Chapter 4

Differentiation

In the study of calculus of functions of one variable, the notions of continuity, differentiability and integrability play a central role. The previous chapter was devoted to continuity and its consequences and the next chapter will focus on integrability. In this chapter we will define the derivative of a function of one variable and discuss several important consequences of differentiability. In particular, we will show that differentiability implies continuity. We will use the definition of derivative to derive a few differentiation formulas but we assume the formulas for differentiating the most common elementary functions are known from an earlier course. Similarly, we assume that the rules for differentiating are already known although the chain rule and some of its corollaries are proved in the solved problems. We shall not discuss the various geometrical and physical applications of the derivative but will concentrate instead on the mathematical aspects of differentiation. We present several forms of the mean value theorem for derivatives, including the Cauchy mean value theorem which leads to LHpitals rule. This latter result is useful in evaluating so called indeterminate limits of various kinds. Finally we will discuss the representation of a function by Taylor polynomials.

The Derivative
Let f x denote a real valued function with domain D containing an neighborhood of a point x 0 D; i.e. x 0 is an interior point of D since there is an  0 such that N x 0 D. Then for any h such that 0  |h| , we can define the difference quotient for f near x 0 , Dhf x0  f x0  h h f x0 4. 1

It is well known from elementary calculus (and easy to see from a sketch of the graph of f near x 0 ) that D h f x 0 represents the slope of a secant line through the points x 0 , f x 0 and x 0  h, f x 0  h . Then we have Definition Derivative

The function f x is said to be differentiable at the interior point c D if lim D h f c exists. We denote the value of this limit by f c and refer to this as the derivative of f x at x  c. We may also define the derivative of f x at the endpoints of an interval by using one sided limits for D h f x . The set of points in D where the limit exists is the domain of a new function dy f x , called the derivative of f x . We shall also use the notation for the derivative of dx f x . This derivative may be variously interpreted as: the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y  f x at x, f x the intstantaneous rate of change of y  f x with respect to x. d2y . This dx 2 is called the second derivative of y  f x . We will denote derivatives of order higher than If the function f x is differentiable, then its derivative is denoted by f " x or
h 0

2 by f

x or

dny for n dx n

N.

Example Derivatives (a) In an elementary calculus course, we derive formulas for the derivatives of many elementary functions. The following functions are differentiable at each point where they are defined: f x  xp f x  Sin x f x  Cos x f x  ax, a  0 f x  ln x f x  px p
1

f x  Cos x f x  Sin x f x  a x ln a f x  1 x

(b) The following functions are continuous for all x, but the derivative fails to exist at the indicated points:
 

f x  | x| is not differentiable at x  0 since lim D h f 0 fails to exist (see problem 4.4 )

h 0

fx 

x s not differentiable at x  0 since lim D h f 0 tends to  as h

h 0

The examples in (b) show that there are continuous functions that are not differentiable. The following theorem shows that there are no differentiable functions that fail to be continuous. Theorem 4.1 If f x is differentiable at x  c in D, then f x is continuous at x  c. Rules for Differentiation In elementary calculus we learn differentiation formulas for commonly occuring functions like the ones in example 4.1(a). In addition, we learn differentiation rules which allow us to compute derivatives of various combinations of functions when the derivatives of the separate functions are known. Theorem 4.2 (Derivatives of sums, products, quotients) Suppose f x and g x are differentiable at x  c in their common domain, D. Then 1) d C 1 f  C 2 g c  C 1 f c  C 2 g c for all constants C 1 , C 2 dx 2) d f  g c  f c  g c  f c  g c 4. 2 dx f c g c f c g c f 3) d g c  dx gc 2 Theorem 4.3 (Chain Rule) Suppose f x is differentiable at x  c and g x is differentiable at y  f c . Then the composed function, F x  g f x is differentiable at x  c and F c g fc f c .

Corollary 4.4 (Derivative of the inverse) Suppose f is strictly monotone and continuous on interval I. Then the inverse function g  f 1 is striclty monotone and continuous on the interval J  f I . Moreover, if f is differentiable at x  c in I and f c 0, then g is differentiable at d  f c and g d  1 . f c Corollary 4.5 (Derivative of parametric equations) Suppose x  f t and y  g t are differentiable functions of t for a t b, and that f t 0 for a t b. Then g t dy dy/dt   dx dx/dt f t

Consequences of Differentiability
Just as there were a number of useful consequences of the property of continuity, there are similar consequences associated with differentiability. Local Extreme Points A point c in the domain D of a function f x is said to be a local maximum for f x if for some   0, we have f c f x for all x N  c D. If f c f x for all x N  c D, then c is said to be a local minimum for f x . We say that c D is a local extreme point for f x if it is either a local maximum or a local minimum. Theorem 4.6 (Extreme Points) Suppose f x is defined and continuous on the interval I and suppose c I is a local extreme point for f x . Then exactly one of the following assertions must hold: i) c is an endpoint of the interval I ii) c is an interior point of I and f c  0 iii) c is an interior point of I but f c fails to exist Mean Value Theorem for Derivatives There are several versions of one result, all of which are usually referred to as the mean value theorem for derivatives. The simplest version is known as Rolles theorem. Corollary 4.8 and theorem 4.9 are generalization of Rolles theorem. Theorem 4.7 (Rolles theorem) Suppose f x is continuous on the closed interval, a, b , and f is differentiable on the open interval a, b . Suppose further that f a  f b . Then there exists a point, c a, b , where f c  0. Corollary 4.8 (Mean value theorem for derivatives) Suppose f x is continuous on the closed interval, a, b , and f is differentiable on the open interval a, b . Then there exists a point, c a, b , where fb fa f c b a

Corollary 4.9 Suppose f x is continuous on the closed interval, a, b , and f is differentiable a, b . Then f is on the open interval a, b . Suppose further that f x  0 for all x constant on a, b . Theorem 4.10 (Cauchys Mean Value theorem) Suppose f x and g x continuous on the closed interval, a, b , and are differentiable on the open interval a, b . Suppose further g b . Then there exists a that f x , g x never vanish simultaneously and that g a point, c a, b , where fb gb fa ga  f c g c

Indeterminate Forms A limit of a quotient in which the numerator and denominator tend to zero simultaneously is said to be an indeterminate limit of the form 0 . Often, such limits can be evaluated by 0 means of a corollary of the Cauchy mean value theorem known as LHpitals rule. Corollary 4.11 (LHpitals rule) Suppose f x and g x continuous on the closed interval, a, b , and are differentiable on the open interval a, b . Suppose further that g x 0 and g x 0 for x a, b and that f a  g a  0. Then, either the one sided limits, lim x a fx gx and lim x a f x g x

both exist and are equal, or else both limits fail to exist. The limits as x tends to a in the corollary may be replaced by limits as x tends to b in the case that f b  g b  0, and the conclusion holds. Moreover, the conclusions still hold in the following situations, which are also called indeterminate forms: a) x tends to or and f and g both tend to 0 as x tends to infinity b) x tends to a, or b and f and g both tend to infinity as x tends to a or b.

Taylor Series Expansions Corollary 4.8 can be extended to apply to derivatives of order higher than one. The result, known as Taylors theorem, leads to polynomial expressions which can be used to approximate a given function in a neighborhood of a fixed point. Theorem 4.12 (Taylors theorem) Suppose that f x , together with all its derivatives up to order n, f x , f" x , , f n x , are all continuous on a, b . Suppose further that f n1 x exists at each point of a, b . Then for each fixed x 0 a, b and all x in a, b there exists a point c between x and x 0 such that f x  f x0  f x0 x x0  1 f x0 x 2! x0
2

4. 3

 1 f n!

x0 x

x0

c x n1 !

n1

x0

n1

The sum of the first n  1 terms in the expression (4.3) is called the n th degree Taylor polynomial for f x , expanded about the point x  x 0 . The final term in the expression is called the Lagrange form of the remainder term in the expansion. An integral form for the remainder term will be given in the next chapter. In the special case that x 0  0, we refer to (4.3) as the Maclauring expansion for f x .

Example Maclaurin Expansions and Taylor Polynomials (a) The following expansions are some frequently used Maclaurin expansions: ex  1  x  1 x2  1 x3   2! 3! 1 x3  1 x5 1 x7   Sin x  x 3! 5! 7! 1 x6   Cos x  1 1 x 2  1 x 4 2! 4! 6! ln 1  x  x 1 x 2  1 x 3 1 x 4   2 3 4 1 x3  1 x5 1 x7   arctan x  x 5 7 3 (b) The Taylor series expansion for f x  ln x about the point x 0  1 takes the form 1 x 1 2 1 x 1 3 1 x 1 4 ln x  x 1 2 3 4 Note that this is just the Maclaurin series for ln x  ln 1  x 1 .

Solved Problems
The Derivative Problem 4.1 Use the definition of derivative to compute the derivative of f x  x  0. Solution: For x  0 we have from 4. 1 Dhf x  xh h x  h xh x xh  x  1 xh  x x for

Let h tend to zero in the last expression, we can see that lim D h f x exists and equals
h 0

1 2 x

Note, however, that for x  0, we have Dhf 0  |0  h| h 0  1 h

and the limit as h tends to zero of D h f 0 does not exist. Then f x is not differentiable at x  0.

Problem 4.2 Use the definition of derivative to compute the derivative of f x  Sin x . Solution: In this case, we have from 4. 1 , Dhf x  Sin x  h Sin x Sin x Cos h  Sin h Cos x  h h Cos h 1 Sin h  Sin x  Cos x 1 h h 1 Sin h h Sin x

In chapter 3 we showed lim

h 0

Cos h h

0

and

lim
h 0

1

Then it follows that

lim D h f x exists and equals Cos x .

h 0

Problem 4.3 (The exponential function) Use the definition of derivative to compute the derivative of f x  e x . Solution: Let us first indicate how the exponential function is defined. For A  0 and positive integers m, n, we define A m/n 
n

Am 

This defines A x for x a rational number. For an irrational exponent x, we suppose first that A  1 and let S x denote the following set, Sx  Ar : r x and r Q .

Then S x has an upper bound since for any integer m  x, it follows from A  1 that A r A m for all r S x . Then S x has a least upper bound and we then define Definition For real numbers A, x with A  0, i) if A  1 then A x  sup S x ii) if A  1 then A x  1 iii) if A  1 then 1  1 and A x  1/ 1/A A

Then A x is defined for A  0 and all real x. Now let e denote the number between 2 and 3 found in problem 2.14 as the following limit e  lim 1  1 n n
n

For f x  e x we have from 4. 1

xh ex  ex eh 1 . Dhf x  e h h h 2 If we can show lim e 1  1, h 0 h

then it will show that f x  e x . In order to show (2), it will suffice to consider h such that |h|

1 . For 0  h  1 , there 2 2

exists an integer m such that m Then e

1 m1

1  m  1, h
1 m

i. e. ,

1 h m1

1 m

 eh

e
n

and, for e given by (1), 1 1 n and which implies e 1 1 1 n e 1 n 1  e 1/n 

n

for n sufficiently large. 1 1 n 1 m 1 m 1 1  h 1 2h 1 . 5

Using (4) and (5) together leads to 1 and (3) implies h 1h Then we obtain 1 1h 1 1h eh h eh h 1 1 1 1 1 2h 1 2h for 0  h  1/2 for 1/2  h  0 7 8 1 m1 and . 1 m1 eh 1

Then (7) and (8) used with theorem 3.3 leads to the result (2). Problem 4.4 Show that f x  |x| is not differentiable at x  0. Solution: For this function we have Dhf 0  |0  h| h 0  |h|  h 1 if h  0 1 if h0

Then lim D h f 0 fails to exist and then the definition implies that f is not differentiable at zero.
h 0

Problem 4.5 Prove that if f x is differentiable at the point x  c in D, then f x is continuous at x  c. Solution: It follows from theorem 3.4 that f x is continuous at x  c if lim f x  f c . But x c this is the same as, lim f c  h  f c .
h 0

Now

f ch and

f c  Dhf c h

lim D h f c h  lim D h f c lim h  f c 0  0.

h 0 h 0 h 0

Then lim f c  h  f c  lim D h f c h  f c

h 0 h 0

which is to say, f x is continuous at x  c. Problem 4.6 Show that the function fx  x Sin 1 x 0 if x if 0

x0

is continuous at x  0 but is not differentiable there. Solution: Since Sin 1 x

x 0

1, it follows that |f x |

|x|. This implies that

lim f x  0  f 0 , which is to say, f x is continuous at x  0. On the other hand, h Sin 1 h Dhf 0  h 0  Sin 1 . h

We have shown in previous problems that Sin 1 tends to no limit as h tends to zero. h Then f x is not differentiable at x  0. This is another example that shows that the converse of theorem 4.1 is false. Note that f x is differentiable at x different from zero. Using the differentiation rules from theorem 4.2, we can show f x  Sin 1 x  x Cos 1 x 1 x2 for x 0.

As long as x is different from zero, this formula for f is valid. Rules for Differentiation Problem 4.7 Prove theorem 4.3, the chain rule for differentiation. Solution: Suppose that g x is differentiable at the point x  c and that f y is differentiable at the point y  g c . If we denote the composed function by F x  f g x , then the difference quotient has the form DhF c  f g ch h fgc  f g ch g ch fgc gc g ch h gc 1

Since g x is differentiable at x  c, it is continuous there by theorem 4.1. Thus as h tends to zero, g c  h tends to g c . Moreover, since f y is differentiable at y  g c , it follows that

f g ch g ch provided g c  h lim D h F c  lim

h 0 h 0

fgc gc

tends to f g c

as g c  h tends to g c

g c does not vanish in some neighborhood of g c . Then f g ch g ch fgc gc g ch h gc f gc

lim
h 0

g c

There are more sophisticated arguments that avoid the necessity of assuming g c does not vanish in some neighborhood of g c . g ch We define a function G y by Gy  Then fy y f y0 y0 f y0
y y0

if if

y0  g c y  y0

lim G y  f y 0  G y 0

so G y is continuous at y  y 0 . Then it follows from theorem 3.5 that lim G g c x c Now (2) implies that f g ch fgc  G y g ch gc 4  y y G y  G y0  f g c lim
0

and this fact, together with 1 leads to the result DhF c  G g c  h and lim D h F c  lim G g c  h
h 0 h 0

Dhg c lim D h g c  f g c
h 0

g c .

Problem 4.8 Prove Corollary 4.4 on the derivative of the inverse function. Solution: Suppose f x is strictly monotone and continuous on the interval I. Then by a previous theorem, g x  f 1 x is also strictly monotone and continuous on the interval J  f I . Now if f x is differentiable at c in I and if f c 0, then g x is differentiable at b  f c and moreover, g b  1/f c . To see this, let F x denote the composed function Fx gfx Then the chain rule implies that F c g fc f c g b f c . But hence F c  1 for all c g b  1 . f c I  x for each x I

Consequences of Differentiability

Problem 4.9 Suppose f x is continuous on a, b and differentiable on a, b . Suppose also a, b . Then prove that f c  0. that f x has a local extreme point at x  c for some c Solution: We shall suppose that x  c is a local max for f x . The proof in the case of a local minimum is similar. If x  c is a local maximum for f x then for all h sufficiently small ( h can assume both negative and positive values as long as they are small) we have f ch f c . But this implies that f ch f c h f ch f c Dhf c  h Dhf c  But lim D h f c  f c
h 0

0 0

for h  0 for h  0

1 2

and we conclude from 1 that f c 0, while (2) implies that f c results to hold simultaneously, it must be that f c  0.

0. In order for both

Problem 4.10 Suppose f x is continuous on the closed interval, a, b , and f is differentiable on the open interval a, b . Suppose further that f a  f b . Then prove there exists a point, c a, b , where f c  0. This is Rolles theorem. Solution: We have that f a  f b and if f x  f a for all x in a, b then it is trivially true that f c  0. Suppose then that f is not constant. Then, under the hypothesis that f x is continuous on the closed interval, a, b , the extreme value theorem asserts that f x assumes its maximum and minimum values at points of a, b . Since f is not constant, at least one of these extreme values is not equal to f a  f b , hence it follows that the extreme value must occur at a point that lies strictly between x  a and x  b. But then, by the result of the previous problem, f c  0. Problem 4.11 Suppose f x is continuous on the closed interval, a, b , and f is differentiable on the open interval a, b . Then prove there exists a point, c a, b , where f b f a  f c b a . This is the mean value theorem for derivatives. Solution: We begin by defining gx fb fx fb b fa a b x for x a, b .

Then the assumptions about f imply that g is continuous on a, b and is differentiable on a, b . In addition, it is clear that g a  g b  0. Then Rolles theorem can be applied to g in order to conclude that g c  0 at some point c a, b . But g c  f c  from which it follows that fb fa f c b a . fb b fa a  0,

Problem 4.12 Suppose f x is continuous on the closed interval, a, b , and f is differentiable on the open interval a, b . Suppose further that f x  0 for all x Then prove that f is constant on a, b .

a, b .

10

Solution: We will suppose f is not a constant and show that this leads to a contradiction. If f  . Then by the f x is not a constant, then there exist points  and  in a, b where f  result of the previous problem, there exists a point c between  and  such that f c  f  f  0. a, b hence it follows that f x is

But this contradicts the hypothesis that f x  0 for all x constant on a, b .

Problem 4.13 Suppose f x and g x are continuous on the closed interval, a, b , and are a, b . differentiable on the open interval a, b . Suppose further that f x  g x for all x Then prove that f x  g x  C on a, b for some constant C. Solution: The hypotheses imply that the results of the previous problem can be applied to F x  f x g x to conclude that F x  C. Problem 4.14 Suppose f x is continuous on the closed interval, a, b , and f is differentiable on the open interval a, b . Suppose further that f x is of one sign for all x a, b . Then prove that f is monotone on a, b . 0 on a, b . Then for arbitrary points x 1 , x 2 such that Solution: We will suppose that f x a x 1  x 2 b, the mean value theorem implies the existence of a point c x 1 , x 2 such that f x 2 f x1  f c x2 x1 0. We have shown that x 1  x 2 implies f x 2 f x1 , which is to say, f is monotone increasing on a, b . Similarly, if f x 0 on a, b , the same argument implies f is monotone decreasing. Problem 4.15 Show that for all x, y R, 0 yx , Sin x R, Sin y  |x y|. .

Solution:We use the mean value theorem to write, for all x, y Sin x Then |Sin x In particular, if 0 |Cos c |  1. Sin y |  |Cos c || x yx , then c y|. Sin y  Cos c x y

for c between x, y.

y, x is not equal to zero or  and therefore, R, e x 1  x, with equality occuring only for x  0.

Problem 4.16 Show that for all x

Solution:We clearly have equality in the expression when x  0. For x  0, use the mean value theorem, applied to f x  e x on 0, x to write, ex i.e., ex 1  ecx  x for x  0. e0  ec x 0 for 0 c x;

Problem 4.17 Use the mean value theorem to show that for h  0 and   1, 1  h   1  h. Solution:We first rewrite the mean value theorem in an alternative form. Let h  b a  0,

11

so that b  a  h. Then fb becomes f a  h  f a  h f a  h , 1h



fa f c b

for a

b,  1.

for some , 0  1  h,

In particular, for f x  x  and a  1, this becomes  1  h 1  h

 1

since   1 and 1  h  1. Problem 4.18 Prove the Cauchy Mean Value theorem; i.e., Suppose f x and g x continuous on the closed interval, a, b , and are differentiable on the open interval a, b . Suppose further that f x , g x never vanish simultaneously and that g a g b . Then a, b , where prove that there exists a point, c fb gb Solution: Let and define fa ga   fb gb f c . g c fa ga fa gx ga .

Fx fx

Then F a  0 and F b  0 and since f x and g x continuous on the closed interval, a, b , and are differentiable on the open interval a, b , the same is true of F x . Then Rolles theorem applies and asserts that there exists some c, a c b, such that F c  0. But F c f c  g c  0,

and since f x , g x never vanish simultaneously, this implies  fb gb fa ga  f c . g c

This is what we wanted to prove. Note that if g x  x, this reduces to the usual mean value theorem. Problem 4.19 Use the Cauchy Mean Value theorem to prove LHpitals rule; i.e.,suppose f x and g x are continuous on the closed interval, a, b , and are differentiable on the open interval a, b , Suppose further that g x 0 and g x 0 for x a, b and that f a  g a  0. Then show that either the one sided limits, lim x a fx gx and lim x a f x g x

both exist and are equal, or else both limits fail to exist. Solution: Suppose lim x a f x g x L  0 there is a   0

Then by the definition of (one sided) function limit, it follows that for all such that

12

f x g x

L 

if

a  x  a  .

Apply the Cauchy Mean Value theorem on the interval a, x to conclude that there exists a point c, a  c  x, such that fx gx  f c . g c

But c is between a and x, and it follows that fx gx This implies lim x a L  f c g c L  if a  x  a  .

f x  L, and proves LHpitals rule. We have stated the rule only in the g x case that both L and a are real (finite) numbers. The rule extends to the case where L is infinite as well as to the case where a is allowed to be infinite. Problem 4.20 Use LHpitals rule to evaluate the limit, lim
x 0

Cos x 2 x

Solution: The functions f x  1 Cos x and g x  2 x are both continuous on 0, 1 and differentiable on 0, 1 , and f 0  g 0  0 so the hypotheses needed to apply LHpitals rule are satisfied. Note that g x is not differentiable at x  0, but this is not necessary in order to apply the rule. Since f x  Sin x and g x  x 1/2 , we consider, lim
x 0

Sin x x 1/2

 lim x Sin x  0.
x 0

Since this limit exists, it follows that lim

x 0

Cos x 2 x

 0.

Problem 4.21 Use LHpitals rule to evaluate the limit, lim

x 0

Sin x x3

Solution: The functions f x  Sin x x and g x  x 3 are both continuous on 0, 1 and differentiable on 0, 1 , and f 0  g 0  0 so the hypotheses needed to apply LHpitals rule are satisfied. According to LHpitals rule, we consider the limit lim
x 0

Cos x 3x 2

 0, 0

and we see that the new limit must also be treated by LHpitals rule. That is p x  Cos x 1, and q x  3x 2 satisfy all the conditions satisfied by f and g. Then we consider the limit lim
x 0

Sin x 6x

1 lim Sin x x 6 x 0

1. 6

Then all three of the limits considered exist and are equal to 1/6. Note that in the last limit,

13

we could have applied LHpitals rule a fourth time to the limit lim
x 0

Sin x x

but since this limit is already known to exist and equal 1, the rule was not necessary. Problem 4.22 Use LHpitals rule to evaluate the limits, a) lim e
x 0

1/x 2 p

for p  0.

b) lim x p ln x
x 0

for p  0.

Solution: Let f x be defined as fx  e 0

1/x 2

if x  0 if x  0

and let g x  x p . Then f and g are continuous on 0, 1 , they are differentiable on 0, 1 and each tends to zero as x tends to 0. This ensures that LHopitals rule applies. Since
1/x f x  2e 3 x
2

and

g x  px p
2

we are obliged to consider the limit

1/x lim 2e p2 . x 0 px This limit is not only again indeterminate, it is worse than the original problem. Consider then, a limit which is equivalent to the original limit, p lim x1/x 2 , x 0 e

which is an indeterminate form of the type . LHopitals rule applies to this type of indeterminate form as well, and so we consider the derived limit, lim
x 0

px e
1/x 2

p 1

2/x 3

p2 p lim x 1/x 2 . 2 x 0 e

This limit is again indeterminate of the form but notice that the power of x in the numerator is now closer to zero than in the previous limit. By applying the rule a sufficient number of times, the power of x in the numerator will become positive, leading to a limit of 0 the form , which is equal to zero. Therefore, we have for a), lim e
x 0

1/x 2 p

0

for p  0.

The limit in b) is not a quotient and does not seem to lend itself to treatment by LHopitals rule. However, if we rewrite the limit as lim
x 0

ln x x p

then we can apply the rule. We consider the derived limit,

14

lim
x 0

1/x px p

p  lim xp  0 x 0

and then it follows from LHopitals rule that lim x p ln x  0,

x 0

for p  0.

Problem 4.23 Use LHpitals rule to evaluate the limits, a) lim x ln x xp for p  0.
p b) lim x x x e

for p  0.

Solution: Note that in each of these limits, x tends to infinity rather than to a finite limit point. However, LHopitals rule can be shown to apply in this case as well, provided the quotients tend to 0/0 or /. Both a) and b) are of this latter type. Applying the rule to limit a), we consider the derived limit, lim x 1/x  lim 1 p  0 p 1 x px px for p  0

In limit b) we are led to consider the sequence of derived limits,

p p p 1 xp px p 1 lim x x  lim  lim x x e x x e ex 2



Each time we apply the rule, the power of x in the numerator decreases by one while the denominator remains unchanged. At some point (note that p need not be an integer) we will arrive at a zero or negative power in the numerator. At this point, we can conclude that all the limits exist and equal zero. That is,
p lim x x  0 x e

for p  0.

We can interpret the limit a) to mean that ln x grows more slowly at infinity than x p for any positive p. Similarly, we can interpret the limit b) to mean that e x grows more rapidly at infinity than p x for any positive p. In the same way, we can interpret the limits a) lim e
x 0

1/x 2 p

0

for p  0.
2

b) lim x p ln x  0
x 0

for p  0.

to mean that as x tends to zero, e 1/x approaches zero more rapidly than x p for all p  0 and x p approaches zero more rapidly than 1 for all p  0. ln x Problem 4.24 Use LHpitals rule to evaluate the limits, a) lim x x .
x 0

b) lim sec x
x /2

tan x

Solution: Note that neither of these limits involves a quotient so LHopitals rule does not seem to apply. However, in case a) we can write lim x x  lim e x ln x  e x
x 0 x 0 lim x ln x
0

 e 0  1,

where we used the fact that e x is everywhere continuous together with the result from problem 4.22(b) which is based on LHopitals rule. For the limit in b) we write

15

sec x and then,

x /2

tan x 

sin x , cos x cos x sin x  0.

lim

sin x cos x

 lim

x /2

Taylors Theorem Problem 4.25 Prove theorem 4.12, Taylors theorem. Solution: Let x and x 0 denote fixed points in the interval a, b , and let I denote the interval whose endpoints are the points x and x 0 . Now, for t I, let Ft fx and Gt Ft x t x x0
n1

ft

t f t F x0

t n!

1 2 I such that

Then G x  G x 0  0 and Rolles theorem implies the existence of a point c G c  0. That is, G c  F c  n1 x c x x0
n

F x0 x x 0  0.

But it follows from differentiating 1 that F c  hence F x0   i.e., F x0  f

n1

c n!

n1

c ,
n

1 n1 1 n1 c

x x0 x c x x0 x c x

x0 F c x c n! 4
n n1

x0

x 0 n1 n1 !

Combining 4 with 1 leads to F x0  f x which is to say, f x  f x0  f x0 x  1 f n!

n

f x0

x0 f x0

x0 n!

x0  f

n1

x 0 n1 n1 !

x0  1 f x0 x 2! x0 x x0
n

x0

 x0
n1

c x n1 !

n1

But this is precisely the result (4.3) that appears in Taylors theorem. Note that when n  0, this reduces to

16

f x  f x0  f c x

x0 ,

which is the result appearing in the mean value theorem. In other words, Taylors theorem generalizes the mean value theorem to derivatives of order higher than one. Problem 4.26 Suppose f x , f x and f" x are all continuous on a, b and that x 0 a, b is 0. Then show that an interior local extreme point for f x . Suppose also that f " x 0 necessarily, f x 0  0 and that x 0 is a local maximum if f" x 0  0 or a local minimum if f " x 0  0. Solution: We will show first that f x 0  0. Let x denote an abitrary point in a small neighborhood N x 0 of x 0 and use Taylors theorem to write f x  f x0  f x0 x Note that and if |x x0 |  f x0 f" c 2 x 0 has the same sign as f x 0 . Suppose then that when x  x 0 when x  x 0 . f x0 x x0  1 f " c x 2 x0
2

x0

for some c between x and x 0 . f x0  1 f " c x 2 x0

x0  1 f " c x 2

 x

x0

then M x, x 0  f x 0  1 f " c x 2 f x 0  0. In this case f x  f x0  x  f x0  x

x 0 M x, x 0  f x 0 x 0 M x, x 0  f x 0

But this is in contradiction to the assumption that x 0 is a local extreme point for f x . Supposing that f x 0  0 leads to the same contradiction. Then it must be that in order for x 0 to be a local extreme point for f, it is necessary that f x 0  0. Note that we are assuming here that x 0 is an interior point and that f is differentiable on the interior of a, b so these results are consistent with theorem 4.6. Now, given that f x 0  0, and f " x 0 0, we have, for all x N x 0 , f x  f x0  1 f " c x 2 x0
2

for some c between x and x 0 .

If f " x 0  0 then by the persistence of sign theorem (problem 3.20) it follows that f " c  0 and f x  f x0  1 f " c x 2 f x  f x0  1 f " c x 2 and x 0 is a local maximum for f x . Problem 4.27 Using L feet of fence wire, build a rectangular pen of maximum area by making use of the fixed walls of length H feet and W feet, respectively as shown. x0
2

 f x0

for all x

N x0 ;

i.e., x 0 is a local minimum for f x . Similarly, if f " x 0  0 it follows that, x0

2

 f x0

for all x

N x0

17

Note that there are 3 different configurations that make use of the fixed walls. In each of these configurations, the area is equal to x j y j but in each case, x j and y j satisfy a different condition (a) In each of the three configurations: express y in terms of x; what are the max and min values for x and y in each configuration? express the area in terms of x (b) explain how the Max-min theorem must be used in finding the maximum area in this problem. Solutioni) in the first configuration, we have x  y  y H  L so y  1 L  H x . This 2 configuration applies as long as y H. At y  H we have x  L H and so A x  1 L  H x x for 0 x L H 2 ii) in the second configuration we have x  y  L so y  L x . This configuration applies as long as L H x W. Then we have A x  L x x for L H x W iii) in the third configuration we have x  y  x W  L so y  L  W 2x . This configuration applies as long as y  0. At y  0 we have x  1 L  W and so 2 1 A x  x L  W 2x for W x LW 2
1 2

LH L x x

x x 2x

for for for W L

0 H x

x x
1 2

H W

Ax 

x LW

LW

For each of the three area functions the derivative equals zero for some positive x but this x value may not lie in the interval where the area formula is relevant. In that case it becomes necessary to check the endpoints of the interval and evaluate A x there. If we call the area

18

formulas A 1 x , A 2 x , and A 3 x , then A 1 x  0, at x 1  and A 3 x  0, at x 3  1 L  W . 4

1 2

L  H , A 2 x  0, at x 2 

1 2

L,

In order to have x 1 0, L H it is necessary that 3H  L, and L  W  H, so the max can occur in the first interval only if L, H and W are such that 3H  L  W  H. In order to have x2 L H, W it is necessary to have L H  1 L  W; i.e., for W  L  2W and 2 H  L  2H. Finally, in order to have x 3 W, 1 L  W it is necessary to have 2 3W  L  W  H. If none of these conditions holds, then the max must occur at one of the two points, L H or W since A  0 at x  0 and x  1 L  W . 2 Problem 4.28 Suppose f x is differentiable on a, b and that k lies between f a and f b . Then there exists some c between a and b such that f c  k. Solution: Suppose f a  f b with f a  k  f b . The situation with the order reversed is handled in the same way. Let g x  f x kx, on a, b . Then g is differentiable on a, b and g a  0  g b . Since g is continuous on the compact interval, a, b , it follows that g must assume its minimum value at some point c of a, b . We claim that c is not an endpoint of the interval and hence c is an interior point where we must then have g c  f c k  0. This will prove the result. To see that the minimum value for g does not occur at either of the endpoints, not that g a  0 which implies that g x is decreasing as x moves away from a into the interval a, b Then a is not the minimum point for g on a, b . Similarly, 0  g b implies that g is increasing as x moves toward b from inside the interval a, b . Then b cannot be the minimum value for g and the minimum must occur at some interior point of the interval. Problem 4.29 Suppose fx  1 1 x x x 0 x0

Show that there exists no function F x such that f x  F x for all x.

1  3 and F 1  3 so Solution: Suppose there were such a function F. Then F 2 2 2 2 1 F 1 0F but there is no point c where F c  0. Then f is not the derivative 2 2 of any differentiable function. Note that for any choice of constants C 1 and C 2 , the discontinuous function

Fx 

C1  x C2 x

x 2 /2 x /2
2

x0

is such that F x  f x for x  0 and F x  f x for x  0, but F 0 does not exist.

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