Modulation Schemes

UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG
Contents ECTE465 Lecture 4

Assoc. Prof. Tadeusz A Wysocki (Tad) wysocki@uow.edu.au tel: (02) 4221 3413
Digital Modulation Schemes PSK QAM MSK GMSK
Spread Spectrum Communications
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Introduction
A digital modulator is a device that maps digital information onto analog waveforms. This is done to:
minimize the effect of channel minimize the energy per transmitted symbol minimize the bandwidth facilitate distinction between different symbols.
Digital Modulation Schemes

Factors influencing the choice of a modulation scheme:
power efficiency (sometimes referred to as energy energy per bit to noise power spectral density Eb/N0 error (e.g. 10-6), bandwidth efficiency B describing the ability of a modulation scheme to accommodate data within the given bandwidth; if R is data rate, and B is the bandwidth occupied by the modulated signal, then B = R/B bps/Hz. efficiency) P, often expressed as the ratio of the signal required at the receiver input for a certain probability of
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Factors influencing the choice of a modulation scheme (ctd.):
cost and complexity of mobile terminal, performance of a modulation scheme under mobile channel impairments, like Rayleigh and Rician fading, multipath propagation (resulting in time dispersion), given a particular implementation of the demodulator, performance of a modulation scheme in an interference environment, sensitivity to Doppler spread (due to movements of mobile terminals), sensitivity to detection of timing jitter, caused by timevarying channels.
Examples of Modulation Schemes

Example of digital modulation schemes used in wireless communication systems:
Linear
CPM
Spread Spectrum
BPSK
FSK
Frequency Hopping Direct Sequence
QPSK
GMSK
mQAM
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BPSK (1)
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
The phase of a constant amplitude carrier is switched between two values according to the modulating data m1 and m2 corresponding to binary 1 and 0 or +1 and -1. To obtain the best error performance, the two phases are separated by 180o. For the sinusoidal carrier of the amplitude Ac, the energy per bit is given by:
BPSK (2)
The transmitted BPSK signal is either:
s BPSK (t ) =
for binary +1, or
2 Eb
Tb
cos(2f c + c )
0 t < Tb
s BPSK (t ) = =
2 Eb
Tb
cos(2f c + + c ) cos(2f c + c ) 0 t < Tb
2 Eb
Eb = 0.5Ac2Tb, which gives

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Ac =
2 Eb
Tb
Tb
7
for binary -1.

BPSK (3)
2
BPSK (4)
The 90% of the BPSK signal energy is contained within a bandwidth of approximately 1.6Rb.
0
Data
1 0
-2
Normalized PSD [dB]
-1
-1 0
2 1
-2 0
BPS K
-3 0
-1 -2
-4 0
t/Tb
-5 0
-6 0
Example plots for BPSK signalling.

-7 0 -3
-2
-1
(f - fc)Tb
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BPSK (5)
To improve spectral performance of BPSK, it is convenient to introduce pulse shaping, and such a generalized BPSK signal can be expressed as:
QPSK (1)
Quaternary PSK (QPSK) sometimes referred to as Quadrature PSK, has twice the bandwidth efficiency of BPSK, as 2 bits are transmitted in a single modulation symbol. To minimize the error probability, the phase of the carrier takes on 1 of 4 equally spaced values, such as 0, /2, , 3/2, with each phase value corresponding to a unique pair of message symbols. The QPSK signal, for this set of phases, can be expressed as
s BPSK (t ) = m(t )
2 Eb
Tb
cos( c + c )
where the pulse m(t) is chosen to have a raised cosine spectrum with the rolloff factor = 0.5.
1 .2 1 0 .8
Magnitude
0 .6
0 .4
sQPSK (t ) = 2 E s Ts cos[ c t + 0.5 (k 1)] 0 t < Ts

-2 -1 0 1 2 3
0 .2
k = 1, 2, 3, 4 Ts = 2Tb
-0 .2 -3
t/Tb
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QPSK (2)
Using a simple trigonometric identity, we can write:
QPSK (3)
The latest formula leads to the graphical representation of QPSK signals
sQPSK (t ) = 2 E s Ts cos[0.5 (k 1)]cos( c t ) 2 E s Ts sin [0.5 (k 1)]sin( c t )
Assuming two orthogonal basis functions: are defined over the interval [0,Ts), then we can write sQPSK(t) in a form:
Es
1 (t ) = 2 Ts cos( c t ),
2 (t ) = 2 Ts sin( c t )
sQPSK (t ) = E s cos[0.5 (k 1)]1 (t ) E s sin[0.5 (k 1)] 2 (t ) k = 1, 2, 3, 4

QPSK
constellations:
left -- the carrier phases are: 0, /2, , 3/2, right-- the carrier phases are: /4, 3/4, 5/4, 7/4.
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BER for Coherent BPSK and QPSK
From QPSK to QAM (1)

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) is a generalization of QPSK signalling. Contrary to PSK, it allows for both phase and amplitude modulation. Each modulated signal symbol is characterized by a pair of amplitude Ak, and phase k, or more often as a pair of two amplitudes Ik and Qk.
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Using the previously two orthogonal basis functions, 0<t<Ts :

Graphical illustration of a QAM principle.
1 (t ) = 2 Ts cos( c t ),
2 (t ) = 2 Ts sin( c t )
Q Qk
Ak
we can represent any modulated signal symbol having an amplitude Ak, and phase k, as: where:
sQAM (t ) = I k cos( c t ) Qk sin( c t )
k
Ik
I k = Ak cos( k ), and Qk = Ak sin( k )

Qk = Ak sin( k )
Ik = Ak cos( k )
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Example
Example constellations for 8-QAM and 16-QAM.
Types of QAM
Q
Amplitude and phase shift keying can be combined to transmit several bits per symbol ( in this case M= 4) . They all require linear amplification. 16QAM has the largest distance between points, but requires very linear amplification. 16PSK has less stringent linearity requirements, but has less spacing between constellation points, and is therefore more affected by noise. M- ary schemes are more bandwidth efficient, but more susceptible to noise.
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Other Digital Phase Modulation Schemes

In order to improve performance of digital modulation used in wireless communication systems, several modifications to BPSK and QPSK have been proposed, and successfully applied. Some of these schemes are:
Differential BPSK -- DBPSK Offset QPSK -- OQPSK /4 QPSK
Differential /4 QPSK
Q
Bit sequence 11 01 00 10 Phase difference /4 3/4 -3/4 - /4
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Types of QPSK
General QAM Modulator

Pulse Generator
I(t)
Acos(ct) Carrier Generator Data Conventional QPSK has transitions through zero ( ie. 180o phase transition) . Highly linear amplifier required. In Offset QPSK, the transitions on the I and Q channels are staggered. Phase transitions are therefore limited to 90o. In /4- QPSK the set of constellation points are toggled each symbol, so transitions through zero cannot occur. This scheme produces the lowest envelope variations. All QPSK schemes require linear power amplifiers. S/P Converter
90o Phase Shifter -Asin(ct)
sQAM(t)
Pulse Generator Q(t)
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MSK (1)
Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) is a special type of Continuous Phase-Frequency Shift Keying (CP-FSK), in which the peak frequency deviation is equal to the half of bit rate. MSK is equivalent to CP-FSK with a modulation index hFSK= (2f)/Rb equal to 0.5. Here, 2f is the peak-to-peak frequency shift. A modulation index hFSK= 0.5, corresponds to the minimum frequency spacing between upper and lower frequencies in FSK, required for two FSK signals to be orthogonal.
MSK (2)
MSK is spectrally efficient modulation scheme, and therefore it is attractive for wireless and mobile applications. In addition, MSK is:
a constant envelope signalling, characterized with good BER performance (because of the orthogonality), a self-synchronizing signal.
MSK can be regarded as a special form of OQPSK where the rectangular baseband pulses are replaced with half-sinusoidal pulses.
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Break
GMSK (1)
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) is a derivative of MSK. By passing the modulating NRZ data waveform through a premodulation Gaussian pulse-shaping filter, the sidelobe levels of the spectrum are significantly reduced, compared with MSK. The premodulation Gaussian filtering introduces inter-symbol interference (ISI) but it is not severe for the 3-dB bandwidth-bit duration product (BTb) of the filter not lower than 0.5. GMSK with BTb = 0.3 is used in GSM.
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GMSK (2)
The GMSK filter has an impulse response given by:
GMSK (3)
hG (t ) =
0 .5 0 .4 5 0 .4 0 .3 5 0 .3 0 .2 5 0 .2 0 .1 5 0 .1 0 .0 5
exp 2 t 2 ,
2
=
BT=0.3
2 ln 2 B
In MSK , the BT is infinity and this allows the square bit transients to directly modulate the VCO. In GMSK, low values of BT create significant intersymbol interference ( ISI) . In the diagram, the portion of the symbol energy acts as ISI for adjacent symbols. If BT is less than 0.3, some form of combating the ISI is required.
Magnitude
-2 -1 0 N o r m a liz e d t im e t / T 1 2 3
0 -3
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GMSK Spectra
Spread Spectrum (SS) - (1)

A spread spectrum (SS) signal is generated by modulating a data signal onto a wideband carrier, resulting in transmitted signal having bandwidth being much larger than the data signal. The bandwidth of SS signal is relatively insensitive to the data signal.
GMSK has a main lobe 1.5 times that of QPSK. GMSK generally achieves a bandwidth efficiency less than 0.7 bits per second per Hz ( QPSK can be as high as 1.6 bits per second per Hz) .
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A spread spectrum transmitter.

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The most widely applied SS signals are as follows:
Direct Sequence (DS) Signal with chip time Tc, Frequency Hopping (FH) Signal with hop time Th:
fast hopping Th < Tb, slow hopping Th > Tb,

The main advantages of SS signals (from the viewpoint of mobile communications) are:
resists intentional and non-intentional interference -- an important feature for mobile communications, has the ability to eliminate or alleviate the effect of multipath propagation, which can be a big obstacle in urban communication, under some conditions can share the same frequency band (as an overlay) with other users; because of its noiselike signal characteristics, it is permitted to operate unlicensed SS systems with limited RF-power in the ISM frequency bands.
Time Hopping (TH), Chirp Signals (CS).
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Processing gain:
One of the most important parameters of the SS systems is the processing gain Gp. It is defined as a ratio of the spread spectrum bandwidth WSS to the baseband bandwidth required for data Wd: Gp = WSS/Wd
ISI and Interference Rejection

Narrowband Interference Rejection (1/K) S(f) I(f) S(f) I(f)*Sc(f)
Receiver Input Despread Signal
S(f)*Sc(f)
Info. Signal
Multipath Rejection (Autocorrelation r(t)) S(f) S(f)*Sc(f)[(t)+(t-)] S(f) S(f)

Despread Signal
Value of the Gp, usually expressed in dB, determines the interference rejection capabilities of the SS system.
Info. Signal
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Receiver Input
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Direct Sequence (DS) SS combined with BPSK as a data modulation is one of the most commonly considered SS scheme. The transmitted DS BPSK signal is given by: g(t) - physical implementation of a spreading sequence b(t) - physical representation of bipolar data.

Alternative transmitter for DS BPSK SS allows for performing spreading in the baseband.
s(t) = Ag(t)b(t)cos(0t + c)
Baseband spreading DS BPSK transmitter. Block diagram of DS BPSK transmitter.

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Example signals for the DS BPSK transmitter with baseband spreading. {gn(j )} = (0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1)

DS BPSK demodulator recovers the data signal b(t), and finally, the sequence of data symbols {bk} from the received signal (t). Because of the propagation delay , the received signal can be expressed as: (t) = s(t-) + n(t) =Ab(t-)g(t-)cos[0(t-) + 0] + n(t)
where n(t) is the noise from the channel and the frontend of the receiver.
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After despreading, the resulting narrowband signal w(t) is then demodulated using a conventional BPSK demodulator. To perform a successful demodulation, the receiver needs to know the phase , the carrier frequency, 0, as well as the beginning of each bit.
The block diagram of a conventional DS BPSK receiver.

Example signals for DS BPSK receiver.

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DS QPSK
Apart from BPSK, and its differential form DBPSK, only Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying (QPSK) is a modulation scheme commonly discussed in conjunction with DS SS systems.
DS QPSK - (2)
Functional diagram of a DS QPSK transmitter.
Functional diagram of a DS QPSK receiver.

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DS QPSK - Advantages
The bandwidth of modulated signals sI(t) and sQ(t) are the same, and therefore equal to the bandwidth of the aggregate signal s(t). Because, the data rates of bI(t) and bQ(t) are equal to half the rate of b(t), the bandwidth occupied by a DS QPSK signal equals to the half of the bandwidth occupied by an equivalent DS BPSK signal. Alternatively, a DS QPSK system can transmit twice as much data as a DS BPSK sys-tem that uses the same bandwidth and has the same processing gain and signal to noise ratio.
DS QPSK - Disadvantages
A disadvantage of a DS QPSK system is a higher complexity than that of a DS BPSK system. In addition, if the two carriers used for demodulation at the receiver are not truly orthogonal, then there will be a cross talk between the in-phase and quadrature channels, which can significantly impair the system performance.
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There are many families of spreading sequences, also known as pseudo-noise (PN) codes. The sequences should possess low mutual crosscorrelation for any relative delay. Some examples:
m-sequences, Walsh sequences, Gold codes, Kassami sequences, FZC sequences, Walsh-Chirp sequences.
16-chip Walsh Sequences
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15-chip Gold-like Sequences

There are 16 Gold-like sequences of length 15. The actual spreading sequences are bipolar sequences, obtained using the formula:
Nonlinear Modulation. (FSK,MSK)
Frequency Hopping
Mixer
d(t)
s(t)
Channel
Mixer
Nonlinear Demod.
Sci(t)
VCO
VCO
Sci(t)
g n = (1)
gn
{+1 1} ,
g n {0, 1}
FH Modulator FH Demodulator Spreading codes used to generate a (slow or fast) hopping carrier frequency for d(t). Channel bandwidth determined by hopping range - bandwidth need not be continuous. Channel introduces noise, ISI, narrowband and MAI interference.
Hopping has no effect on AWGN No ISI if d(t) narrowband, but channel nulls affect certain hops. Narrowband interference affects certain hops. MAI users collide on some hops.
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Spectral Properties
Slow vs. Fast Hopping

Fast Hopping - hop on every symbol
NB interference, MAI interference, and channel nulls affect just one symbol. Correct using error-control coding
1
Di(f-fc)
Slow Hopping - hop after several symbols

NB interference, MAI interference, and channel nulls affect many symbols. Correct using error-control coding and interleaving.
1
Dj(f-fc)
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Questions & Comments
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Modulation Schemes

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Contents ECTE465 Lecture 4

Digital Modulation Schemes PSK QAM MSK GMSK

Spread Spectrum Communications

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Digital Modulation Schemes

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Digital Modulation Schemes

Examples of Modulation Schemes

Frequency Hopping Direct Sequence

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cos(2f c + + c ) cos(2f c + c ) 0 t < Tb

Eb = 0.5Ac2Tb, which gives

for binary -1.

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Normalized PSD [dB]

Example plots for BPSK signalling.

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sQPSK (t ) = 2 E s Ts cos[ c t + 0.5 (k 1)] 0 t < Ts

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sQPSK (t ) = 2 E s Ts cos[0.5 (k 1)]cos( c t ) 2 E s Ts sin [0.5 (k 1)]sin( c t )

sQPSK (t ) = E s cos[0.5 (k 1)]1 (t ) E s sin[0.5 (k 1)] 2 (t ) k = 1, 2, 3, 4

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BER for Coherent BPSK and QPSK

From QPSK to QAM (1)

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From QPSK to QAM (2)

From QPSK to QAM (3)

sQAM (t ) = I k cos( c t ) Qk sin( c t )

I k = Ak cos( k ), and Qk = Ak sin( k )

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Other Digital Phase Modulation Schemes

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