Is the transmission of digital pulses between two or more points in a communication system.

Binary Transmission
BIT
Is a contraction of the term binary digit A unit of information represented by either a 1 or 0

BIT RATE / DATA RATE

The number of 0s and 1s that pass on a communication channel each second Transmission rate in bits per second

ERROR RATE
A measure of data connectivitys performance Often the unit of measurement is bit error rate (BER), which is probability of error A BER of 1 in 105 means that there is a probability of one error will occur for every 100,000 bits

Binary Code Formats

NON-RETURN TO ZERO (NRZ)

A 1 represents the active state and a 0 the passive state A change of state occurs when there is 1-to-0 or 0-to-1 transition A string of 1s is a continuous pulse or ON condition and a string of 0s is a continuous OFF condition Information is extracted from transitions or lack of transitions in synchronous format, and a single pulse completely occupies the designated bit interval

NON-RETURN TO ZERO (NRZ)

Binary Code Formats

RETURN TO ZERO (RZ)

There is a transition for every bit transmitted, whether a 1 or 0, and as a result, a pulse width is less than the bit interval to permit the NZR condition

Binary Code Formats

BIPOLAR NRZ
This is similar to NRZ except that binary 1s alternate in polarity.

Binary Code Formats

BIPOLAR RZ
The same as bipolar NRZ, but there is a returnto-zero condition for each signal element, and again, the pulse width is always less than the bit interval.

Binary Code Formats

MANCHESTER CODE
Is commonly used in digital fiber optic systems. The binary information is carried in the transition which occurs at midpulse. By convention, logic 0 is defined as a positive going transition and logic 1 as a negative going transmission. This signal can either be unipolar or bipolar.

MANCHESTER CODE

Binary Information Codes

Types of Characters Data Link Control Characters

-used to facilitate the orderly flow of data from a source to a destination

Graphic Control Characters

-involve the syntax or presentation of the data at the receive terminal

Alphanumeric Characters
-used to represent the various symbols used for letters, numbers, and punctuation in the English language

Binary Information Codes

Data Communication Codes

-character sets or character languages

Binary Information Codes

MORSE CODE
the first fixed-length character code. It is a 5 bit character code, with a start bit and a 1.5 stop bits
Table of Morse Code

Binary Information Codes

BAUDOT CODE
the first datacom code with three unequal length symbols

Jean-Maurice-Emile Baudot

Binary Information Codes

AMERICAN STANDARD CODE INFORMATION INTERCHANGE (ASCII)

it uses 7 bits of information, an 8th bit for use as parity, a start bit and two stop bits

FOR

Binary Information Codes

EXTENDED BINARY CODE INTERCHANGE CODE (EBCDIC)

the true 8 level code

DECIMAL

Binary Information Codes

CCITT ALPHABET NO. 5 CODE

a 7 bit character set which has 27 or 128 codes also with a parity bit

CCITT ALPHABET NO. 2 CODE

character length similar to Baudot code but without start and stop bits

Binary Information Codes

HOLLERITH CODE
consist of 12 bits information with the 12th bit for parity.

Herman Hollerith

Binary Transmission Conventions

PARALLEL TRANSMISSION
bits are transmitted character at a time i.e. eight bits are transmitted simultaneously over eight wires. an additional wire called strobe or clock lead notifies the receiver unit that all the bits are present on their respective wires so that the voltages on the wires can be sampled.

Binary Transmission Conventions

SERIAL TRANSMISSION
bits are transmitted over a single line one bit at a time used when the cost of the communication medium is high

PARALLEL AND SERIAL TRANSMISSION

Synchronization on Digital Signals

SYNCHRONOUS
transmission in which data are sent at a fixed rate, with the receiver and transmitter synchronized synchronized transmission eliminates the need for start and stop bits

Synchronization on Digital Signals

ASYNCHRONOUS
transmission in which time intervals between transmitted characters may be of unequal length transmission is controlled by start and stop bits at the beginning and end of each character

Synchronization on Digital Signals

ISOCHRONOUS
a combination of asynchronous and synchronous transmission the data are clocked by a common timing base, and bytes are also framed with start and stop bits

Digital Transmission Modes

SIMPLEX
data transmission is unidirectional information can be sent only in one direction simplex lines are also called receive-only, transmit-only, or one-way only lines

Digital Transmission Modes

HALF DUPLEX (HDX)

data transmission is possible in both directions but not at the same time HDX lines are also called two-way alternate or either way lines

Digital Transmission Modes

FULL-DUPLEX (FDX)
data transmission is possible in both directions at the same time but they must be between the same two stations FDX lines are also called two-way simultaneous, duplex, or both-way lines

Digital Transmission Modes

FULL/FULL DUPLEX (F/FDX)

data transmission is in both directions at the same time but not the same two stations F/FDX is possible only on multipoint circuits

Types of Data Circuits

TWO-WIRE CIRCUIT
it involves a transmission medium that either uses two wires (a signal and a reference lead or a configuration that is equivalent to having only two wires simplex, HDX, or FDX transmission is possible

Types of Data Circuits

FOUR-WIRE CIRCUIT
it involves a transmission medium that uses four wires (two are used as signals that are propagating in opposite direction and two are used for reference leads) or a configuration that is equivalent to having four wires

Types of Data Circuits

SWITCHED CIRCUIT
in telephone network, a call is automatically switched through its destination after dialing has been completed.

Types of Data Circuits

LEASED CIRCUIT
a permanent circuit used for private use within a communication network with the line directly between two locations or routed through a central office

TRANSMISSION LEVEL POINT

Is the ratio (in dB) of the power of a signal at that point to the power of the same signal at the reference point CCITT recommends -13 dBrn0 at 0 TLP

TLPdB + dBm0 = Psignal(dB)

Where: TLP = transmission level point in dB dBm0 = signal magnitude referred to 0 TLP in dBm Psignal = signal magnitude at a point

Voice Channel Transmission Impairments

AMPLITUDE DISTORTION
distortion caused by the variation transmission loss with frequency of

Voice Channel Transmission Impairments

PHASE DISTORTION
is the resultant of different velocities of propagation at different frequencies across the voice channel.

Voice Channel Transmission Impairments

NOISE
it is a spurious or extraneous signal that interferes with the wanted signal.

Voice Channel Transmission Impairments

CROSSTALK
it is defined as the undesired energy appearing in one signal path as a result of coupling from another signal path

Voice Channel Transmission Impairments

ECHO
it is the return of talkers voice or other enduser signal

SINGING
it is the result of sustained oscillations due to positive feedback in amplifying circuits

Digital Modulation Techniques

Digital Modulation Techniques

1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION
-two (2) power levels (high and low) are to represent 1 or 0 based on amplitude (1-high; 0low)

Digital Modulation Techniques

1.a QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM)

-four (4) power levels are used to represent 4 pairs of bits

Digital Modulation Techniques

2. PHASE SHIFT KEYING

-there is a phase reversal of 180 to indicate change in state from 0 to 1 or vice versa

Digital Modulation Techniques

2.a BINARY PHASE SHIFT KEYING (BPSK)

-two output phases are possible for a single carrier frequency (1 & 0) -as the input signal changes state, the phase of the output carrier shifts between 2 angles that are 180

Digital Modulation Techniques

2.b BPSK-PHASE REVERSAL KEYING (PRK)

- a biphase modulation - a form of suppressed carrier, square-wave modulation of a continuous wave signal - depending on the logic condition on the digital input, the carrier is transferred to the output either in phase or 180 out of phase with the reference carrier oscillator

Digital Modulation Techniques

2.c QUADRATURE (QPSK)

PHASE

SHIFT

KEYING

- four (4) possible pair of bits are represented by 4 different phases of the carrier

Digital Modulation Techniques

3. FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (FSK)

-binary states are represented by two different frequencies -a simple, low performance digital modulation

Digital Modulation Techniques

3.a BINARY FSK

- a form of constant envelope angle modulation similar to conventional FM except that the modulating signal is a binary pulse stream that varies between two discrete voltage levels rather than a continuously changing analog waveform - has a poorer performance than PSK or QAM - it is seldom used for high-performance digital radio system

Digital Modulation Techniques - its use is restricted to low-performance, low-cost, asynchronous data modems for data communications over analog, voice band telephone lines

Digital Modulation Techniques

3.b FSK TRANSMITTER-BINARY FSK

-use voltage controlled oscillators (VCO): MARK -logic 1 frequency SPACE -logic 0 frequency

A Voltage Controlled Oscillator

Digital Modulation Techniques

3.c MINIMUM SHIFT KEYING

- a form of continuous phase shift keying (CPFSK) with mark and space frequencies synchronized with input binary rate separated by of bit rate - it requires synchronizing circuits and is more expensive

PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL) MODULATOR

the most common circuit used for demodulating binary FSK signal

PLL NATURAL FREQUENCY

Center frequency of FSK modulator

Error Detection and Correction Techniques

ERROR DETECTION
The process of monitoring the received data and determining when a transmission error has occurred.

Error Detection

1. REDUNDANCY
-involves transmitting each character twice. If the same character is not received 2x in succession, an error has occurred -retransmission of the entire message is very inefficient, because second transmission of a message is 100% redundant

Error Detection

2. PARITY-CHECK (50% detection)

-the simplest error detection scheme -used for data communications systems and with both vertical and horizontal redundancy checking -with parity, a single bit is added to each character to force a total number of 1s in the character, including the parity bit, to be either an odd (odd parity) or even number (even parity)

Error Detection

EVEN PARITY Bias bit = logic 0

> a 1 indicates an error, 0 means no error

Error Detection

ODD PARITY
Bias bit = logic 1
> a 1 indicates no error, 0 means there is no error

Error Detection

VERTICAL & HORIZONTAL REDUNDANCY CHECK (95-98% detection)

-a parity bit is added to each character to force the total number of 1s in the character including the parity bit, to be either an odd number (odd parity) or an even number (even parity)

Error Detection

2.a

VERTICAL REDUNDANCY CHECKING (VRC)

-an error detection scheme that uses parity to determine if a transmission error has occurred within a character -VRC is XORing of the bits within a single character

CHARACTER PARITY
-each character has a parity added to it prior to transmission

Error Detection 2.b HORIZONTAL / LONGITUDINAL REDUNDANCY CHECKING (HRC OR LRC) an error-detection scheme that uses parity to determine if an error has occurred in a message (message parity) with LRC, each bit position has a parity bit LRC is the result of XORing the characters that make up a message and only even parity is used. The bit sequence of an LRC is often called Block Check Sequence (BCS) VRC bit for each character is computed in the vertical direction, LRC bit is computed in horizontal direction

Error Detection

3. EXACT COUNT ENCODING

- the number of 1s in each character is the same

4. ECHOBACK / ECHOPLEX
- a character is sent back to the operator for the operator to check errors - mode of transmission that achieves less than full-duplex but more than half-duplex - achieved by having the answer DTE retransmit (echo) the received message back to the originating DTE for decoding and display

Error Detection

5. CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECK (CRC)

- most reliable scheme for error detection; 99.95 % of errors are detected - it is generally used with 8 bit codes such as EBCDIC or 7 bit codes without parity - the CRC character is the remainder of a division process using an XOR operation. If no transmission occurred, the remainder will be zero. - the number of bits in CRC code is equal to the highest exponent o the generating polynomial. The exponent identifies the bit positions that contain a 1.

Error Correction

1. SYMBOL SUBSTITUTION
-designed to be used in a human environment at the receiver -a reverse question mark is substituted for bad character

2. RETRANSMISSION / AUTOMATIC REQUEST FOR RETRANSMISSION (ARQ)

-resending a message when it is received in error. The received terminal automatically calls for retransmission of the entire message -optimal ARQ message blocks = 256 to 512 characters

Error Correction

3. FORWARD ERROR CORRECTION

- the only error correction scheme that actually detects and corrects transmission errors at the receive end without calling for retransmission of the entire message - bits are added to the message prior to transmission

Error Correction

R. W. HAMMING CODE
The most popular correcting code Developed by R. W. Hamming at Bell Labs The number of bits in a Hamming code is dependent on the number of bits in the data character,

2n m + n +1
Where: m = no. of bits in the data character n = no. of Hamming bits

Levels of Synchronization

1. BIT OR CLOCK SYNCHRONIZATION

- identifies the start / beginning and stop / end of each bit transmitted - it ensures that the transmitter and receiver agree on a precise time slot for the occurrence of the bit - it allows the receive DTE to know when to sample the incoming bit stream - Fast or slow bit sampling rate result to errors

Levels of Synchronization

2. CHARACTER SYNCHRONIZATION
- identifies start and stop of each individual character transmitted

3. BLOCK OR MESSAGE SYNCHRONIZATION

- addresses the start and stop of large amounts of data

4. MODEM OR CARRIER SYNCHRONIZATION

- performed between modems so that the received signals may be properly demodulated

EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing

RS 232C
It is an interface between the DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) and DCE (Data Communications Equipment) employing serial binary data interchange It is a first level protocol standard as well as an electrical standard specifying handshaking and functions between the DTE and DCE Transmission rate is 20 kbps for a distance not more than 50 ft.; load impedance at terminator side is between 3000 to 7000 ohms

EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing

RS 422A
It defines electrical characteristics of balancedvoltage digital interface circuits. It is a differential balanced voltage interface standard capable of significantly higher data rates over long distances. It can accommodate 100 kbps over a distance of 4000 ft (1200 m) or rates up to 10 Mbps over a maximum distance of 40 ft (12 m)

EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing

RS 423A
It defines electrical characteristics of unbalanced-voltage digital interface circuits Single-ended, bipolar and unterminated voltage circuit like RS 232C It extends the distance and data rate capabilities to distances up to 4000 ft (1200 m) at a data rate of 3 kbps or at higher data rates of up to 300 kbps over a maximum distance of 40 ft (12 m)

EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing

RS 357
It defines interface between Facsimile Terminal Equipment and VF Data Terminal Equipment

RS 366
It defines interface between DTE and Automatic Calling Equipment for Data Communications

EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing

RS 408
It recommends the standardization of the two interfaces between the numerical control equipment (such as tape reader) and the serialto-parallel converter with less than 40 ft (12 m) distance.

EIA Standards for Digital Interfacing

RS 449
It is general-purpose 37-position and 9-position interface for DTE and DCE employing serial binary data interchange. It offers greater immunity to noise and increase the data signaling rate to 2 Mbps and permits an increase up to 200 m in the length of the interconnecting cable.

CCITT V-Series for Digital Interfacing

CCITT Rec. V.10 / X.26

It defines electrical characteristics of Unbalanced Double Current Interchange Circuits for General Use with IC Equipment in the field of Data Communications.

CCITT Rec. V.11 / X.27

It defines electrical characteristics of Unbalanced Double Current Interchange Circuits for General Use with IC Equipment in the field of Data Communications.

CCITT V-Series for Digital Interfacing

CCITT Rec. V.24

It gives the list of definitions for interfacing circuits between DTE and DCE for transfer of binary data and control and timing signals. The definitions are applicable to synchronous and asynchronous data communications.

CCITT V-Series for Digital Interfacing

CCITT Rec. V.28

It defines the electrical characteristics for Unbalanced Double-Current Interchange Circuits . Electrical characteristics specified are applicable to interchange circuits operating with data signaling rates below 20 kbps.

CCITT V-Series for Digital Interfacing

CCITT Rec. V.35

Defines interface circuits similar to RS 232C and Rec. V.24 with balanced line on Transmit Data, Receive Data, Transmit Clock, and Receive Clock.

CCITT Rec. V.57

Comprehensive Data Test Set for High Data Signaling Rates.

CCITT V-Series for Digital Interfacing

CCITT Rec. V.36

It covers the synchronous data transmission modems using 60-108 kHz group band circuits and is applicable to the extension of a PCM channel at 64 kbps, extension of the Single Channel Per Carrier, SCPC circuit from a satellite earth station, and the transmission of a multiplex aggregate bit stream for telegraph and data signals.

CCITT Signaling System (SS)

CCITT SS 4
System in Europe only for operator-controlled and full automatic international services on unidirectional circuits.

CCITT SS 5
Uses two in band frequencies for line and supervisory signals (2400-2600 Hz).

CCITT Signaling System (SS)

CCITT SS 6
International specification for common channel signaling

CCITT SS 7
Common channel signaling system use between SPC exchanges Designed for use in a digital environment

CCITT X-Series for Digital Interfacing

X.21
Interface between DTE and Data Terminating Equipment for Synchronous operation on Public Data Networks

X.24
List of Definitions for Interchange Circuits between Data Terminal equipment and Data Terminating Equipment on Public Data Networks

CCITT X-Series for Digital Interfacing

X.25
Interface between DTE and DCE for Terminals Operating in the Packet Mode on Public data Networks. It is a standard protocol for interfacing a terminal to packet network. Defines the architecture of three levels of protocols existing in the serial interface cable between a packet mode terminal and give away to a packet network.

CCITT X-Series for Digital Interfacing

X.26
Electrical characteristics for Unbalanced Double Current Interchange Circuits for General Use with Integrated Circuit equipment in the field of Data Communications

X.27
Electrical characteristics for Unbalanced Double Current Interchange Circuits for General Use with Integrated Circuit equipment in the field of Data Communications

1. The internet was started in

a. 1969 b. 1988 c. 1980 d. 1996

2. Data rate is
a. a measure of how quickly data is transmitted ( bits per seconds) b. the number of bits transferred per unit of time c. the time it takes to transmit a frame d. the time it takes for the signal to travel from one end of a transmission medium to other

3. Internet address is
a. b. c. d. 32 bits 48 bits 64 bits 16 bits

4. When an end station receives a 100 bytes datagram it knows it is complete if in the IP header
a. b. c. d. Flag = last, offset = 0 Flag = dont, offset = 0 Flag = 0, offset = 100 Flag = may, offset = 0

5. The difference between circuit switching and packet switching is

a. Only in circuit switching can be active on a single physical link b. The circuit switching allows higher line utilization than packet switching c. Only packet switching, transmission resources are wasted when traffic is bursty d. Circuit switching uses physical links where as packet switching uses virtual circuit

6. What is RFP?
a. Radio Frequency Program b. Radio Frequency Proposal c. Request For Proposal d. Request For Projection

7. Error checking is accomplished by using ______ in a computer telephone communications.

a. b. c. d. CRC LRC VRC Parity

8. _____ codes are very popular for use in optical systems and satellite telemetry links.
a. b. c. d. Bi-phase NRZ RZ ASCII

9. The largest amount of data that can be sent across a given network in a single packet
a. b. c. d. Byte Nibble MTU MB

10. When a signal band limited to fm is sampled at a rate less than 2fm, the reconstructive signal will
a. b. c. d. Be smaller in amplitude Be distorted Be magnified Have higher frequencies suppressed

11. The number of changes in a signal per second

a. b. c. d. Bit rate Baud rate Period Frequency

12. A modulation process in which a train of fixed-width pulses is transmitted whose polarity indicates whether the demodulator output should rise or fall at each pulse
a. b. c. d. PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation) PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) DM (Delta Modulation) PPM (pulse Position Modulation)

13. It is an ANSI version of bit-oriented data link layer protocol

a. b. c. d. ACK ADCCP ASK ISDN

14. Determine the dynamic range capability of an 8-bit linear (noncompounded) PCM system
a. b. c. d. 48 dB 18 dB 8 dB 40 dB Solution D.R. (dB) = 6n = 6 (8) =48 dB

15. A connection-oriented technology that sends all data in fixed cells with 48 octets per data cell
a. b. c. d. Frame relay HLDC ATM SDH

16. An FSK system must maintained less than 10-3 BER. What is the maximum allowable received Eb / N 0?
a. b. c. d. 6 18 12.43 15.29