A

SEMINAR REPORT

ON

MAGNETIC RESSONANCE IMAGING

BY DEVESH SHUKLA

DEPARTEMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING N I E T Gr NOIDA

CERTIFICATE

THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT A SEMINAR ENTITLED MAGNETIC RESSONANCE IMAGING HAS BEEN CARRIED OUT BY DEVESH SHUKLA UNDER MY GUIDANCE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE D EGREE OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS VI) . ENGINEERING OF NOIDA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, GREATER NOID A DURING THE ACEDAMI C YEAR 2010-2011(SEMESTER-

DATE: PLACE: GREATER NOIDA

GUIDE (MR S.VIKRM SINGH)

HEAD, E N DEPARTMENT (DR S GAIROLA)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to my faculties, colleagues and seniors who have contributed a lot in completion of this seminar project. First of all I would like to give my hearty thanks to HOD of our branch Mr SANJAY GAIROLA for his supervision and guidance without which it would not have been possible to complete this report. I also acknowledge the kind support of my faculties Mrs AKANSHA RAJPUT and Mr S. VIKRM SINGH for their valuable contribution in completion of this report. It will be worth mentioning that these faculties were always there for our help in whatsoever ways possible. Last but not least I would like to thank my colleagues specially my roommate PRAVEEN PATEL for providing appropriate environment which was essential for me to complete the project.

DEVESH SHUKLA

CONTENTS
Topic
y y y y y

Page No. 6 7 10 12 24

Abstract Introduction Magnetic properties of matter Atomic structure and NMR technology Uses of MRI (NMR) technology

ABSTRACT

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) formally known as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is being extensively used in many industrial and nonindustrial applications . Medical field can be considered as one of the most important field in which MRI is being extensively used for diagnosis of many diseases. MRI scanners uses the magnetic properties of magnetically active nuclei and its interaction with both a large external magnetic field and radio-waves to produce highly detailed images of the body being scanned. These images are used for the further study and diagnosis of the body or sample under study. This technology of mag netic resonance imaging has been detailed by me in this report .A due emphasis is made on the application of this technologies and various new areas in which this technology can be applied has been brought out.

MAGNETIC RESSONANCE IMAGING

INTRODUCTION
Clinical Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) uses the magnetic properties of hydrogen and its interaction with both a large external magnetic field and radio-waves to produce highly detailed images of the human body. In this first module, we will discuss some basic principles of magnetism, the magnetic properties of the hydrogen nucleus, and its interaction with the externally applied magnetic field (B0). In its early days, MRI was known as NMR. This stands for Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. Although the name has changed (primarily due to the negative connotation of the word nuclear), the basic principles are the same. We derive our images from the magnetic resonance properties of nuclear particles (specifically hydrogen). In order to perform MRI, we first need a strong magnetic field. The field strength of the magnets used for MR is measured in units of Tesla. One (1) Tesla is equal to 10,000 Gauss. The magnetic field of the earth is approximately 0.5 Gauss. Given that relationship, a 1.0 T magnet has a magnetic field approximately 20,000 times stronger than that of the earth. The type of magnets used for MR imaging usually belongs to one of three types; permanent, resistive, and superconductive. A permanent magnet is sometimes referred to as a vertical field magnet. These magnets are constructed of two magnets (one at each pole). The patient lies on a scanning table between these two plates.

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As previously mentioned, some vertical field systems are based on resistive magnets. The main advantages of these types of magnets are: 1) No liquid cryogen, 2) The ability to turn off the magnetic field, )Relatively small fringe field . Superconducting magnets are the most common. They are made fromcoils of wire (as are resistive magnets) and thus produce a hori ontal field. They use liquid helium to keep the magnet wire at degrees Kelvin where there is no resistance. The current flows through the wire without having to be connected to an external power source. The main advantage of superconducting magnets is their ability to attain field strengths of up to Tesla for clinical imagers and up to 10 Tesla or more for small bore spectroscopy magnets.

Magneti P
Magneti magneti

erties f Matter
ert f matter. e t ree t es f

i a f ndamental

roperties are: diamagneti , paramagneti , and

ferromagneti . ese t ree properties are ill strated in figure 3 shown on the next page.

utside a magneti field, diamagneti substances exhibit no magneticproperties. hen placed in a magnetic field, diamagnetic substances will exhibit a negati e interaction with the external magnetic field. In other words they are not attracted to, but rather slightly repelled by the magnetic field. hese substances are said to have a negative

magneticsusceptibility.

Paramagnetic substances also exhibit no magnetic properties outside

a magnetic field. hen placed in a magnetic field, however, these

substances exhibit a slight positive interac tion with the external magnetic field and are slightly attracted. he magnetic field is intensified within the sample causing an increase in the local magnetic field. hese substances are said to have a positive magnetic

susceptibility.

Ferromagnetic substances are uite different.

hen placed in a

magnetic field they exhibit an extremely strong attraction to the magnetic field. he local magnetic field in the centre of the substance is greatly increased. hese substances such as iron) retain magne tic properties when removed from the magnetic field. bjects made of

ferromagnetic substances should not be brought into the scan room as they can become projectiles; being pulled at great speed toward the centre of the MR imager. An object that has become permanently magnetized is referred to as a permanent magnet.

A permanent magnet, such as a bar magnet, has two poles and is referredto as a dipole

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Atomic Structure NMR Technology

The nucleus of an atom consists of two particles; protons and neutrons. The protons have a positive charge and the neutrons have a neutral charge. The atomic number represents the number of protons in the nucleus. The atomic mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons. rbiting the nucleus are the electrons, which carry a negative

charge figure ).

All of these particles are in motion. Both the neutrons and protons spin about their axis. The electrons, in addition to orbiting the nucleus, also spin about their axis. The spinning of the nuclear particles produces angular momentum. If an atom has an even number of both protons andneutrons, then the angular momentum is zero. If an atom has an unevennumber of neutrons or protons, then the atom has a certain angularmomentum. The angular momentum is expressed as a vector uantityhaving both magnitude and direction.

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OTHER MAG ETI ALLY A TIVE LEI 13 arbon

19F Fluorine 31P Phosphorus 23 a Sodium

Hydrogen has a significant magnetic moment and is nearly

abundant in the human body. For these reasons, we use only the hydrogen proton in routine clinical imaging, and that is where we will focus our attention from here on. The nucleus of the hydrogen atom contains a single proton. Because of this, as previously mentioned, it possesses a significant magnetic moment. The proton will behave as a tiny bar magnet figure 6).

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Because of the spin characteristics of the proton, if it is placed in a largeexternal magnetic field, it will assume one of two possible positions. It willalign at a slight angle) in either a parallel or anti parallel with thedirection of the magnetic field as shown in the figure 7) on the next page.

In addition to aligning with B , the proton will precess at some frequency. The frequency at which the proton precesses is given by the LarmorEquation figure 8).

The Larmor Equation tells us that the precessional frequency is equal to the strength of the external static magnetic field B ) multiplied by the gyro-magnetic ratio g). Increasing B will increase the precessional
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frequency and conversely, decreasing B will decrease the precessional frequency. This is analogous to a spinning top. It will precess due to the force of gravity.If the gravity were to be decreased-(as it is on themoon) then the top would precess slower. Placing many protons in a magnetic field, we find that some align antiparallel and a slight majority aligns parallel. Protons aligned in the parallel orientation are said to be in a low energy state. Protons in the anti-parallel orientation are said to be in a high-energy state as shown in (figure 9) on the next page.

The energy differential between the high and low energy states isproportional to the strength of the externally applied magnetic field B . The greater the strength of the external field the greater the energy differential between the two spin states (figure ).Also related to the

strength of B is the number of spins in the low energy state. The higher the B , the greater the number of spins alignedin the low-energy state. The number of spins in the low energy state inexcess of the number in the high-energy state is referred to as the spinexcess.

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The magnetic moments of these excess spins add to form the netmagnetization and thus the tissue placed in the magnetic field becomesmagnetized. The net magnetization is also represented as a vectorquantity. As previously mentioned, a larger B0 will produce

agreater spin excess. Therefore, a larger B will produce a larger

netmagnetization vector (figure ).

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nce the tissue has become magnetized, that is the spins are in eitherthe high or low energy state, a condition is reached nown as thermal equilibrium. It should be noted that at equilibrium, the individual spins creating the net magnetization do not precess in phase. This is because of slight differences in precessional fre quencies caused by, among other things, magnetic field inhomogenities and differences in small local magnetic fields generated within each particular molecule. As a result, the net magnetization is aligned parallel with B but does not precess (figure12).

Hydrogen exists in many molecules in the body.

ater (consisting of

two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen) comprises up to 7 % of body weight. Hydrogen is also present in fat and most other tissues in the body. Thevarying molecular structures and the amount of hydrogen in varioustissues effect how the protons behave in the external field. As one example, because of the total amount of hydrogen in water, it has one ofthe strongest net magnetization vectors relative to other tissues.

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Otherstructures and tissues within the body have less hydrogen concentrationand become magnetized to a lesser extent. In other words, their netmagnetization is less intense (figure 13).

The amount of mobile hydrogen protons that a given tissue possesses relative to water (specifically SF), is referred to as its spin

density(proton density).This is the basis with which we begin to produce images using MagneticResonance. The hydrogen nucleus contains one proton and possesses asignificant magnetic moment. In addition, hydrogen is very abundant inthe human body. By placing the patient in a large external magnetic field,we magnetize the tissue (hydrogen), preparing it for the MR imagingprocess. In the next section, we will look at how this magnetizationbehaves in the presence of an RF field. reating an MR SignalA radio wave is actually an oscillating electromagnetic field. The RF field isalso referred to as the B1 field. It is oriented perpendicular to the mainmagnetic field (B ). If we apply a pulse of RF energy into the tissue at theLarmor frequency, we first find the individual spins begin to precess inphase, as will the net magnetization vector. As the RF pulse continues,some of the spins in

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the lower energy state absorb energy from the RFfield and make a transition into the higher energy state. This has theeffect of tipping the net magnetization toward the transverse plane.For the purpose of this explanation, we will assume sufficient energy isapplied to produce a 9 -degree flip of the net magnetization. In such an example, it is said that a 9 -degree flip angle or a 9 -degree pulsehas been applied (figure 14).

Oriented perpendicular to B is a receiver coil. As the magnetization (nowreferred to as transverse magnetization, or Mxy)precesses through thereceiver coil, a current or signal is induced in the coil. The principlebehind this signal induction is Faradays Law of Induction. This states thatif a magnetic field is moved through a conductor, a current will beproduced in the conductor. If we increase the size of the magnetic field,or increase the speed with which it moves, we will increase the size of thesignal (current) induced in the conductor (figure 15).

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In order to detect the signal produced in the coil, the transmitter must beturned off. hen the RF pulse is discontinued, the signal in the coil

begins at given amplitude (determined by the amount of magnetizationprecesssing in the transverse plane and the precessional frequency) andfades rapidly away.

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This initial signal is referred to as the Free InductionDecay or FID (figure 16).

The signal fades as the individual spins contributing to the netmagnetization lose their phase coherence, making the vector sum equalto zero (figure 17overhead view of the x-y plane).

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The FID decays at a rate given by the tissue relaxation parameter known as T2* (T2-star).At the same time, but independently, some of the spins that had movedinto the higher energy state give off their energy to their lattice and return to the lower energy state, causing the net magnetization to regrow along the z axis. This regrowth occurs at a rate given by the tissue relaxation parameter known as T1 (figure 18).

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USES O
N C -m I i l li i l

NETIC RESSON NCE I

i li i fN R li R

IN

The applications in industry are widespread. Routine analysis of chemicals is probably the most common use but the NMR technique is sufficiently flexible to be used for example to measure the water/fat ratio in foods, monitor the flow of corrosive fluids in pipes, or to study the structure of catalysts. Industrial applications can be divided into chemical, biological, paramedical, data processing, and non-destructive testing. This overview is not exhaustive, but it gives some highlights of the possible applications. It underlines the difficulties, challenges, and possibilities of interdisciplinary research and teaching.
C mi l li i

lR m k

Hydrogen-1 (1H) and carbon-1 (1 C) NMR spectroscopy of solutions of chemicals are indispensible to the organic chemist in identifying the products of the latest reaction. The analysis is quick and simple and does not require an especially pure sample. This type of work is probably the most common type of NMR work done throughout the world and will continue to be so for many years. Yet, it does not begin to hint at the enormous versatility of the NMR technique and the wide range of information which can be obtained from different systems.

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Oil a d C al

al sis of low molecular weight fractions of oils can be

done by NMR, although other techniques do exist. The higher molecular weight fractions which are very viscous or even solid are more difficult to analy e but solid-state NMR techniques can be very useful. Solid-state 1 C NMR has been performed on kerogens (an immature type of coal). The information obtained when used in conjunction with other types of analysis can be used to predict if the kerogen comes from a site which is gas-forming or oil-forming. Such information is extremely valuable when planning an exploration and drilling program. Among the possible new applications in this area is the development of a transportable MRI/MRS system which can be flown into a potential drilling region.
Pl i P l m

Some samples are mainly of interest as solids. Important examples are found in polymer science where it is the properties of the solid which are important and not the individual subunits which go to make up the solid. Solid-state NMR is used to study how plastics are put together, to relate their chemistry with their known physical properties. This information can be used to help improve the plastics and develop new ones. There are very few alternatives to NMR for getting this type of information from polymers.
Liq i C l

Liquid crystals are used in watches, calculators, and television and computer screens. They are also very difficult to study by other means than NMR. Just like the plastics, information about the packing of the

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molecules shows how structure relates to functional properties and so can help in creating new products.
C m C

The study of the hydration process in cement is of great interest to the industry. Increasing the speed of hydration and the degree of hydration are both highly desirable since they increase the speed of setting and the strength of the concrete. However, both processes were rather difficult to quantify until it was shown that they can clearly be seen in solid-state 2 Si spectra of cement. Changes in the concrete can be followed over periods of 0 days or more and thereby one can characteri e the effect of different additives on the curing process.
Expl i

Whilst it is not possible (or at least not safe) to examine explosives directly it is possible to study chemical analogues of explosive s like acetyl cellulose to improve understanding of the chemical structure of such materials. By relating chemical structure with functional properties one can help in the designing of safer and more efficient explosives.
Im i f S li i l

Imaging of solids is in its infancy. Like medical imaging the nucleus being observed is 1H, but unlike medical imaging where the signal is relatively sharp and long lived, the signal from the proton in solid materials is generally rather difficult to detect since it is a very broad signal which lasts for a relatively short time. The purpose of such experiments would be to test non-destructively the various plastics and polymers used increasingly in modern manufacturing.
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At present most published images are typically of a block of a solid material with holes of varying si e drilled in it to demonstrate the resolution of the technique. There is one recent example of the use of MRI to observe solid rocket fuel prior to combustion. The packing of the solid fuel can have a large impact upon the burning properties. Conventional analytical techniques would either disturb the packing or prevent the sample being used in an ignition experiment. By the use of solid-state MRI it was possible to image samples before ignition tests and so directly correlates the effect of packing on burning properties. However, it was hardly more than twenty years ago that people were publishing MRI cross-sections of lemons and other fruits. MRI is now used routinely in hospitals throughout the world, and MRI of solids will probably make substantial progress in the next ten years.
Bi l i l ppli i

Water content and fat/water ratio are two important parameters in many manufactured foodstuffs. Control of product quality may depend critically on them, but the traditional chemical methods of measurements may take between a few hours to a day to complete. NMR methods exist to make such measurements in less than a minute which is fast enough to help in the control of the production line. Some companies already use spectrometers dedicated to this sort of work, but there is still room for a huge expansion in the market. A major problem is that whilst the routine analysis is a totally trivial task, it may take many weeks for a research scientist and a line manager to

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develop a suitable method for each particular analytical task, and the number of suitably trained scientists is very small. Another area of routine analysis is that of wine. The European Community is currently developing an NMR test for the quality of wine, particularly to detect glycol adulteration. A routine method for determining the alcohol content in fermentation vats in two-three minutes has recently been published. NMR is also useful as a research tool in food science.
Agri l re, restry, Environment

NMR techniques have only recently begun to be applied to plant systems but one major area already established is the phosphorus and nitrogen nutrition of plants. Basic research in this area can hopefully lead to a more efficient use of fertili ers and thereby lead to reduced pollution of rivers, lakes, and the seas. MR imaging of pla s s ms is even younger than spectroscopy but

in one study of frost damage in pot grown pine and spruce seedlings it was possible to detect damaged and dead root systems weeks before the shoots showed any sign of damage.
Computer Appli tions nd P ttern Recognition Techniques

With manifold tissue parameters, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has a great variety of image contrast and substantial theoretical potential for tissue discrimination and even characteri ation in different organs. This, on the one hand, is a major advantage of MRI compared with other imaging modalities; on the other hand, it may prove to be disadvantageous because several series of images with different
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parameter weighting (i.e. proton density-, T1, and T2-weighting, preand post-contrast) of the same region of the body have to be acquired. This leads to several do en images per examination which have to be read by the radiologist. Image reading and interpretation is basically done as (a) analysis of morphology, and (b) analysis of signal behavior. In general, MRI is a qualitative and subjective examination with a high level of uncertainty. For routine clinical imaging, a simplification of the diagnosti c procedure would be advantageous. This would both cut down time and costs, as well as diagnostic uncertainty. In addition, pattern recognition techniques could lead to a preliminary diagnosis before images are read and increase diagnostic performance. Tissue discrimination and characteri ation on the basis of relaxation time calculations has been shown to be unfeasible. Thus, other methods have to be considered. Basic considerations must include: (a) MRI possesses several physical parameters; (b) there are difficulties in computing and exploiting these parameters; and (c) there is the possibility to devise a multivariate test (pattern recognition techniques), which will decrease the level of uncertainty in the diagnosis and increase the diagnostic performance. In general, MR images are crude and it is inappropriate to process them by pattern recognition techniques, mainly because of geometrical distortion, intensity distortion, and noise. However, first results have demonstrated that computers can recogni e certain normal structures and distinguish them from pathology. These methods could also be applied to industrial use of MRI or other imaging techniques, e.g. for quality assurance programs.

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Non-Destructive Testing

Some applications of NMR in non-destructive testing have been described before, e.g. the examination of plastic and ceramic components. Here, a broad range of applications has been developed, but the spectrum of possible new applications is wide. Space technology will exploit the possibilities of NMR to assess the influence of microgravity, acceleration, and vibration upon materials and their possible degradation. Monitoring could be performed before and after space flights, and with suitable equipment even in space. Quality assurance programs with NMR include also measurement and control of other techniques such as chromatography. Small, robust NMR machines are already available, and machines for particular applications custom-tailored for specific technical solutions can be developed at competitive prices.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1]. Wm Fulkner Basic Principles of MRI. [2] Carr Herman (200 ). "Letter: Field Gradients in Early MRI". Physics Today 57 ( ): [3] Wikipedia www.wickipedia.org.

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