Chapter 2 Overview of Transmission PCM, Multiplexing techniques, PDH & SDH (With specific reference to bit rates and

interfaces) Media OFC. 2.0 INTRODUCTION One dedicated pair of conductor is used to connect a telephone subscriber to the exchange. In a similar way, initially, exchanges were connected to each other u sing pairs of conductors (O/H line/U/G cable). One pair providing one speech cir cuit. To cater to the increased demand of traffic between two exchanges number o f conductor pairs had to be increased. But increasing the number of conductor pa irs is uneconomical and leads to maintenance problems. Therefore, it was tried to use a single pair of conductors to carry more number of circuits Thus the medium of transmission is shared by more than one circuit. The technique used to provide a number of circuits using a single transmission l ink is called Multiplexing. 2.1 Multiplexing Techniques There are two types of multiplexing techniques Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) Frequency Division Multiplexing Techniques (FDM) FDM technique divides transmission medium into different frequency slots. Each f requency slot is used to carry signals of one speech circuit. FDM is usually use d in analogue transmission systems. An analogue transmission system is one whi ch is used for transmitting continuously varying signals.

Time Division Multiplexing In time division multiplexing (TDM), transmission medium is shared on time basis . Signals of all the channels are transmitted on the medium one by one. Thus the entire medium(bandwidth) is periodically available to each channel. The time us ed by one channel is called as Time Slot (TS). Normally all time slots are equal in length. Time slots follow certain sequence. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.1. Each channel is sampled at a specified rate and transmitted for a fixed duration . All channels are sampled one by one and transmitted one by one, the cycle is repeated again and again. The channels are connected to individual gates which are opened one by one in a fixed sequence. At the receiving end also similar ga tes are opened in unison with the gates at the transmitting end. The signal received at the receiving end will be in the form of discrete samples and these are combined to reproduce the original signal. Thus at a given insta nt of time, signals of only one channel are transmitted through the medium in TD M, where as in FDM all the channels are transmitted at the same time. This proce ss of combining channels in time sequence for transmission over a common medium is called Time Division Multiplexing (TDM). 2.2 Pulse Code Modulation System In 1938 Mr. A.H. Reaves (USA) developed a Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) sy stem to transmit the spoken word in digital form. PCM systems use TDM technique to provide a number of circuits on the sam e transmission medium viz-open wire or underground cable pair of a channel provi ded by carrier, coaxial, microwave or satellite system. PCM systems used in BSNL provide 30 speech circuits-called as channels. PCM is the first step in digitization of analog voice signal. It converts analog signals of all the thirty channels into digital form and then combines them to form a continuous stream of 2.048 Mb/s. In this respect PCM is also called as Fi rst order Mux. 2.3 Basic Requirements for PCM System To develop a PCM signal from several analogue signals, the following processing steps are required:

Filtering Sampling Quantization Encoding Line Coding 2.4 PCM Frame: In a 30 channel PCM system. 125 microseconds are divided into 32 parts. That is 30 time slots are used for 30 speech signals, one time slot for signalling of a ll the 30 chls and one time slot for synchronization between Transmitter & Recei ver. The time available per channel would be = TS =(Total Time) /(No. of TS)

Thus in a 30 channel PCM system time slot duration is 3.9 microseconds & time pe riod of sampling i.e. the interval between 2 consecutive samples of the same cha nnel is 125 microseconds. This duration i.e. 125 microseconds is called Time Fr ame. A frame of 125 microseconds duration has 32 time slots. These slots are numbere d Ts 0 to 31. Information for providing synchronization between trans and receive ends is pass ed through a separate time slot. Usually the slot Ts 0 caries the synchronizati on signals. This slot is also called Frame alignment word (FAW). The signalling information is transmitted through time slot Ts 16. Ts 1 to Ts 15 are utilized for voltage signal of channels 1 to 15 respectively. Ts 17 to Ts 31 are utilized for voltage signal of channels 16 to 30 respectively . 2.5 . PDH Fiber Optic Transmission Systems :. The PDH systems are normally used for the Point-to-Point transmission ( carrying a signal between two end points ) e.g. for connecting two cities. It combines four tributaries of lower bit rate into a single stream of higher bit r ate.e.g. Four 2mbps strem are combined to form a single stream of 8mbps.Four 8mb ps streams are combined to form a single stream of 34mbps.and so on. These stage s of PDH multiplexing are called as Second order, Third order and so on. Differe nt PDH mux. stages which are used in the network of BSNL, are given below: 1st order 2mbps 30 channels capacity. PCM 2nd order 8 mbps 120 channels capacity (4*2mbps tribs.) 3rd order 34 mbps 480 channels capacity (4*8mbps tribs.) 4th order 140 mbps 1920 channels capacity (4*34mbpstribs.) 5th order 565 mbps 7680 channels capacity (4*140mbps tribs ) These combined electrical signals are then converted into optical form i.e. ligh t and then they are transmitted on optical fiber. The equipment which combines a nd decombines the tributaries is called as MUX equipment (PDH mux in this case). The equipment which converts electrical signals into optical signal i.e. light a nd vice-versa is called as Optical Line Terminating Equipment( OLTE).The PDH Fib er Optic Transmission Systems are available either in separate OLTE and MUX vers ion or in an integrated OLTE + MUX ( OPTIMUX ) version housed in a single rack. The application of these systems depends upon the traffic of that particular rou te. Different manufacturers to BSNL as given below supply these PDH Fiber Optic Transmission Systems: M/s ITI, Bagalore M/s MAC, Bangalore M/s NATELCO , Mumbai M/s PCL, Chandigarh M/s HFCL, Solan etc. Main parts of PDH Fiber Optic Transmission Systems :(Refer fig.2.2) Multiplexing Equipments Line Equipments

OLTE (Optical Line Terminating Equipment) Repeater (Regenerator) Transmission Media (Optical Fiber ) Fig. 2.2 Block diagram of FOTS

Optical fiber Cable

2.6 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) It is the latest international standard multiplexing method. It is synchronous, used for higher bit rates (minimum 1.55mbps), more flexible and suitable for rin g topology. It is used for short as well as long distance working. . The basic signal structure of SDH is called as Synchronous Transport Module (S TM) Different stages of multiplexing are called as STM-1, STM-4, STM-16 and STM64. STM-1 is formed by combining PDH signals in one of the following ways, 63 nos. of 2mbps streams OR 42 nos. of 2mbps streams and 1 no. of 34mbps streams. OR 21 nos. of 2mbps streams and 2 nos. of 34mbps streams. OR 3 nos. of 34mbps streams. OR 1 no. of 140 mbps stream. Once STM-1 module is formed, no. of STM-1 modules are combined to form higher st ages.Their bit rates and capacities are listed below. Name of system Speed Capacity STM-1 155.52 mbps 1890 channels STM 4 622.08 mbps 7560 channels (4* STM-1) STM 16 2.50gbps 30,240 channels (16* STM-1) STM - 64 10.0 gbps 120,960 channels (64* STM-1) 2.7 Merits of SDH Simplified Multiplexing and Demultiplexing process Direct access to lower speed tributaries without need to demultiplex the entire high speed signal Enhanced OAM&P :- Due to enhanced Operation , Administration , Maintenance and P rovisioning capabilities user can control the whole network from a central loca tion i.e. remote supervision and control is very easy. Easy Growth :- Easy growth to high capacity systems. Capable of transporting existing PDH signals. Capable of transporting future broadband signals like, interactive multimedia & video conferencing. Capable of operating in a multivender and multi-operator environment: - Before S DH optical systems for the long distance transmission were intensely vendor spec ific but SDH were firm standards for vendor inter operability. Synchronous networking :- SDH supports multy-point, Hub and Ring Configuration whereas PDH networking only supports Point-to-Point Configuration. 2.8 SDH Network Element :The major network element of SDH are :Terminal Multiplexer (TM ) TM an end point device of SDH network , it is used at terminals of point to point SDH network . ADD / DROP Multiplexer ( ADM ) ADM is network element which allows configurable add/drop of a subset of traffic channels from higher rate data stream. REGENRATER (REG ):-. They terminate and regenrate the optical signal .They hav e alarms and performance monitoring capability . SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL CROSS CONNECT (SDXC ):-It can function as semi permanent swi tch for transmission channels and can switch at any level from 64 kbps to STM-1 under software control The previous systems like analogue transmission systems and PDH base d digital transmission systems are only point to point or in bus configuration, this configuration is as shown in fig.2.3.

MEDIA OF TRANSMISSION (Copper or Optical Fibre ) Fig.2.3 Layout Of Transmission System In of channels and insert facility. fails , the full bus configuration repeaters are having drop and insert facility in point to point configuration repeaters do not have drop and But in both of these configuration if media breaks or repeater system goes out of order . In SDH this problem is overcome by using other type of configur ations specially RING TYPE as shown in fig.2.4.

Fig.2.4 Ring configuration of SDH system

In the fig.2.4 Four nodes (A,B,C,D)are shown , when media between s ay node A and B breaks ,the traffic interrupted is automatically rerouted betwee n nodes A&B via nodes D&C 2.9 INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE Optical fibre is a medium, in which information (voice, data or video) is transm itted through a glass or plastic fibre, in the form of light, following the tran smission sequence given below : Information is encoded into electrical signals. Electrical signals are converted into light signals. Light travels down the fibre. A detector changes the light signals into electrical signals at receiver. Electrical signals are decoded into information.

2.10 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBRE Optical Fibres are non conductive (Dielectric) Electromagnetic immunity Unauthorized tapping difficult. Large Bandwidth Future up-gradability Maximum utilization of cable right of way. One time cable installation costs. Low Loss Loss is low and same at all operating speeds within the fibre's specified band width. Long, unrepeated links (> 70 km is in operation). Inexpensive light sources available. Small, light weight cables Easy installation and handling. Efficient use of space. Available in Long lengths (vii) Security Extremely difficult to tap a fibre as it does not radiate energy that can be received by a nearby antenna. Highly secure transmission medium. (viii) Safety Being a dielectric It cannot cause fire. Does not attract lightning. It does not carry electricity. Can be run through hazardous areas. (ix) Universal medium Serve all communication needs. Non obsolescence. 2.11 PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH FIBRE

The optical fibre has two concentric layers called the core and the cladding. Th e inner core is the light carrying part. The surrounding cladding provides the d ifference in refractive index that allows total internal reflection of light thr ough the core. The index of the cladding is less than 1%, lower than that of the core. Typical values for example are a core refractive index of 1.47 and a clad ding index of 1.46. Fibre manufacturers control this difference to obtain desire d optical fibre characteristics. Most fibres have an additional coating around the cladding. This buffer coating is a shock absorber and has no optical properties affecting the propagation of l ight within the fibre. 2.12 FIBRE GEOMETRY An Optical fibre consists of a core of optically transparent material usually si lica or borosilicate glass surrounded by a cladding of the same material but a s lightly lower refractive index. Fibre sizes are usually expressed by first givin g the core size followed by the cladding size. Thus, 50/125 means a core diamete r of 50m and a cladding diameter of 125 mm.

2.13 FIBRE TYPES The refractive index profile describes the relation between the indices of the c ore and cladding. Two main relationship exist : Step Index, and Graded Index The step index fibre has a core with uniform index throughout. The profile shows a sharp step at the junction of the core and cladding. In contrast, the graded index has a non uniform core. The index is highest at the centre and gradually d ecreases until it matches with that of the cladding. There is no sharp break in indices between the core and the cladding. By this classification there are three types of fibres : Multimode Step index fibre (Step index Fibre) Multimode graded index fibre (Graded index Fibre) Single-Mode Step Index Fibre (Single Mode Fibre) 2.14 Applications of Fibre Optics in Communications Common carrier nationwide networks. Telephone inter office trunk lines. Customer premise communication networks. Undersea cables. High EMI areas (Power lines, Rails, Roads). Factory communication/Automation. Control systems. Expensive environments. High lightning areas. Rural Area Networks Optical fibre cables of various capacities viz 12 fibre, 24 fibre, 48 fibre, 96 fibre are in use in BSNL **********************