CONCRETE AS A BUILDING MATERIAL

Division 3

CSI Division 3 - Concrete

03100 03200 03300 03400 03500 Concrete Formwork Concrete Reinforcement Cast -in-Place Concrete Precast Concrete Cementitious Decks

Cement vs concrete?
Cement (sometime referred to as Portland cement or hydraulic cement) is one component of concrete. Concrete is basically a mixture of 2 components: Aggregates Paste

Advantages of concrete
It is economical, has a long working life and requires little maintenance, Resists corrosion , and decay, Can be precisely molded to shape, Doesn't burn, Withstands high winds, Isn't eaten by pests

Limitations of Concrete:
Low tensile strength
To increase its Tensile strength (resistance to forces that bend and pull a material) you use reinforcements.

Low strength-to-weight ratio Susceptible to cracking.

CONCRETE STRENGTH
Concrete has greater strength in Compression (downward pressure) which means it can support heavy loads directly on it. Time is important in determining the strength of concrete. Concrete hardens as time passes due to the hydration reactions slowing down. It takes years for all chemical bonds to form which determines the concrete's strength. It is common to use a 28 day test to determine the relative strength of concrete.

Concrete Basics

What is concrete?
Pulverized particles of calcium, silicon, limestone, cement rock, oyster shells, silica sand, shale, iron ore, assorted minerals and gypsum. Gypsum controls the time required for cement to set. Composite material made of a Filler and a Binder. The Binder (portland cement) "glues The Filler (aggregate) together to form a synthetic conglomerate.

Well graded sand and gravel mix

The 10-20-30-40 Rule

The essential ingredients of concrete. A typical concrete batch, by volume, contains 10% cement 20% water and air 30% sand 40% gravel

Components of Concrete

TYPES OF CONCRETE
Ready-Mix Concrete

Recommended Compressive Strengths IRC Table R402.2

Foundations, Basement walls, and Slabs (No exposure) 2500 3000 psi Foundations, Basement walls, and Slabs (Exposure) 3,500 psi Driveways, Garage Slabs, Sidewalks 3500 -4000 psi

Types of Cement
Type I & Type IA (air-entraining)
Use for most residential work

(pg 27)

Type II & Type IIA(air-entraining)

Use in moderate sulfate soil conditions

Type III & Type IIIA (air-entraining)

Use when freezing is a risk or to speed up setting and curing

Type IV
Use for massive industrial placements

Type V
Use in extreme sulfate conditions

Types I, II, and III

Probably 90% of the cement sold in the U.S. is either Type I or Type II. Standard Type I cement
Is good for almost every residential purpose, except where soils and ground water contain sulfates that can attack concrete.

Type II
Used in sulfate areas (mainly out West because its sulfate resistant

For freeze-thaw durability use air-entraining cement or an air-entraining admixture.

Types III & IV of Concrete

Type III cement, "high early" variety
Residential contractors call for it when rapid strength gain is important either because the schedule is tight or because theres concern about freezing. You can also achieve high early strength by just adding more cement to the mix say, an extra 100-pound bag per yard or by using an accelerator like calcium chloride. resistance, may be necessary where extreme sulfate conditions exist.

Type V, the cement with the highest sulfate

The Importance of Water

Water
Strength, durability, water tightness, and wear resistance is controlled by the amount of water used. Water is the Key ingredient of concrete which binds aggregate together. Water causes hardening of concrete through a process called Hydration, which is a chemical reaction which causes chemical bonds with all components.

Water/Cement ratio
Low water to cement ratio leads to high strength but low workability. High water to cement ratio leads to low strength , but high workability. The water/cement ratio is the weight of the water per yard in the mix divided by the weight of cement per yard. Concretes water/cement ratio is usually somewhere between .4 and .6.

Strength losses
As a rule of thumb, for every gallon per yard of water added on the job, you lose at least 200 psi in strength. If you add 20 gallons to a 10-yard load 2 gallons per yard you are probably losing 400 to 500 psi

Water/Cement Ratio Chart

The more water you add on site, the weaker your concrete will be, and the more it will shrink and crack. Adding 2 gallons per yard will cut compressive strength by around 10% and increase shrinkage by close to 20%.

Concrete Shrinkage
Besides reducing the structures ultimate strength, adding water on site will also increase the total amount of shrinkage. Of the water in a concrete mix, just 25% to 30% is necessary for the hydration reaction. The rest of the water is only there to make the concrete workable. Any water that isnt involved in the hydration reaction either evaporates (25% to 30%), or remains indefinitely within the pore spaces in the concrete (40% to 50%).

Concrete Cracking
Most of the extra water you may add on site will quickly bleed and evaporate out. As the water leaves, the concrete shrinks; as the concrete shrinks, it cracks. Directly related to the water content of the mix.
More added water means more and bigger cracks. Thats another reason to add as little water as you can.

Reduced density, increased porosity

Not all the water that evaporates out of concrete results in shrinkage. If the concrete sets up and hardens before the water comes out, it wont typically shrink and crack as much; instead, it will be less dense and more porous. Thats because when you add a lot of water to concrete, you increase the volume; but when the water dries out, all it leaves behind is air.

Water/Cement Ratio
Added water will increase the volume but not the density of concrete. Concrete poured with higher water/cement ratios will be structurally weaker, softer, less durable, and more permeable.

Moisture Problems
Besides being weaker, porous concrete made with a high water/cement ratio will end up being more permeable. As concrete is hardening, the cement and the aggregate sink as the bleed water rises. Water flows around the particles and through the sand and cement paste, leaving behind a lot of little voids and capillaries in the hardened concrete After the concrete cures, those capillary voids let water and vapor move through finished slabs and walls, which can add to moisture problems.

Movement of Water and Aggregate

Slump Tests

(pg 28)

This photo shows what an engineer likes to see nice stiff concrete.

This photo is what the guys with the shovels like to see soupy wet concrete that flows naturally.

Slump Tests
The way to gauge and control water content is the slump test. To do the test properly, use a standard cone 12 inches high, 4 inches wide at the small end, and 8 inches wide at the big end. Fill the cone up about 1/3 full, rod it 25 times, fill it up to 2/3 full, rod it 25 more times, and then finally fill it to the top and rod it again. Remove the cone and measure the slump from the top down.

9 inch-slump concrete

Ideal Residential Slump

Some of the ready-mix guys have argued for the 4inch slump, but 4-inch-slump concrete is pretty tough material to pour, unless you are going to pump it. All the poured-wall guys wanted to go to a 7-inch slump. In the end, compromise: a 4-inch to 6-inch range.

Flowable Concrete
As a rule, it takes a gallon or more of water per yard to add about an inch to your slump. So to increase the slump from 5 inches to 9 inches, youd need to add about 4 or 5 gallons. That could reduce the strength of your finished concrete by as much as 1,000 psi.

Rapid flowing concrete

Problems with runny concrete

Segregation

Components of Concrete
70% or more of any concrete structure is nothing but sand and gravel. Very cost-effective: Good aggregate is actually stronger than cement, and much cheaper. The main idea when you make concrete is to use as much aggregate as practical, with just enough cement paste to glue the mix together. To achieve this, you want a "well graded" sand and gravel mix or fine sand.

Slice of Concrete
Shows a well-graded aggregate mix locked into a matrix of hardened cement paste. Small pieces of gravel and sand fill the voids between larger chunks, reducing the amount of space to be filled by water/cement paste. This helps to hold down costs, improve strength, and minimize shrinkage of the concrete.

AGGREGATES

Why the sand and rocks?

The sand and rocks are aggregates; chemically inactive solid bits, glued together by the cement and water. Aggregates range from the fine particles of sand to large, coarse pieces of rock. Chemically inert, solid bodies held together by the cement. 70 to 80% of the volume of concrete is aggregate keeping the cost of the concrete low.

Selection of aggregate
Determined by the desire characteristics of the concrete because the density of concrete is determined density of the aggregate: Soft, porous aggregate can result in weak concrete with low wear resistance Hard aggregates can make strong concrete with a high resistance to abrasion.

Types of aggregate
Aggregates make up about 75% of the volume of the concrete (and a higher percentage of Fine aggregate
usually sand

the mass).

Coarse aggregate
usually gravel or crushed stone

AGGREGRATE CODE
Maximum size of aggregate can be no larger than:
1/3 depth of Slab 1/5 of narrowest dimension between form boards 3/4 of clear spacing of rebar rods

Classes of aggregate
Ultra-lightweight
lightweight concrete which can be sawed, nailed and can be used for its insulating properties Vermiculite Perlite aggregate

Classes of aggregate
Lightweight
Used primarily for making lightweight concrete for structures, and its insulating properties Expanded clay, shale, slate, crushed brick Pumice

Classes of aggregate
Normal weight - Used for normal concrete projects
Crushed limestone, sand, river gravel Crushed recycled concrete

Classes of aggregate
Heavy weight - Used in making high density concrete nuclear radiation
Steel or iron pellets or shots

Portland Cement
Video

Admixtures

Admixtures

(pg 30)

Admixtures are ingredients other than portland cement, water, and aggregates that are added to the concrete mixture immediately before or during mixing. They are used to modify certain properties of the concrete and can be classified according to their function:

Admixtures
Strength may also be affected by the addition of admixtures. An admixture that makes the mix harden more quickly is called an accelerant while one that slows the process down is called a retardant.

Air-entraining admixtures
Water-reducing admixtures. Retarding admixtures. Accelerating admixtures. Cementing agents. Workability agents. Miscellaneous agents such as bonding, damp-proofing, permeability-reducing, grouting, and gas-forming agents.

Air-entraining admixtures
Water-reducing admixtures. Retarding admixtures. Accelerating admixtures. Cementing agents. Workability agents. Miscellaneous agents such as bonding, damp-proofing, permeability-reducing, grouting, and gas-forming agents.

Air-entraining admixture
Microscopic bubbles of air or special detergents injected into concrete to increase durability of concrete that is exposed to moisture and frequent freeze/thaw cycles. Improves workability & durability. Reduces bleeding which is the water that surfaces to the top when concrete settles.

Air-Entrained Concrete
For most residential work, some amount of air entrainment is essential for long-term freeze/thaw resistance. Air-entrained concrete has billions of microscopic air bubbles mixed into it Concrete supplier will either use air-entraining cement or add an air-entraining admixture at the batching plant.
The mixing action of the truck blends air into the concrete, while the admixture helps the tiny bubbles hold their shape.

Slice of air-entrained concrete

The separated air bubbles provide space to relieve the pressure of expanding ice. Air-entrained concrete surfaces will endure many years of winter freezing and thawing. Entrained air bubbles are very small mostly between a tenth and a hundredth of a millimeter.

How Air-entrainment works

When the concrete sets up and hardens, the little air voids give excess water in the concrete space to expand when it freezes. Air-entrained concrete can hold up over many more freeze-thaw cycles than non-air-entrained concrete. By the time fresh concrete reaches a strength of 500 psi (usually within a day or two), the air entrainment is well enough developed that the concrete can withstand freezing.

How much do you add?

Commonly use 6% or even 8% air in a slab designed for outdoor use, or when a freeze might hit before a basement is closed in. A 2% or 3% entrained-air mix is a good precaution, even in moderate climates.

Accelerating admixtures
Calcium chloride is added to concrete to speed setting time, increases the rate at which concrete gains strength.
Allows concrete to be used quicker. Offsets adverse low temperatures.

Retarding admixtures
Sugar is added to delay setting time, more long term strength, offsets adverse high temperatures.

Plasticizers and water reducing agents

Used to improve the workability of high-strength concrete made with low levels of water.

Water-reducing admixture
Make it possible to reduce the amount of water without reducing the workability of the concrete Makes concrete stronger.

Superplasticizing admixture
Special polymers are added to concrete to increase strength by decreasing water needed for workable concrete. Flows easier

Superplasticizers
Start with a 5-inch slump and then superplasticize it, you can get an 8-inch or 9-inch slump that is relatively easy to work with. Because you dont have to add water, youve maintained good strength.

Fly Ash
Fly ash comes primarily from coal-fired electricity generating power plants.These power plants grind coal to a powder fineness before it is burned. Fly ash - the mineral residue produced by burning coal - is captured from the power plant's exhaust gases and collected for use. Fly ash particles are almost totally spherical in shape, allowing them to flow and blend freely in mixtures.
That capability is one of the properties making fly ash a desirable admixture for concrete.

Fly Ash Performance

The "ball-bearing" effect of fly ash particles creates a lubricating action when concrete is in its plastic state. This creates benefits in:
Workability. Concrete is easier to place with less effort, responding better to vibration to fill forms more completely. Improved Finishing. Sharp, clear architectural definition is easier to achieve, with less worry about in-place integrity. Reduced Bleeding. Fewer bleed channels decreases porosity and chemical attack. Bleed streaking is reduced for architectural finishes. Improved paste to aggregate contact results in enhanced bond strengths. Reduced Segregation. Improved cohesiveness of fly ash concrete reduces segregation that can lead to rock pockets and blemishes. Reduced Slump Loss. More dependable concrete allows for greater working time, especially in hot weather.

Pigment admixture
Metal oxides are used to add color to concrete

CONCRETE CURING

What is Curing?

(pg 33)

Curing is the maintaining of a satisfactory moisture content and temperature in concrete, so that the concrete may develop the desired strength and hardness. Correctly cured, concrete shrinks, cracks and dusts less, while gaining strength, durability and wear resistance.

Is Curing Necessary?
Tests show that improper curing can easily cut the strength of even the best concrete by 50%. Concrete placed under high temperature conditions will gain early strength quickly, but later strengths may be reduced. Concrete placed in cold weather will take longer to gain strength, delaying form removal and subsequent construction. Properly cured concrete provides improved durability and has better surface hardness and therefore is more watertight.

Methods of Curing

Cold Weather
Provide insulation to keep concrete temperature above 50F for at least 3 days. Plywood R-.5 1 straw R-2 1 mineral fiber blanket R-3 1 EPS insulation R-6

Hot Weather
Prevent rapid evaporation Provide shade & wind protection

Membrane Curing Compounds

The most common method of keeping moisture in the concrete. Are low in cost and can be easily brushed or sprayed on immediately after the concrete is laid without worrying about marring the surface. Compounds that have an ultraviolet (UV) protectant are recommended as some compounds give concrete a yellow tint.

Water Spray
A good curing method, but only if the concrete is kept continuously damp. Allowing the concrete surface to dry between sprinkling can cause crazing of the surface and cracking of slabs.

Waterproof Paper
Holds moisture in the concrete by preventing evaporation. This method is acceptable for slabs but not practical for wall, irregular surfaces or colored slabs.

Damp Burlap
The burlap must be washed and free of anything that might stain or harm the concrete. It is not practical for large areas, and it must be kept damp to prevent water lost through evaporation.

Plastic Sheets
Completely watertight, light weight and easy to handle, plastic sheets give good protection during curing. Care should be taken to make sure that the sheets lie flat against the surface to prevent surface mottling. A concrete slab that has been allowed to dry out too early will have a weak surface with poor resistance to wear and abrasion. Proper curing reduces crazing, dusting and scaling.

SEALING
Sealing is a glossy film sprayed or rolled on concrete slabs to make them resistant to liquid and dirt impregnation. It provides good resistance to traffic, abrasion, alkalis and many low concentration chemicals. Sealers are designed to keep moisture out of the concrete, especially in the first year when the concrete is curing and gaining strength. This provides for scale-resistant concrete.

Shotcrete
Working with Shotcrete

CSI Division 3 - Concrete

03200 Concrete Reinforcement

CONCRETE STRENGTH
Concrete has greater strength in Compression (downward pressure) which means it can support heavy loads directly on it. To increase its Tensile strength (resistance to forces that bend and pull a material) you use reinforcements.

Types of Reinforcing Steel and Embedments

Steel Reinforcing Bar Welded Wire Fabric Fiber Reinforcing Rebar Misc. Embedments

Reinforcing Bar Rebar

Reinforcing bar is hot-rolled steel formed into long, textured rods that are used in concrete to reduce cracking and sudden failures.
While concrete is known for its compression strength - it can withstand thousands of pounds of pressure per square inch - it's shy on tensile strength. Steel has lots of it.

(pg 43)

Combine steel and concrete, and you get the best of both worlds: reinforced concrete.

Rebar Sizes
Rebar comes in various sizes in 1/8-in. increments referred to as whole numbers.
#3 rebar is 3/8 in. dia. #4 rebar is 1/2 in. dia. Both of these are common in residential construction.

Rebar Grades
Rebar is graded in psi strength Grade 40
40,000 psi More malleable and easier to bend Typically #3 and #4

Grade 60
60,000 psi Stiffer and does not bend easily Typically #5 and greater

Placing Rebar
Always place near Tension side of the concrete
Sample placement pg 45

Horizontal rebar is most effective along the top and bottom of the foundation elevation. (pg 53) Coverage
Footing 3 min. coverage Wall & slabs 1-1/2 to 2 min coverage

Splicing overlap splice by 24 bar diameters

12 for #4 (4/8 x 24 = 12)

Foundation Reinforcing

404.1.4 Seismic Design Categories D1 and D2

In seismic zones code requires extra rebar In addition to the requirements of Table R404.1.1(1), plain concrete and plain masonry foundation walls located in Seismic Design Categories D1 and D2, as established in Table R301.2(1), shall comply with the following:
Minimum reinforcement shall consist of one No. 4 horizontal bar located in the upper 12 inches of the wall.

Welded Wire Fabric (Mesh)

WWF 6 x 6 - W1.4xW1.4 6 x 6 = size of grid W1.4 x W1.4 = standard wire gauge number Purchased in Rolls or Sheets

Welded Wire Fabric Sizes

Size 6x6x8x8 6x6x6x6 6x6x4x4 4x4x6x6 4x4x4x4 12 x 6 x W1.4 x W2.9 12 x 6 x W1.4 x W2.9 12 x 6 x W2 x W4 6 x 6 x W5.5 x W5.5 Roll Size 8' x 20' 8' x 20' 8' x 20' 8' x 20' 8' x 20' 8'10" x 20' 9'10" x 20' 9'10" x 20' 8' x 20' Weight 47 67 90 97 133 44 49 68 112

Welded Wire Mesh on Mesh Supports

Fiber Reinforcing
FIBERMESH reinforced concrete consists of millions of polypropylene fibers uniformly distributed throughout quality ready mixed concrete to create a one-step micro-reinforcement system. These fibers stop micro cracks that can develop because of water loss and shrinkage. The growth of these cracks are blocked by the fibers thus ending the crack in the micro stage and providing higher tensile strength capacity.

What is FIBERMESH?
If you could look into a cube of Fibermesh concrete, this is what you would see: Millions of virgin polypropylene Fibermesh fibers uniformly distributed throughout the concrete mix. As micro cracks begin to develop due to water loss and shrinkage, the cracks intersect with Fibermesh fibers which block their growth and provide higher tensile strain capacity at this crucial time. So, the cracks won't develop into macro cracks and problems.

WHY FIBERMESH?
High tensile strength, reducing shrinking and cracking Flexural toughness, giving concrete ability to sustain larger loads. Reduced costs by eliminating need for wire mesh purchase, placement and storage. Increased concrete durability by adding to the service life of your concrete pavement. The ability to withstand deicers because of alkaline and chemical resistancy. Higher strength concrete, doubling impact resistance and tripling fatigue resistance

FiberMesh

Fibermesh Web site