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Water Makes up about 60 95% of the fresh mass of an organism An important component of cells Act as a solvent, and is often a reactant in metabolism Provides an aqueous environment for many organisms Properties of water Dipolar Uneven charge distribution within the molecule Oxygen atom has a slight negative charge Hydrogen atom has a slight positive charge Hydrogen bonds are formed between the negatively charged oxygen atom and the positively charged atom of other water molecules in their liquid state Hydrogen bonds form, break and reform with great frequency
Universal solvent Polarity of water makes it a suitable solvent for ions and other polar molecules, displacing their attraction to each other These includes ionic substances which contain charged ions and some non-ionic substances that contain polar groups Chemicals that dissolved in water are free to move about and react with other chemicals Most biological reactions take place in an aqueous medium Hydrophilic Polar substances that can dissolve in water
Hydrophobic Non-polar substances that don t interact with water Has relatively low viscosity Hydrogen bonds between water molecules are being continually broken and reformed Molecules can slide easily over each other and flow with less friction through narrow vessels Act as lubricants to allow food to move easily down the alimentary canal Inconstant density Water cools Movement of water molecules slow down and move further apart Each water molecule can form a maximum number of 4 hydrogen bonds with other water molecules Water expands as it freezes and less dense than liquid water At 4oC Water will achieve its maximum density At 0oC and below Ice is formed and floats on the surface forming an insulating layer y Prevents water from freezing in lower depths j Aquatic organisms in ponds and lakes can survive in liquid water during the winter months Has high cohesion among molecules It is result of hydrogen bonding and causes the surface of water to occupy the least possible surface area
Wate ec es te to stic togethe due to cohesive forces Function Trans ocation of water through the xy e tissue in plants by forming a continuous column of water Has higher surface tension than any other liquid due to strong cohesive forces Surface tension Measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid Objects that are denser than water will sink Surface film acts almost like a membrane supporting them Function Many small organism, like wat st id s and pond skat , rely on surface tension to walk over its surface in search of territories, food and partners Has high specific heat capacity of 4.2 kJ/kg/K A large amount of heat is required to cause a slight increase in temperature The energy is used in breaking the hydrogen bonds which restrict the movement of the molecules Has high latent heat of fusion of 340 kJ/kg Measure of heat energy required to melt ice or loss of heat of liquid water to free e Contents of cells and their environments are less likely to free e as ice crystals can be damaging if they are formed inside cells
Has high latent heat of vaporization of 2260 kJ/kg Measure of heat energy that required to vaporize water to overcome the hydrogen bonds which restrict the movement of the molecules Water temperature does not increase as fast as other substances y It enables water temperature of cells to remain relatively constant Acts as th mal buffer and Prevents large fluctuations in body temperature of terrestrial organisms Ensure constant body temperature that enables the enzymes to function optimally and prevent denaturation of biological molecules Useful in the sweating and panting of mammals and also in the cooling of transpiring leaves Prevent large amounts of heat can be lost with minimal of water from the body Roles of water in living organisms Medium for many chemical reactions One of the reactants or products of chemical reaction One of the major raw materials for photosynthesis Provides a moist surface that allows molecules to dissolve and diffuse across surfaces Act as a lubricant Mucus helps earthworms and snails in movement Mucus helps in the movement of food through the alimentary canal in mammals Synovial fluid lubricates joints in vertebrates
Pleural fluid lubricates movement of lungs during breathing Pericardial fluid lubricates movement of the heart Good medium for transport and removal of substances and waste Substances such as glucose, amino acids, mineral salts and hormones are transported in the soluble form in the blood plasma of animals Mineral salts and sucrose are transported as aqueous solutions in plants Metabolic wastes (ammonia and urea) are removed from the body in water-soluble form Animals like earthworms have hydrostatic skeletons and are dependent on the pressure of the aqueous medium within them for support and movement Medium of fertilisation for gametes that swim One of the dispersal agents for seeds of land plants (coconut trees)
Carbohydrates Organic compound containing the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in proportion 1:2:1 respectively Basic formula Cx(H2O)y x, y are variable numbers of the hydrate of carbon All carbohydrates are ketones or aldehydes and contain several hydroxyl groups Function Main source of energy Food storage compound Forms structural components in plant cells Groups of carbohydrates
Monosaccharide (reduced sugars) A group of sugar with simple molecular structure that cannot be broken down further into smaller units of carbohydrates Empirical formula (CH2O)n n=3 7 Properties Polar Sweet Soluble in water Can be crystallised This results of the hydroxyl groups of the carbon chains which readily form hydrogen bonds with water molecules Can be characterised by the number of carbon atoms in the molecules Trioses (3C sugars) Glyceraldehydes Dihydroxyacetone Same molecular formula but differ in the arrangement of atoms Pentoses (5C sugars) Ribose Ribulose Hexoses (6C sugars) Glucose Fructose Galactose Mannose Monosaccharide molecule contains a carbonyl group Remaining carbon atoms that don t have a carbonyl group will have hydroxyl groups Structural isomers different attachments of the atoms or groups of atoms in the molecule
Pentose Aldose group (Ribose) Stereoisomerism same atoms or groups are joined together but are arranged differently in the molecule Optical isomerism property of any compound which can exist in 2 forms whose structures are mirror images D glyceraldehydes
L glyceraldehydes y Pentose and hexose can either exist in j Open chain form j Ring structure When dissolved in water, monosaccharide may change from straight chain to ring form j More stable j Can be used to make disaccharide and polysaccharide
D and L isomers of the same substance have y Same physical and chemical properties j Except for the physical properties associated with asymmetry y Naturally occurring sugars occur largely in D forms and all amino acids are found in the L forms in living organisms
Enzymes in the body can be differentiated between the different 3D D and L forms Pharmaceutical drugs synthesized in large quantities may contain a mixture of D and L forms Additional procedures are required to isolate the effective D or L forms of the drug When a beam of polarised light passes through a solution, Dextro rotatory is indicated by ( + ) if it turns polarised light into the right Laevo rotatory is indicated by ( - ) if it turns the polarised light into the left Function Trioses Intermediates in respiration Dihydroxyacetone Intermediates in photosynthesis Glyceraldehydes Intermediates in side pathways of carbohydrate metabolism Glyceraldehydes Pentoses Synthesis of nucleic acids y Ribose component of RNA y Deoxyribose components in DNA Synthesis of some coenzymes y Ribose is a constituent of NAD and NADP Synthesis of ATP y Ribose Carbon dioxide acceptor in photosynthesis y Ribulose bisphosphate Intermediates in photosynthesis y Ribulose
Hexoses Source of energy y Glucose Formation of disaccharide y Glucose y Fructose Formation of polysaccharide y Glucose
Disaccharide Formed from 2 units of monosaccharide combined together by glycosidic bond through condensation with the removal of a water molecule General formula = C12H22O11 Types of disaccharide Glucose + Glucose maltose Source y Malt sugar in germinating barley grains Function y Respiratory substrate
Glucose + Fructose sucrose Source y Sugar cane y Beetroot Function y Main form that is transported in plants
Glucose + Galactose Lactose Source y Sugar found in the milk of mammals Function y Source of energy
Oligosaccharide Monosaccharide may be linked together to form small chains Each oligosaccharide may contain 3 14 monosaccharide Oligosaccharide chain can be found attached to proteins and lipids forming glycoprotein and glycolipids of the plasma membrane Function Important in cell recognition Polysaccharide Polymers made up of the condensation of hundreds of monosaccharide monomers through polymerisation by glycosidic bonds Empirical formula of (C6H10O5)n n: 100s 10,000s Formation of long chains of carbohydrate through condensation Different in length Branched or unbranched Linear or coiled Folded Properties Amorphous Not sweet Don t dissolve in water but colloids Don t influence the osmotic pressure of a cell
Make it an ideal storage molecule Big but can easily converted to simple sugars by hydrolysis when required Types of polysaccharide Starch Polysaccharide formed from condensation of glucose units, which is made up of amylase and amylopectin Amylose y Linear unbranched polymer of 200 1500 -glucose units in a repeating sequence of -1,4-glycosidic binds y Amylose chain coils into a helix held by hydrogen bonds formed between hydroxyl group whereby more compact shape is formed
Amylopectin y A branched polymer of 2000 200,000 -glucose units per starch molecule y Linear chains of -glucose units are held together by -1,4-glycosidic linkages j Branches occur at intervals of approximately 25 30 where -1,6-glycosidic bonds occur y Amylose helices j Entangled in the branches of amylopectin to form a
glycogen can be hydrolysed rapidly by enzymes Glucose molecules are produced for cellular respiration to meet the energy requirement
Properties y Insoluble in water y Can be stored in large amounts with little effect on the water potential of plant cell and doesn t affect the cellular metabolic activities Source y Chloroplast y Potato tubers y Cereals y Legumes Glycogen Major storage form of carbohydrate in animals Source y Liver y Muscle cells High metabolic activities take place Glycogen granules found in the hyphae of many fungi Properties y Insoluble in water y Has no effect on the water potential of cellular fluid Structure is similar to amylopectin but it is a larger macromolecule made from -glucose and with more branches When energy is needed and glucose concentration is low in the body, highly branched
Cellulose Structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls Source y Vegetables y Fruits Can t be hydrolysed by enzymes in the human digestive systems Composed of long unbranched chains of up to 10,000 -glucose units linked by -1,4-glycosidic bonds Each -glucose unit is related to the next by a rotation of 180o with hydroxyl groups projecting outwards on either side of the chain Run parallel to one another y Unlike amylopectin and glycogen molecules j No side chains in cellulose j Allows the linear chains to lie close together Many hydrogen bonds are formed between hydroxyl groups on adjacent chains Chains group together to form micro fibrils are
arranged in larger bundles to form macro fibrils Fibrils give the plant cells their high tensile strength and rigidity Properties y Permeable to water y Permeable to solutes Function y To make cotton goods y To make paper for various uses y To form structure of cell wall
Chitin A component of some fungal walls and the chitinous exoskeleton of arthropods Structure is similar to cellulose except that hydroxyl (-OH) group at carbon atom 2 is replaced by NH.COCH3 (amino sugar combined with an acetyl group)
y As a food store Example y Plants of the family Compositae (Dahlia tubers) Murein (peptidoglycan) Component of bacterial cell walls and consists of polysaccharide cross-linked with amino acids Lignin Present in the walls of sclerenchyma, xylem vessels and tracheids Not a polysaccharide but an alcohol polymer Fibres Sources y Outer layer of whole grain cereals y Indigestible cellulose fibres of j Vegetables j Legumes j Fruits Function y To stimulate peristalsis y To assist in the movement of food in the intestine y To help in avoiding constipation Function Storage of carbohydrate in y Plants y Animals Structural support to plant cell walls
Insulin Function
Food Tests Reducing sugar Test Procedure y Add 2ml of a solution of sugar to a test tube
Add an equal volume of Benedict s solution y Shake and bring gently to the boil, shaking continuously to minimise spitting Observation y The blue colouration of the mixture turns green, yellow, orange and then forms a brick-red precipitate Conclusion y Presence of red precipitate that indicates the presence of reducing sugars Explanation y Benedict s solution contains copper sulphate which gives the solution its blue colouration y Reducing sugars reduce copper sulphate containing copper (II) ions to insoluble copper oxide containing copper (I) ions Cu2+ + e- Cu+ y The test is semiquantitative and can be used to give a rough estimate of the amount of reducing sugars present y The change in colour from green, yellow, orange to red-brown and the amount of precipitate indicates the increasing concentration of reducing sugars Non-reducing sugar Test 1 Procedure
y
Add 2ml of Benedict s solution to an equal volume of sucrose solution y Boil the mixture for 1 minute Observation y Blue colouration Conclusion y To indicate that sucrose is not a reducing sugar Test 2 Procedure y Add 2ml of sucrose solution to a test tube y Add 1ml of dilute HCl. Boil for one minute y Neutralise with NaHCO3 y Carry out Benedict s test Observation y The blue colouration of the mixture turns green, yellow, orange and then brick-red precipitate Conclusion y Sucrose is hydrolysed to its reducing monosaccharide which give a positive result with the Benedict s test Test 3 Procedure y Add a few drops of iodine/potassium iodide (I2/KI) to 2ml 1% starch solution (or to the cut surface of a solid food) Observation y Blue-black colouration Conclusion y To indicate the presence of starch
y