used to transmit FM signals (and other constant-amplitude signals). For a given signal strength (measured at the receiver antenna), switching amplifiers use less battery power and typically cost less than a linear amplifier. This gives FM another advantage over other modulation schemes that require linear amplifiers, such as AM and QAM. FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech (see FM broadcasting). Normal (analog) TV sound is also broadcast using FM. A narrow band form is used for voice communications in commercial and amateur radio settings. In broadcast services, where audio fidelity is important, wideband FM is generally used. In two-way radio, narrowband FM (NBFM) is used to conserve bandwidth for land mobile radio stations, marine mobile, and many other radio services. [edit]Miscellaneous Frequency-shift keying is the frequency modulation using only a discrete number of frequencies. Morse code transmission has been implemented this way, as were most early telephone-line modems.[8] Radioteletype also use FSK.[9]

FM modulation is also used in telemetry applications, radar, seismic prospecting and newborn EEG seizures modelling.[10 What we commonly describe as AM radio is usually broadcast on 520 kHz1,610 kHz (577 metres to 186 metres) however there are several AM broadcast bands. Television (TV) is a telecommunication medium for transmitting and receiving moving images that can be black-and-white or monochromatic (shades of grey) or multicolored. Images are usually accompanied by sound. "Television" may also refer specifically to a television set, television programming, television transmission. The etymology of the word has a mixed Latin and Greek origin, meaning "far sight": Greek tele (), far, and Latin visio, sight (from video, vis- to see, or to view in the first person). Commercially available since the late 1920s, the television set has become commonplace in homes, businesses and institutions, particularly as a vehicle for advertising, a source of entertainment, and news. Since the 1970s the availability of video cassettes, laserdiscs, DVDs and now Blu-ray Discs, have resulted in the television set frequently being used for viewing recorded as well as broadcast material. In recent years Internet television has seen the rise of television available via the Internet, e.g. iPlayer and Hulu. Although other forms such as closed-circuit television (CCTV) are in use, the most common usage of the medium is for broadcast television, which was modeled on the existing radio broadcasting systems developed in the 1920s, and uses highpowered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the television signal to individual TV receivers. The broadcast television system is typically disseminated via radio transmissions on designated channels in the 54890 MHz frequency band.[1] Signals are now often transmitted with stereo and/or surround sound in many countries. Until the 2000s broadcast TV programs were generally transmitted as an analog television signal, but in recent years public broadcasting and commercial broadcasting have been progressively introducing digital television (DTV) broadcasting technology. A standard television set comprises multiple internal electronic circuits, including those for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner (television) is properly called a video monitor, rather than a television. A television system may use different technical standards such as digital television (DTV) and high-definition television (HDTV). Television systems are also used for surveillance, industrial process control, and guiding of weapons, in places where direct observation is difficult or dangerous. Amateur television (ham TV or ATV) is also used for non-commercial experimentation, pleasure and public service events by amateur radio operators.

Ham TV stations were on the air in many cities before commercial TV stations came on the air.[2] Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Geographical usage 3 Content 3.1 Programming 3.2 Funding 3.2.1 Advertising 3.2.2 Market share 3.2.2.1 United States 3.2.2.2 United Kingdom 3.2.2.3 Ireland 3.2.3 Taxation or license 3.2.4 Subscription 3.3 Genres 4 Social aspects and effects on children 5 Environmental aspects 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links History

Main article: History of television In its early stages of development, television employed a combination of optical, mechanical and electronic technologies to capture, transmit and display a visual

image. By the late 1920s, however, those employing only optical and electronic technologies were being explored. All modern television systems rely on the latter, although the knowledge gained from the work on electromechanical systems was crucial in the development of fully electronic television.

Braun HF 1 television receiver, Germany, 1958 The first images transmitted electrically were sent by early mechanical fax machines, including the pantelegraph, developed in the late nineteenth century. The concept of electrically powered transmission of television images in motion was first sketched in 1878 as the telephonoscope, shortly after the invention of the telephone. At the time, it was imagined by early science fiction authors, that someday that light could be transmitted over copper wires, as sounds were. The idea of using scanning to transmit images was put to actual practical use in 1881 in the pantelegraph, through the use of a pendulum-based scanning mechanism. From this period forward, scanning in one form or another has been used in nearly every image transmission technology to date, including television. This is the concept of "rasterization", the process of converting a visual image into a stream of electrical pulses. In 1884 Paul Gottlieb Nipkow, a 23-year-old university student in Germany, patented the first electromechanical television system which employed a scanning disk, a spinning disk with a series of holes spiraling toward the center, for rasterization. The holes were spaced at equal angular intervals such that in a single rotation the disk would allow light to pass through each hole and onto a lightsensitive selenium sensor which produced the electrical pulses. As an image was focused on the rotating disk, each hole captured a horizontal "slice" of the whole image.[citation needed] Nipkow's design would not be practical until advances in amplifier tube technology became available. The device was only useful for transmitting still "halftone" imagesrepresented by equally spaced dots of varying sizeover telegraph or telephone lines.[citation needed] Later designs would use a rotating mirror-drum scanner to capture the image and a cathode ray tube (CRT) as a display device, but moving images were still not possible, due to the poor sensitivity of the selenium sensors. In 1907 Russian scientist Boris Rosing became the first inventor to use a CRT in the receiver of an experimental television system. He used mirror-drum scanning to transmit simple geometric shapes to the CRT.[3] File:Gradiente PLT-4270.jpg Typical modern plasma-screen television set showing Windows Media Center.

Scottish inventor John Logie Baird demonstrated the transmission of moving silhouette images in London in 1925,[4] and of moving, monochromatic images in 1926. Baird's scanning disk produced an image of 30 lines resolution, just enough to discern a human face, from a double spiral of lenses.[5] This demonstration by Baird is generally agreed to be the world's first true demonstration of television, albeit a mechanical form of television no longer in use. Remarkably, in 1927 Baird also invented the world's first video recording system, "Phonovision": by modulating the output signal of his TV camera down to the audio range, he was able to capture the signal on a 10-inch wax audio disc using conventional audio recording technology. A handful of Baird's 'Phonovision' recordings survive and these were finally decoded and rendered into viewable images in the 1990s using modern digital signalprocessing technology.[6] In 1926, Hungarian engineer Klmn Tihanyi designed a television system utilizing fully electronic scanning and display elements, and employing the principle of "charge storage" within the scanning (or "camera") tube.[7][8][9][10] By 1927, Russian inventor Lon Theremin developed a mirror-drum-based television system which used interlacing to achieve an image resolution of 100 lines.[11] Also in 1927, Herbert E. Ives of Bell Labs transmitted moving images from a 50aperture disk producing 16 frames per minute over a cable from Washington, DC to New York City, and via radio from Whippany, New Jersey.[citation needed] Ives used viewing screens as large as 24 by 30 inches (60 by 75 cm). His subjects included Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover.[citation needed] In 1927, Philo Farnsworth made the world's first working television system with electronic scanning of both the pickup and display devices,[12] which he first demonstrated to the press on 1 September 1928.[12][13] WRGB claims to be the world's oldest television station, tracing its roots to an experimental station founded on January 13, 1928, broadcasting from the General Electric factory in Schenectady, NY, under the call letters W2XB. It was popularly known as "WGY Television" after its sister radio station. Later in 1928, General Electric started a second facility, this one in New York City, which had the call letters W2XBS, and which today is known as WNBC. The two stations were experimental in nature and had no regular programming, as receivers were operated by engineers within the company. The image of a Felix the Cat doll, rotating on a turntable, was broadcast for 2 hours every day for several years, as new technology was being tested by the engineers. In 1936 the Olympic Games in Berlin were broadcast to television stations in Berlin and Leipzig where the public could view the games live.[14] In 1935 the German firm of Fernseh A.G. and the United States firm Farnsworth Television owned by Philo Farnsworth, signed an agreement to exchange their

television patients and technology to speed development of television transmitters and stations in their respective countries countries.[15] On 2 November 1936 the BBC began transmitting the world's first public regular high-definition service from the Victorian Alexandra Palace in north London.[16] It therefore claims to be the birthplace of television broadcasting as we know it today. In 1936, Klmn Tihanyi described the principle of plasma display, the first flat panel display system.[17][18] Mexican inventor Guillermo Gonzlez Camarena also played an important role in early television. His experiments with television (known as telectroescopa at first) began in 1931 and led to a patent for the "trichromatic field sequential system" color television in 1940,[19] as well as the remote control.[citation needed] Although television became more familiar in the United States with the general public at the 1939 World's Fair, the outbreak of World War II prevented it from being manufactured on a large scale until after the end of the war. True regular commercial television network programming did not begin in the U.S. until 1948. During that year, legendary conductor Arturo Toscanini made his first of ten TV appearances conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra, and Texaco Star Theater, starring comedian Milton Berle, became television's first gigantic hit show.

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