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6 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Concrete vs. Steel Concrete can be placed efficiently in buildings over 1,000 feet without using a tower crane. Before modern engineering and the ability to manipulate concrete and steel, the world of architecture consisted of wood, adobe, thatch, and cave dwellings. Concrete and steel both provide numerous benefits.

SAFETY Concrete: The recent announcement by Ground Zero Developer Larry Silverstein regarding safety measures at the new 7 World Trade Center (WTC) building echoes what the concrete industry has been saying for years: Concrete is safer. The buildings core (where elevators, stairs, and power systems are located) will be encased in 2-foot-thick concrete for protection in the event of a fire or terrorist attack. Cast-in-place reinforced concrete offers outstanding resistance to explosion and/or impact. Moreover, it can endure very high temperatures from fire for a long time without loss of structural integrity, says Alfred G. Gerosa, president, Concrete Alliance Inc., New York City. Concrete requires no additional fireproofing treatments to meet stringent fire codes, and performs well during both natural and manmade disasters. Because of concretes inherent heaviness, mass, and strength, buildings constructed with cast-in-place reinforced concrete can resist winds of more than 200 miles per hour and perform well even under the impact of flying debris.

7 With proper design, engineering, and construction, the seemingly rigid structures built with concrete can exhibit increased ductility - a must in areas prone to seismic activity. However, according to the Skokie, IL-based Portland Cement Association (PCA), the performance of any building during an earthquake is largely a function of design rather than the material used in construction. Steel: While recent reports issued by the National Institute of Standards and Technology blame the reduced structural integrity of steel for the collapse of the WTC towers, the jet-fueled fires are to blame. Experts acknowledge that steel can soften and melt with exposure to extremely high temperatures. However, with the addition of passive fire protection, such as spray-on fireproofing, buildings built of structural steel can sustain greater temperatures and, therefore, provide additional safety. Dont base your opinions about steels performance on the events of 9/11. In the October 2003 Modern Steel Construction article Blast Resistant Design with Structural Steel, authors Anatol Longinow and Farid Alfawakhiri recall the 1993 WTC attack. The article indicates that the inherent redundancy of the steel frames prevented the structures collapse. Were seeing a lot of structures constructed taking into account progressive collapse for blast conditions that are designed very effectively and very economically in steel, explains John P. Cross, vice president, marketing, American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago. Steels strength and ductility, combined with solid engineering and design, make it a safe choice in seismic zones. Steel framing does very well under high [wind] loads because it is ductile, which means it has the ability to bend without breaking and can absorb that kind of

8 energy, says Larry Williams, president of the Washington, D.C.-based Steel Framing Alliance, of cold-formed steel. COST Concrete: Its true: Prices of construction materials have spiked. However, the cost of ready-mix concrete remains relatively stable, and according to Ed Alsamsam, PCAs manager of buildings and special structures, even the increase in steel has had a minimal effect on reinforced concrete building projects. Concrete prices remain very steady despite the fluctuating and substantial increases in other building material prices, he says. While cast-in-place concrete construction can be pricier on the front end, the return on investment achieved can lessen the cost differential. According to Gerosa, Insurance companies recognize the benefits of a cast-in-place reinforced concrete office building because the aforementioned benefits - increased safety and structural integrity - reduce liability on their part. Insurance companies also report that owners and developers of a Class-A, cast-in-place reinforced concrete-framed office tower with a concrete core and wider egress stairs will save nearly 25 percent annually on the cost of property insurance. Steel: The big news in development is the price of steel. And while structural steel has experienced a 50-percent increase over mill prices since November 2003, experts like Cross stress that structural steel represents less than 20 percent of all the steel used in building construction. If you look at the overall impact on project costs, in the past year weve seen project costs go up by about 10 percent as a result of increases in all types of construction

9 materials. The increase in cost of the structural framing system represents less than 2 percent of the 10-percent increase in project costs, Cross explains. And despite what some concrete experts say, if you thought youd escape the rising steel prices by opting for reinforced concrete, think again, Cross says. The costs for a concrete framing system have gone up pretty much equivalently to the costs of a steel framing system, he adds. To get an accurate reading on which material is most cost effective, analyze current steel and concrete framing prices on a project-by-project basis. And remember, according to Williams, 2004 was not a good year for any building material.

MATERIAL AVAILABILITY Concrete: As recently as the fall of 2004, many states were reporting a shortage of cement, the primary binding ingredient used in concrete. The hurricanes in Florida and atypical levels of winter construction activity resulted in greater demand and shorter supply. According to the PCA, other factors contributing to the shortage are shipping rates and the limited availability of transport ships. With imported cement supplementing domestic supplies, skyrocketing shipping rates and limited freight transport have resulted in higher costs and unreliable supply. Despite tight supplies of cement in some regions of the United States, the impacts have been greatest on smaller companies, builders, or contractors. Developers are using concrete frame buildings in every building sector, and count on concrete for stable pricing and availability regionally, says Alsamsam. Cement companies are rapidly expanding, and domestic capacity is expected to increase by 2008.

10 Steel: Steel availability has been the subject of more than a few conversations lately, with the blame placed on the ever-expanding construction activity in Asian countries like China. However, experts from the steel industry are eager to dispel the myth that there simply isnt enough steel to go around. Over the past year, theres been a lot of misperception out there in terms of availability of material, says Cross. There is no shortage. The United States structural steel industry has the capacity to produce 6 million tons of structural steel per year. In 2004, our usage was about 4 million tons of wide-flange structural product, which means there is certainly adequate capacity to meet any growth in the foreseeable future. Structural steel is readily available.

CONSTRUCTION SCHEDULING Concrete: The old adage time is money was never more true than when talking about construction schedules. According to Gerosa, Buildings with concrete can almost always be built faster. When compared to structural steel, sometimes twice as fast. It is not uncommon for cast-in-place reinforced concrete buildings to rise one floor every other day. Developers can finish jobs faster, earn a profit, recoup capital, and move on to the next project. The popular construction process Gerosa refers to is known as the 2-day cycle. Robert A. Ledwith, business manager and financial secretary-treasurer for the New York City-based Local #46 Metallic Lathers Union and Reinforcing Iron Workers, explains: A 2-day cycle is a very labor-intensive operation. On a 2day cycle, we can [pour] up to 20,000 square feet of floor space every 2 days.

11 Completing a building faster because of the 2-day cycle offers significant benefits. That is something that is absolutely unique for concrete construction. They have mastered it in New York City, and the cities of Chicago and Los Angeles are striving to match that, as their accessibility to downtown [with] construction cranes, equipment, and staging areas become ever smaller and more limited, says Alsamsam. When those ready-mix trucks pop up on-site, they need to come in, dump, and leave very quickly. The faster the building is completed, the sooner the owner can allow occupancy and begin collecting income from tenants.

Steel: While concretes 2-day cycle may seem to give it an unarguable advantage, steel provides many construction benefits of its own. We believe structural steel framing systems are the way of the future, says Cross. We believe that they result in an accelerated schedule. We also believe that quality is enhanced because of off-site fabrication, and that the productivity opportunities that exist in construction can be best addressed in off-site fabrication with a reduction of actual on-site time and on-site construction. Advancements in building information modeling have integrated the design, detailing, and fabrication of steel, which have resulted in an accelerated process. Design programs and CAD packages can pass information through a CIS/2 neutral database as a 3-D model to detailing and shop floor fabrication programs. This is literally compressing the steel portion of the schedule of projects by 40 or 50 percent, says Cross of the advances in interoperability. These productivity increases position steel as a viable construction material both now and in the future.

12 DESIGN POSSIBILITIES

Concrete: Concrete buildings are taking shape - many different shapes - everywhere. Remember, concrete seeks the form, says Gerosa. You can shape anything out of concrete; thats why the Guggenheim was built the way it was. In addition to the unique aesthetics achieved with concrete construction, these buildings offer some very real space advantages. Public and private developers should also realize that using cast-in-place reinforced concrete to frame a high-rise office building would yield more rentable space because of lower floor-to-floor heights, Gerosa explains. This is no secret to Donald Trump, the New York City developer currently building at the former Chicago Sun-Times site. Architects of the Trump Intl. Hotel & Tower recently switched from structural steel to concrete so that two additional stories could be added to the 1,125-foot building. With proper engineering, concrete building can also offer uninterrupted floorplates. A great example is the newest office building in New York City, utilizing 45-foot spans and awesome views of the park, says Alsamsam of 505 5th Ave. Steel: Steel has the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any construction material, says Williams. And with new construction methods, steel buildings remain a popular choice for office and multifamily developers. Use of girder slab, staggered truss, and castellated beam construction enables lower floor-to-floor heights than typically expected in structural steel buildings.

13 Looking for long spans of column-free space? Steel delivers. Steel can accomplish extremely long spans in structures [and] very open-bay footprints without intermediate columns. Its a very flexible material in terms of different ways to address design requirements, says Cross. If you havent decided which side youre on, dont worry. Your education on steel and concrete buildings has only just begun. To find out more, contact both local and national industry associations. Offering free information and concrete advice, their knowledge is real steel.

Framing System The framing system, the skeleton of building, determines the size and flexibility of building. Framing system carries and distributes the structural loads that occur above the surface of the Earth, and consists of columns and beams that support the building. In some building system, the floor slab is design to assist in carrying some of the lateral loads of the building, and thereby become an integral part of the framing system.

Reinforced Concrete Reinforced concrete (Ferro Concrete) is plain concrete in which steel reinforcement rods or bars (rebars) have been incorporated to strengthen the brittle concrete. The use of reinforced concrete is a relatively recent venuon, usually being considered as covering in the last 150 years, and its accidentally commonly ascribed to a Parisian gardener named Monier in about the year 1810. Typically, the concrete will have reached its normal design strength at most 2 days after the water was mixed into the concrete mix. In some structural members where minimum crosssection is desired, steel may be used to carry some of the compressive load as well as tensile load. This occurs in columns. Continuous beams in buildings generally require some

14 compressive steel at the column, but beams and slabs usually have reinforcing steel only on the tension side. In the case of continuous girders where the tensile stress alternates between top and bottom of the member, the steel is bent accordingly into a zigzag shape within the beam. (Fajardo and Samarita, 2008) Concrete is reinforced to give it extra tensile strength; without reinforcement, many concrete buildings would not have been possible. Reinforced concrete can encompass many types of structures and components, including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames and more. Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast concrete and cast in-situ concrete. Much of the focus on reinforcing concrete is placed on floor systems. Designing and implementing the most efficient floor system is the key to creating optimal building structures. Small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, and ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of a building.

Properties of Concrete Strength of Concrete. Concrete structure is subjected to compressive, tensile, flexural and shearing forces. The strength of concrete is measured in its ability to resist the stresses caused by these different forces. Theoretically, a low water cement ratio produces a high quality Portland cement paste. Workability. Concrete is said to be workable if its composition is easily mixed, handled, transported and placed with vibrators without loss of homogeneity. Durability. A durable concrete would exhibit resistance to weathering, chemical deterioration and erosion. Concrete composition is the most important factor related to durability.

15 The cement content should not be less than 8 bags per cubic yard and aggregate/cement ratio not less than 2.6 (by weight). The durability of concrete exposed to freezing and thawing is enhanced by use of air-entering admixture. (Dagasdas and Jusayan, 2006).

Advantages of Reinforced Concrete in Building Construction The following factors have contributed significantly to the cost-competitiveness of reinforced concrete buildings: 1. New advances in concrete forming techniques such as flying forms, tunnel forms, slip forms, and gang forms. 2. Use of faster concrete-placing equipment such as concrete pumps. 3. The inherent fire resistance of concrete, which eliminates the need for fireproofing materials. 4. Minimum thickness of floor systems, which reduces the floor-to-floor height, thereby reducing the amount of materials needed to enclose the building. 5. The capacity of concrete to be molded into controlled shapes and configurations offers an opportunity to create dramatic and aesthetically pleasing shapes. 6. Building framed with pan joist or other types of construction with a uniform structural depth make it possible to use a simpler mechanical distribution system. 7. Exterior shear walls, columns, and spandrels can be formed with textured fin form liners to achieve architectural finish without additional treatment or painting. As compared to the structural steel, the material properties of concrete exhibit some distinctive features such as (1) low resistance to tension; (2) time-dependent dimensional variations, namely creep and shrinkage; (3) large cross-sectional areas required from strength

16 considerations. The stiffness of concrete members is greater, minimizing the sway deflection and floor vibration and local instability problems. (Dagasdas and Jusayan, 2006).

Structural Steel Structural steel is produced primarily from iron ore, coke, and scrap steel. Iron ore and coal are mined domestically in areas primary located in the Great Lakes Region (iron ore) and in the Appalachian and Rocky Mountain Ridges (coal). The coal is heated in the absence of oxygen to produce coke, iron ore is melted down in a blast furnace with coke and limestone to produce pig iron and slag. Pig iron is then processed with coke and scarp steel in a basic oxygen furnace to produce carbon steel. Various finishing and shaping processes can be used to alter the properties of the steel. Steel is also produced through recycling process in which scrap steel is melted down in an electric arc furnace. Steel buildings offer a variety of attractive features and benefits, including design flexibility, larger column-free floor areas, structural integrity, and lower maintenance costs. The ease and speed of erection allows for faster occupancy, while the predictability of cost and production schedules saves money. (Fajardo and Samarita, 2008) In comparison to all other materials employed in the construction of buildings, steel, other than its somewhat unusual ability to resist compression and tension without being overly bulky. Among the characteristics are high strength, ease of erection, uniformity and ductility. Although structural steel components need fireproofing to meet the fire codes, the invention of a sprayed-on cementations coating mixture had replaced earlier, more expensive practice of embedding steel members in poured-in-place concrete, thus greatly

17 improving the economy of steel structures. Steel, because of its high ratio of strength to weight or volume, allows structures to be designed for smaller dead loads and larger spans. Various aspects of steel construction such as fabrication, transportation, and field assembly must be considered during the design stages to achieve the most satisfactory and economical result. There are basically three groups of structural steel available for use in bridges and buildings. Carbon steels: ASTM-A36 and A529 High Strength, low alloy steels: ASTM-A440, A441, A572 and A588 Heat treated low alloy steels: ASTM-A514 In the A-572 category six grades of steel: 42, 45, 50, 55, 60 and 65 are available for structural use. The grade numbers correspond to the minimum yield point in kilo pounds per square inch of the specified steel. Carbon steel is available in 36 and 42 grades, while the A514 group consists of tempered steels with specified yield points ranging from 990 to 100 ksi (620.5 689.5 MPa). The most commonly available type and grade of structural steel shapes in stock is grade 36, comprising approximately 75 percent of US production of structural shapes. Until about a decade ago, it was a routine and economical choice because of availability for early delivery and maximum competition among bidders. (Taranath, Bungale S. Structural Analysis and Design of Tall Buildings. 1988).

Advantages of Steel Construction Whether or not, as the proper choice for framing a multi-storey building is a decision that invariability requires comparative studies. However, the following some reasons normally associated with competitive advantages of steel.

18 Construction speed, particularly during periods of high interest rates. Steel frames go up more rapidly, thus reducing construction financial costs and allowing the building to generate revenue sooner. Availability of steel in a variety of grades and shapes that is suitable for economical framing of both short and long span. It offers economical design approaches for retrofit and rehab projects. It can be easily modified, expanded, or converted to suit future needs of owners and tenants. Steel construction may result in reduced foundation costs because of its light weight. Steel frame is normally 25 35 percent lighter than concrete frame and permit the use of less expensive foundation system. Increasing acceptance by code-governing bodies of the rational methods for designing with fire-safe exterior structural steel. In severe cold weather conditions, structural steel framing is preferred because of less likelihood of loss days due to snow and icy conditions. (Dagasdas and Jusayan, 2006)

Cited Literature y Cost Analysis of Reinforced Concrete and Structural Steel for Framing System of Buildings by S.A. Dagasdas and R.T. Jusayan, 2006 The cost analysis of reinforced concrete and structural steel for framing system of buildings was conducted at Dagasdas Residence, Indang, Cavite, from September 2005 to January 2006. The structural analysis of both reinforced concrete and structural for framing system of buildings was made through the aid of Structural Aided Analysis and Design III (STAAD III). This software basically perform analysis which includes computing structural

19 members, obtaining quantity takeoff, selection of economical section and checking stability of structures. The objectives of the study were (1) to conduct structural analysis both reinforced concrete and steel as primary material for framing system of buildings; (2) determine which is more economical between reinforced concrete and structural steel for different level of building; (3) enhance the knowledge in analysis of building structure with computer application using structural engineering software; (4) provide reference for the university for their future project and (5) provide a scale model of the study. The study was only limited to both reinforced concrete and structural steel analysis of 2, 6 and10 storey building as well as the estimated cost of the building in different floor level. All other specifications were the same for both framing system. A scale model which shows the advantages and disadvantages of concrete and steel was provided. In addition, technical specification, which conform to the by-laws of the National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP 2001) and National Building Code were adapted. Based on the results of the study, it showed that 2, 6 and 10-storey building, the use of reinforced concrete as framing system is cheaper compared to structural steel. This is due to less material cost and equipment cost of the reinforced concrete. Therefore, it can be concluded that reinforced concrete is more economical to use for framing system of building. The designer needs to keep in mind the items causing lower cost without sacrificing the strength. In many cases, the cost of a concrete structure is less than that of comparable steel structure. In almost every case, maintenance cost of concrete are also less. Both reinforced concrete and structural steel are primary materials with its own unique features and characteristics.

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