markt (2009) 48:29–40
DOI 10.1007/s12642-009-0003-1
METHODOLOGICAL PAPER
The formalization of case study research in international business
Pervez N. Ghauri · Rebecca Firth
Received: 6 May 2008 / Accepted: 31 October 2008 / Published online: 27 March 2009
© Springer-Verlag 2009
Abstract Qualitative case study research has frequently
been criticised for being less systematic and objective than
other approaches. Ambiguity in the way case studies are
selected, empirically conducted and analysed, often exists
and can hinder the positive dissemination of research.
This paper aims to outline how case study research can
be undertaken using the example of the authors’ current
case study research into interfirm services linkages between
UK multinational subsidiaries and local firms in China and
Korea. A particular emphasis is placed on the analysis of
case studies and the benefits of computer aided qualitative
data analysis software (CAQDAS). An integrative approach
is taken through the use of Nvivo software. It is argued that
the use of Nvivo can help researchers systematise and order
data, enabling a more thorough and reliable analysis. If
qualitative case study research is to become more accepted
and publishable, its transparency must be improved. The
use of a standardized type of data analysis software may
go some way towards helping researchers achieve this
goal.
This paper draws on Ghauri PN (2004) Conducting and analysing case
studies in international business. In: Piekkari R and Welch C (eds)
Handbook of qualitative research methods for international business.
Edward Elgar, Cheltenham
P. N. Ghauri (✉)
King’s College London, The Department of Management,
Franklin-Wilkins Building, 150 Stamford Street,
SE1 9NH London, UK
e-mail: pervez.ghauri@kcl.ac.uk
Tel.: +44-20-78484122
R. Firth
Manchester Business School,
Booth Street West, M15 7PB Manchester, UK
der markt
Journal für Marketing
Keywords Case studies · CAQDAS · Nvivo · Analysis ·
Linkages
Zusammenfassung Gegenüber qualitativen Fallstudien
wird vielfach der Vorwurf eingebracht, diese wären zu
wenig systematisch und objektiv in ihrem Ansatz. Es
gibt eine Reihe von Unklarheiten darüber wie Fallstu-
dien ausgewählt werden, empirisch durchgeführt und
analysiert werden. Dies behindert die positive Aufnahme
des Fallstudienansatzes in der Forschungsgemeinschaft
sowie die Verbreitung entsprechender Forschungsarbeiten.
Dieser Artikel stellt einen Strukturierungsansatz vor, wie
Fallstudien systematisiert werden können. Dabei wird
auf eine aktuelle Untersuchung zurückgegriffen, in der
zwischenbetriebliche Firmenverknüpfungen („linkages“)
zwischen Tochtergesellschaften multinationaler Firmen aus
dem Vereinigten Königreich und lokalen Firmen in China
und Korea betrachtet werden. Besonderes Augenmerk
wird dabei auf die Vorteile der Nutzung computerbasierter
Datenanalysesoftware (CAQDAS) gelegt. Wir stellen einen
integrativen Ansatz vor und nutzen das Nvivo Software-
paket. Es wird argumentiert dass Nvivo ForscherInnen in
der Systematisierung und Analyse von Daten hilft, und
einen Beitrag zur Verlässlichkeit der Untersuchung liefert.
Wir sehen eine Zielsetzung darin qualitative Fallstudien
als ein zuverlässiges und attraktives Instrumentarium für
Forschung und Forschungsdokumentation zu etablieren.
Daher ist es unabdingbar die Transparenz in der Analyse
und Dokumentation der Untersuchung zu erhöhen. Eine
Strukturierung und Systematisierung hilft dabei dem Ziel
näher zu kommen.
Schlüsselwörter Fallstudien · CAQDAS · Nvivo · Analyse ·
Firmenverknüpfungen
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Introduction
“Using case studies for research purposes remains one of
the most challenging of all social science endeavors” (Yin
2003, p. 1). This is an opinion which still holds largely true
today as it did at the time of the initial writing of this classic
text on case studies. Even though case studies do not have
to be strictly qualitative, they often involve at least some
qualitative work. With the growth of qualitative research
(Flick et al. 2004) and an increasing number of journals
dedicated to the subject, such as “qualitative inquiry”,
“qualitative market research journal”, and “qualitative
research”; there is a need to understand how qualitative case
studies in particular can be designed and conducted. There
has been a call for clearer documentation of qualitative
research in order to counter criticisms such as lack of
objectivity, generalisability and transparency. The use of
CAQDAS and in particular Nvivo in the analysis of qual-
itative case studies may go some way toward addressing
these criticisms (Sinkovics et al. 2008). In this article, we
firstly tackle the issues of when to use case studies and how
to conduct them and secondly we undertake an in-depth
look at how to analyse qualitative case studies using Nvivo
with a current empirical example from recent research into
inter-firm linkages.
In business studies, we normally study cases to provide
insight into an issue, a management situation or new theory.
Case studies have been used to investigate many IB topics,
such as international business negotiations, international
joint ventures, market entry processes and headquarter-
subsidiary relationships. A case study is a useful method
when the area of research is relatively less known, and the
researcher is engaged in theory building (Eisenhardt 1989).
This is perhaps the most frequently used approach for thesis
and dissertation research in business at postgraduate level
and is often applied as a pretext to quantitative survey-based
work (Jean et al. 2008; Jean 2007). However, we will argue
that case studies are in fact a flexible research approach that
is suited to a range of different types of research questions
(Ghauri 2004). Case studies have also been combined with
a variety of different epistemological and methodological
approaches, from positivist to phenomenological, using
surveys to interviews. In this paper, we avoid entering into
philosophical debates and instead maintain the stance that
case studies can be used in both types of research.
Case studies can involve data collection through multiple
sources such as surveys, verbal reports, personal interviews,
observation and written reports (such as financial reports,
archives, budget and operating statements including mar-
ket and competition reports). The main feature is the depth
and focus on the research object, whether it is an individ-
ual, group, organisation, culture, incident or situation. We
need to have sufficient information to characterise and ex-
13
P. N. Ghauri, R. Firth
plain the unique features of the case, as well as to point out
the characteristics that are common to several cases. Finally,
this approach relies on the integrative powers of research:
the ability to study an object with many dimensions and then
to draw the various elements together in a cohesive interpre-
tation (Selltiz et al. 1976).
This paper deals with the stages of a case study project,
the first being the decision to use the case study method, and
the last concerning how to analyse data that has been col-
lected through cases and how to analyse them using Nvivo.
Examples from a recent academic project we have under-
taken will be used to illustrate common dilemmas faced by
the practising case study researcher. The hope is that this
article will form a useful introduction for those embarking
upon case study research project and inform those looking
to use Nvivo from first use to advanced use. Moreover, we
aim at suggesting various ways in which case studies can be
conducted in a more systematic way by adopting the use of
Nvivo or CAQDAS in general.
Deciding to use a case study
Whether to use a case study or not is an important first ques-
tion as the suitability of the research to this approach will ul-
timately determine its quality. As Yin (2003) has famously
said, case studies are a preferred approach when “how” or
“why” questions are to be answered, when the researcher has
little control over events and when the focus is on a current
phenomenon in a real-life context. Also influential in the
development of case study research is Eisenhardt’s (1989,
pp. 548–549) argument that case studies are:
Particularly well-suited to new research areas or research
areas for which existing theory seems inadequate. This type
of work is highly complementary to incremental theory
building from normal science research. The former is useful
in early stages of research on a topic or when a fresh
perspective is needed, while the latter is useful in later
stages of knowledge development.
However, this does not mean that case study research
is only suited to exploratory and descriptive research.
Case studies can in fact be used in all types of research:
exploratory, descriptive or explanatory (Bonoma 1985;
Ghauri and Grønhaug 2002; Yin 2003).
When to use which research approach ultimately depends
upon the type of research questions being posed. When
research questions concern only “what” (for example, “what
is the impact of forming service sector linkages on host
country suppliers?”), the objective of the study is to develop
hypotheses or propositions for later testing. For such an
The formalization of case study research in international business
exploratory study, a range of research strategies can be used.
If the questions relate to “how many?” or “how much?”
survey or archival strategies are favoured. For example,
compiling a report on the population statistics or overview
of a particular industry, i.e. how many companies operate
in the industry there, how many of these are domestic or
foreign and what are their market shares etc. However, if
“how” is used on its own, for example, how do linkages in
the service sector change with host country firms over time?
Then a range of data collection methods might be used
but generally, when “how” and “why” questions are asked,
a case study method as a research strategy is most useful
(Ghauri and Grønhaug 2002).
Over the years case studies have been used for a variety
of “what”, “how” and “why” questions, covering a diverse
range of topics in international business. For example: what
measures of international competitiveness are relevant to
the performance of SMEs (Coviello et al. 1998)? How does
a negotiation process in a domestic setting differs from
a negotiation process in an international setting (Ghauri
1983)? How do international joint venture relationships
develop over time (Hyder and Ghauri 1989, 2000)? How
do headquarter-subsidiary relationships in the MNE change
over time (Ghauri 1992)? Or, how do companies enter
unfamiliar foreign markets (Ghauri and Holstius 1996;
Hadjikani et al. 2008)
The case study method is particularly well suited to
international business research, where data is collected
from cross-border and cross-cultural settings. Survey
and/or experiments raise serious questions about equiva-
lence and comparability of data collected from different
countries (Sinkovics et al. 2005). In spite of rather so-
phisticated methods of questionnaire translations and
cross-translations, the understanding and interpretation of
questions by respondents and of answers and findings by
researchers are very difficult to compare and often lead to
misleading conclusions. Often surveys and questionnaires
are simply thrown away because foreign respondents do
not fully understand their purpose. The case study method
provides excellent opportunities for respondents and re-
searchers to check their understanding and keep on asking
questions until they obtain sufficient answers and desired
interpretations (Sinkovics et al. 2008). In-depth interviews
are particularly suitable when researcher wants to under-
stand behaviour of decision-makers and/or complicated
topics in other countries.
Case studies have the potential to deepen our understanding
of the research phenomenon, firstly because they allow
us to take a longitudinal approach. For example, in Hyder
and Ghauri (1989, p. 26) it is argued that joint ventures are
best understood and studied as a “historical process”. The
researchers were able to extend the time period under study
by later returning to the same joint ventures to conduct
31
a follow-up study (Hyder and Ghauri 2000). As most case
studies are done through a review of existing historical
material and records plus interviews, the case study method
is quite similar to historical review, but it is different
in the sense that here we have the possibility of direct
observation and interaction. The second strength of case
studies is, as Yin (2003) has observed, their contextuality.
In business studies case research is particularly useful
when the phenomenon under investigation is difficult to
study outside its natural setting – as typically occurs in
international business research, since researchers are often
studying the impact of different national contexts. This
means that when we wished to understand the extent of
linkage formation in China and Korea and what led to their
formation amongst firms case studies were an effective way
of understanding the links between macro-environmental
factors, industry-level relationships and firm decision-
making. A third advantage of this method is that the level of
depth with which each case is investigated allows for theory
building, not just theory testing. Fourthly, case studies are
holistic, thus permitting the investigation of a phenomenon
from a variety of viewpoints, covering a period of time, and
crossing the boundaries between different factors (Ghauri
1983). Researchers can cross check data in a relatively
unbiased way. Concepts and variables under study are often
difficult to quantify since there are too many variables to
be considered, which makes experiment or survey methods
inappropriate to use (Bonoma 1985; Ghauri and Grønhaug
2005; Yin 2003).
The decision of whether to choose a case study should
not be taken lightly or seen as an “easy” or “soft” option
because as will be explained their conduction and analysis
can be extremely complex. A case study may very well
involve quantitative methods or even be entirely quantita-
tive. Whether a case study is used as a research method
depends upon the research question, objectives and the
research setting/situation. Once this approach has been
chosen, we need to think of the next steps such as how to
select individual cases and to conduct and analyse them.
The rest of the article will deal with these issues.
Selecting cases
How to select and decide what constitutes a case can be
a puzzling issue. How to select the cases is perhaps the most
important issue in this type of research. As in other methods
of data collection, it is important to decide the target pop-
ulation that is to be used for the investigation. It includes
those firms, individuals, groups or elements that will be rep-
resented in the study. The next stage is to assess the accessi-
ble population, the population to which we can have access
(Cooper 1984). Out of this accessible population we have
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to select one or few cases, objects or firms, for study. This
selection should be based on criteria that are consistent with
the research problem. The cases should correspond to our
theoretical framework and the variables we are studying. For
example, for our project we had to first select service sector
firms who had undertaken FDI in China or Korea who used
suppliers for at least some inputs. Once we have selected
a firm, the informant has to be a manager who is involved
in the process of working with suppliers. An interview with
the firm’s public relations manager or an accountant may not
provide us with the information we are looking for (Ghauri
and Grønhaug 2005; Ghauri 2004). In order to select firms
within the service sector we used the Thomson One Banker
Deals database to see which firms had made acquisitions and
then wrote to the CEO’s of these companies asking for the
names of relevant managers we could interview.
The time available for the study, financial resources for
travelling, personal contacts and other practical issues are of
great importance. For example, depending upon how much
time we have to perform the study, the type of organisation
or company we select might be different. Consequently, the
researcher is likely to be required to mix theory with prag-
matism when selecting cases. During our trips to China and
Korea we spent about two weeks in each country and had
set up virtually all the interviews prior to the trip, therefore
a high level of organisation was needed. The most appro-
priate company in theoretical terms may be too far away, or
may simply refuse access. Whilst studying the linkage ef-
fects of foreign firms on local firms and economies we used
a variety of avenues in order to gain access. This ranged
from using personal contacts, university alumni, writing in-
troduction letters and sometimes even cold calling. The first
meeting with the potential interviewee or company repre-
sentative is likely to be decisive in terms of whether we
are granted access or not. In our experience, the final de-
cision about access is largely determined by the ability of
researchers to impress the interviewee during the very first
meeting. We conducted case studies in many different coun-
tries during our study of linkage formation and our experi-
ence revealed that often being a foreigner is not necessarily
a disadvantage when negotiating access. Particularly when
having to rely on a second language, expressions tend to
be simpler and the overall communication tends to be more
straightforward and direct.
Case selection should also take into account the type of
organisation being studied. Based on our own experiences
of conducting case studies including SME’s such as suppli-
ers and MNCs (Ghauri et al. 2008; Ghauri and Fang 2001),
we would argue that research problems tend to be richer in
MNCs, but it is likely to be harder to negotiate access and
identify the right informants who have personally been in-
volved in the phenomenon under study. In SMEs, on the
other hand, the informants may be eager to learn and willing
13
P. N. Ghauri, R. Firth
to participate in an academic study. It tends to be consider-
ably easier to get in touch with people who have themselves
participated in the issues being investigated. Hence, select-
ing the appropriate type of organisation is a balancing act
between certain advantages and disadvantages.
To illustrate the case selection process, at the outset of our
study on inter-firm linkages in China and Korea we had ini-
tial criteria for the selection of cases (e.g. the parent firm
must be a UK headquartered service firm who has made
significant direct investments in China and Korea). These
criteria were then altered by both pragmatic considerations
(above all, the level of access that we could obtain with or
without personal contacts of colleagues and friends) and by
the emergent theory. Thus, when choosing the final cases,
some UK headquartered service firms were ruled out if they
had not made large enough direct investments which would
mean that they would not have a large supplier network that
we also needed to interview. However, important considera-
tions in the selection process were not only differences but
also similarities; with all the cases sharing some features that
made them comparable (e.g. service industry, size and type
of the project, in our case acquisitions).
How many cases should be included in a study? The an-
swer to this question is very difficult as there is no upper or
lower limit to the number of cases to be included in a study.
Many times only one case is enough (Mintzberg 1979). It is
the research problem and the research objectives that influ-
ence the number and choice of cases to be studied.
Single cases are appropriate when a particular case is
a critical case and we want to use it to explain or ques-
tion an established theory. It is a critical case because it
meets all the conditions necessary to confirm, challenge
or extend the theory. For example, in Marschan-Piekkari
and Ghauri (1998) Researchers studied regional control in
headquarter-subsidiary and inter-subsidiary relationships
in a single, Finnish multinational corporation. Given the
limited number of earlier studies in the field, the aim was
to extend existing theory on regional management in multi-
nationals by examining in depth how control is exercised
through regional centres. Another situation is when a single
case is an extreme or a unique case; for example, particular
organisations may be of interest because they represent
“outstanding successes’ or “notable failures” (Patton 1990,
p. 169). Finally, a single case design is appropriate when
a case is revelatory. This means that we can observe and
study a phenomenon which was previously not accessible
and which can provide useful insights. We can also use sin-
gle case design in other situations, such as in a pilot study or
an exploratory study that serves as a first step to a later, more
comprehensive study (Ghauri and Grønhaug 2005; Yin
2003).
In comparative or multiple case studies, we ask or study
the same questions in a number of organisations and com-
The formalization of case study research in international business
pare them with each other to draw conclusions. The purpose
of data collection in comparative case study method is to
compare (replicate) the phenomenon (e.g. strategy forma-
tion) in a systematic way, to explore different dimensions of
our research issues or to examine different levels of research
variables. In this approach it should be clear that every case
has to serve a particular purpose in the study. In other words,
the researcher has to justify the selection of each case. How-
ever, case study design is often flexible and can be changed,
modified or revised during the study with proper justifica-
tion. For example, in our study of inter-firm linkages we
selected 8 cases (4 in China and 4 in Korea) in order to
compare the cases not only by company but also by coun-
try in which they had invested to see the differences in pat-
terns of linkage formation between subsidiaries and local
suppliers.
A related question is what is meant by “a case”? For
example, if we are trying to understand the process of
decision-making in a firm, we may study multiple decisions
on different issues, important/unimportant, novel/routine
decisions etc. in the same organisation. This will provide
variability along important factors (see e.g. Campbell 1975).
Thus, in Ghauri and Fang (2001) a single MNE (Ericsson
in China) was studied, but in the context of this one unit,
the researchers were able to analyse multiple instances of
the phenomenon under study, namely international business
negotiations. A case in the linkages study was defined as
the FDI context i.e. all firms associated with the process of
FDI from headquarters, subsidiaries and suppliers.
The use of a particular case study method depends also
upon the type of study we are doing, whether it is inductive
or deductive, and also upon whether we are looking for spe-
cific or general explanations. In the situation of an inductive
approach and specific explanations, we may use the single
case design. However, if we are looking for general expla-
nations, we should use a multiple-case design. On the other
hand, if we are doing a study with a deductive approach
we can use the case study at an early stage to develop our
hypotheses or propositions. A case study is a less recom-
mended method if we are aiming at generalisations. How-
ever, case studies are justifiable if we know the outcome that
we are aiming at from the very beginning and clearly state
them so as not to promise over inflated outcomes.
Conducting case studies
Triangulation can be one of the defining features of a case
study. It refers to the collection of data through different
methods or even different kind of data on the same phe-
nomenon. The use of multi-methods or triangulation is not
new and can be traced back to Campbell and Fiske (1959),
who argued that to ensure validity one should use more than
33
one method. The main advantage of triangulation, however,
is that it can produce a more complete, holistic, and con-
textual picture of the object under study. In the case study
method, it is particularly important as we need to check and
validate the information we receive from various sources
and examine it from different angles (Ghauri 2004). For ex-
ample, we can check the performance of a firm or a project,
claimed by the interviewee, from annual accounts, archives
or by interviewing another manager or company represen-
tative. In essence, we use triangulation to reduce the likeli-
hood of misinterpretation. We employ various procedures to
increase our understanding and explanation. It helps us clar-
ify meaning by identifying different ways the phenomenon
is seen (Denzin 1989; Flick 1992).
In our own research, we have tended to build up case data
through interviews and written documentation. When plan-
ning personal interviews, we have made a special effort to
include multiple viewpoints in the data set by, for example,
interviewing managers from the HQ in the UK, managers
from subsidiaries in China and Korea and managers in local
supplying companies. In another study both joint venture
partners and joint venture managers were interviewed
(Hyder and Ghauri 2000); internal company informants
as well as external local authorities, officials and staff at
foreign embassies (Hadjikhani et al. 2008). In our project
on linkages, to supplement these interviews, we were able
to analyse company files related to each case. The files
incorporated such material as correspondence between the
subsidiary and suppliers, contract drafts as well as the final
contract, and relevant government rules and regulations. It
was therefore possible to compare data between interview-
ees within the same firm, between different firms, and in
comparison with the written records of each company.
Moreover, the comparison of archival and interview data
is not the only option. As part of the case study reported
in Ghauri and Fang (2001), the researchers shadowed
a top manager for a couple of years in the early 1990s.
This method, which was very much built on trust and
mutual respect between the top manager and researcher,
provided real insight into face-to-face situations and in-
creased the researchers own understanding of the research
questions. At the same time, the manager found it useful
to jointly brainstorm and analyse various situations we had
observed.
There are some problems with triangulation. Sometimes
it can be difficult to judge the accuracy if the results from
different methods and sources are not consistent. For ex-
ample, the MNE headquarter may say it was responsible
for initiating linkages whereas suppliers may indicate oth-
erwise. A second problem arises when the different meth-
ods employed provide contradictory results. For example, if
a manager reports no conflicts in the relationship while the
archives demonstrate the existence of a number of conflicts,
13
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it is important to have this clarified during the interviews
with the managers by referring to the incidents mentioned
in the archives. However, there is a general tendency that
we need not evaluate interview responses or written docu-
ments as true or false reports on reality. “Instead, we can
treat such responses as displays of perspectives and moral
forms” (Silverman 1993, p. 107). One conclusion is that tri-
angulation or the usage of a multi-method approach on the
same study object can be useful even if we do not get the
same results. It can lead us to a better understanding or to
new questions that can be answered by later research. Doc-
uments can be tremendously useful. We have relied on them
when preparing sharp and to-the-point interview questions.
We have also used them when checking information men-
tioned in interviews. Hence, documents tend to be rich and
have a lot to offer to the researcher both in pre-interview and
post-interview situations.
Analysing case studies: the traditional approach
Interpreting and analysing qualitative data is perhaps the
most difficult and time consuming task while doing case
study research. We cannot be satisfied merely with “telling
convincing stories”, to use Silverman’s (1989) chapter ti-
tle. In qualitative research trustworthiness and authenticity
rather than reliability are the main issues (Sinkovics et al.
2008). The idea is to present an “authentic” understanding
of people’s experience. This means not just understanding
the point of view of the individuals and groups being stud-
ied; in addition, data has to be interpreted against the back-
ground of the context in which they are produced (Hammer-
sley and Atkinson 1983). But how can researchers ensure
– and demonstrate – they have produced an authentic and
trustworthy interpretation rather than a misguided one? As
put by Miles (1979, p. 591):
“The most serious and central difficulty in the use of
qualitative data is that the method of data analysis is
not well formulated . . . the analyst faced with a bank
of data has very few guidelines for protection against
self-delusion, let alone the presentation of unreliable
or invalid conclusion to scientific or policy-making de-
cisions. How can we be sure that an “earthy”, “undeni-
able”, “serendipitous” finding is not, in fact, wrong?”
Part of the answer lies in making sure that data analysis and
collection are closely interconnected during the lifecycle
of the case study research. Many researchers put a lot
of effort into data collection and keep on collecting data
through case studies, hoping to do data analysis at the end
of the process, sometimes months or years after the data
collection. However, this will weaken both the analysis
13
P. N. Ghauri, R. Firth
Table 1 Case study analysis
Techniques for case Explanation
study analysis
Chronologies Narratives of the events that took place,
organised by date
Coding Sorting data according to concepts and
themes
Clustering Categorising cases according
to common characteristics
Matrices Explaining the interrelationship
between identified factors
Decision tree modelling Grounding a description of real-world
decisions and actions coherently
by using multiple cases
Pattern matching Comparison between a predicted and
an empirically based pattern
Source: Ghauri 2004
and the data collection processes. In case study research,
inter-weaving data collection and data analysis right from
the first case/interview is the best policy (Miles and Hu-
berman 1994). This allows theory to develop alongside the
growing volume of data, allowing the research problem
to be formulated or even reformulated at the same time.
This often leads to new questions and new data collection,
and there is no definite phase of data analysis (Ghauri and
Grønhaug 2005; Grønhaug 1985; Miles and Huberman
1994). Preferably, a second case should not be started
unless the data collected through the first case has been
analysed. It will reveal the blind spots and deficiencies of
data collected and the researcher can improve his/her data
collection techniques in the subsequent cases. Moreover,
early analysis reduces the risk that the researcher might
simply drown in the sheer volume of data. It is often difficult
for case researchers to filter or discard irrelevant data before
analysis commences.
While analysis may not form an isolated process, never-
theless it does involve some distinct stages. The first step
of analysis is to construct a case description and explana-
tion. This will help us understand “how” things are develop-
ing and “why” things occur the way they do. First we have
to describe, i.e. make complicated things understandable in
their component parts, and explain, i.e. show how their com-
ponent parts fit together according to some rules (Bernard
1988). However, it is hard to describe and explain something
satisfactorily unless you understand what this “something”
is. It is thus important to start with simple “story telling”
about a situation and progress in chronological order. Con-
sequently, we can construct a map and locate different ele-
ments and variables. This will finally lead us to build a the-
ory or a model, i.e. how the variables are connected together
The formalization of case study research in international business
and how they influence each other (Miles and Huberman
1994). Step by step we can advance along the “ladder of
abstraction”. We start by trying to code and categorise text,
then identify trends and establish findings. Finally, we inte-
grate the data into an explanatory framework (Ghauri 2004;
Carney 1990; Gherardi and Turner 1987). These different
techniques are summarised in Table 1.
The first stage of analysis, “story-telling”, can be done by
writing chronologies or biographical histories of the organ-
isation(s) or individual(s) under study. This is particularly
important when the researcher is attempting to develop lon-
gitudinal explanations that track a phenomenon over time.
For example, in our study, the first step in our analysis was
to construct a simple narrative of each interview and then
other interviews on the same case, to see the whole picture.
The second stage of analysis is also a sifting process. This
means rearranging the data that has been collected, but into
more conceptual rather than chronological categories. To
analyse data we (often) have to code them so that they can
be broken down, conceptualised, put together and presented
in an understandable manner. Sorting the data in this
fashion is typically done through coding, in other words,
classifying the data. This coding and categorisation will
help us to interpret the data and to relate the information
to our questions and frameworks. This will also enable us
to locate different categories when we are analysing data
to find conclusions. As qualitative studies quite often help
in building theories, coding requires extra care, and a bal-
ance between creativity, rigour and persistence has to be
achieved.
There are several software programs available that can help
researchers in coding, sorting and analysing qualitative data.
We will subsequently look more closely at the uses and ben-
efits of this type of software.
An important part of the sifting process is searching for
common or conflicting themes in data, and looking for
themes and trends related to our research questions. This
will allow us to identify relationships between different
themes and research questions. Moreover, it will enable
us to detect gaps in our data and to write initial analytical
reports. The requirement is that the pattern has to be
sufficiently systematic. Many researchers suggest that case
comparison can be done by forming types or clusters.
This technique involves inspecting cases and trying to put
them into groups or clusters that share similar patterns of
configurations. These clusters can also be sorted according
to some dimensions, e.g. international versus domestic
firms (Lofland and Lofland 1984). Another way is to look
for themes or variables that cut through cases. For exam-
ple, Eisenhardt (1989) found evidence for the construct of
“power centralisation” by looking at data on CEO behaviour
in 10 micro-computer firms: her matrix display included
objectives describing decision style, quantitative mea-
35
Table 2 An example of a matrix display in case study analysis
sures and specific quoted examples (Miles and Huberman
1994).
Another possible step in the analytical process of answering
our research questions is to test our propositions. This is
done by cross-checking for commonality and integrating
the data in one single framework through a meticulous case
comparison. Developing a good case comparison in a mul-
tiple case study is essential but not very simple, as different
cases might tell different stories and lead to different vari-
ables. It is also necessary to know/establish relevance and
applicability of our findings to similar situations (Firestone
and Harriott 1983). The most important reason, however, is
to enhance our understanding and explanation, as this will
help us explain under what circumstances/conditions our
propositions/model work and under what conditions they
do not. We can then conclude under what conditions the
model is most likely to work (Glaser and Strauss 1970). We
have noticed that case study researchers have considerable
difficulties in drawing conclusions that clearly stem from
the case data. The way in which we have done this (using
Nvivo) is to directly relate text from the interviews to our
conceptual framework and compare this information in each
case.
As illustrated by the above example, we can find answers to
our questions by comparing different cases. In some cases
the best and worst comparisons are most suitable (Churchill
1991). In the same manner we could compare performance
of several units/branches of a company by comparing them
with each other.
Another approach is to use the strategy suggested by Miles
and Huberman (1994, p. 176): “stacking comparable cas-
es”. According to this strategy, we can write up each of a se-
ries of cases, using more or less standard variables. Then
we can use matrices and other displays to analyse each case
in depth, and explore the interrelationship between different
factors. Once each case is well understood, we can “stack”
13
36 P. N. Ghauri, R. Firth

the case-level display in a “meta-matrix”, which is then fur-
ther condensed, permitting systematic comparison (Ghauri
2004). Eisenhardt (1989) called this strategy a “replication
strategy”.
In case studies where data analysis leads to the development
of propositions, the aim of the analysis should be a link
between data and propositions. Campbell (1975) and Yin
(2003) discuss “pattern matching”, where several pieces of
information from one or several cases are related to a priori
assumptions. If we can find a systematic or unsystematic
pattern, we can accept or reject our propositions. In such
studies, statistical tests are not necessary to establish
a pattern and there are no precise ways of testing or setting
criteria for interpreting these findings. The pattern has
to be sufficiently systematic to accept certain propos-
itions.
As case analysis is a difficult task, we recommend that
researchers should use a mixture of the above mentioned
strategies: case comparison based on pattern seeking,
clustering, matrices and other techniques displayed in
Table 2. Most often, we start with a preliminary model or
set of variables based on existing literature, then develop
and refine a model as the analysis progresses. For example,
in our linkages project we began with a conceptual frame-
work which was derived from the literature and sought to
include all of the main units which would influence linkage
formation and the variables associated with each one. The
text was then coded with the aim of trying to link parts
of the text with the variables included in the conceptual
framework. The precise method of analysis will in addition
depend on the type of study being undertaken. In descriptive
research, the researcher has to work with specific research
problems, propositions or hypotheses. While an exploratory
study is characterised by flexibility (see e.g. Ghauri 1983),
a descriptive study can be considered more rigid. It requires
a clear specification of the who, what, why and how of the
research problem.
Analysing case studies using CAQDAS
It has been argued that with globalisation and increasingly
more complex business environments; both managers and
researchers are being bombarded with an overload of infor-
mation (Sinkovics et al. 2005). This trend is not reversible
and therefore, a way in which information and data alike can

Table 3 The advantages of using Nvivo in IB research

Characteristics of IB research Implications for analysis of case studies Advantage of using Nvivo

Data saturation – advances in technology Case studies can become increasing large All types of data can be neatly stored and
mean the researcher can collect more and less manageable organised with a single programme increasing
data on a global scale clarity and focus of analysis

Research may be undertaken by a variety
of different researchers based in different
countries
Interpretations of cases may differ between
researchers and ideas may not be communi-
cable cross borders in real-time in order
to cross check the data
Nvivo offers a single platform in which all
researchers can work with individual passwords.
Data can then easily be emailed so researchers
can view/alter others ideas in an iterative process
which is less subjective

Language barriers/difference in language
of data collected
Case studies may not be comparable/validity
of data may be compromised
If researchers and multi lingual, newer versions
of Nvivo will accept other languages and charac-
ters than English. Different codes and categories
can be used to show which language was used
and retain equivalence of the data

The unit of analysis often differs Case studies must recognise the differences Nvivo allows categorisation of unit of analysis
i.e. HQ/Subsidiary/Local Firm in units of analysis and compare issues and direct comparisons on a single screen
according to separate accounts from between them are possible
individual units

Time constraints of cross border research Case study analysis may be put on hold Nvivo allows initial analysis of the data even if
until ALL data is collected, compromising collection is not totally complete as alterations
the quality of analysis can easily be made at a later date, rather than
the analysis having to be repeated

IB Research is multidisciplinary and likely Case studies can be rich with data however, Nvivo can store all sources of data including text,
to make greater use of a variety of sources linking different sources may be difficult webpage’s, electronic files, videos, pictures and
of data audio files and link them together in terms
of their coding

Source, based on Sinkovics et al. 2005; Ghauri and Cateora 2006

13
The formalization of case study research in international business
be more systematically organised must be utilized for bet-
ter ease of understanding. Computer aided qualitative anal-
ysis software (CAQDAS) has been developed for this exact
purpose and is being used more frequently owing to the in-
creasing popularity of qualitative methods as a whole. Nvivo
is a qualitative data analysis software which has to a large
extent replaced NUD* IST as the most popular. Nvivo al-
lows for the storage, editing and organisation of data through
a process of meaningful coding. Researchers are often disap-
pointed to learn that unlike some quantitative data analysis
tools, Nvivo does not generate propositions or “results” for
them. It is primarily an organisational tool which provides
a cleaner and more accessible way of looking at data. How-
ever, we argue that this fact does not diminish its usefulness;
on the contrary, it encompasses the reliability of systema-
tising data without losing rich textual narratives. Nvivo is
in fact particularly useful in International Business cultural
research (see Table 3).
When one considers all the disadvantages of paper based
analysis; storage of multiple large documents, ensuring
confidentiality of data in storage, shuffling through to look
for each and every new argument, manual highlighting and
cutting out of the text, Nvivo seems like a very attractive
alternative. There is some disagreement on a theoretical
level as to whether the use of Nvivo may make qualitative
data more quantitative in nature. However; this is for the
individual researcher to decide when enough structuring
is enough. In general, Nvivo helps researchers to counter
Fig. 1 Process of Nvivo use in
linkages project
37
criticism levelled at them that qualitative research is too
subjective, biased and not at all replicable, without compro-
mising the usefulness of qualitative data in describing and
creating meaning and answering the “how” and the “why”
questions.
Nvivo: a practical example
We undertook a large IB project looking at the formation
and impact of inter-firm linkages between UK service
multinationals and local firms in host economies in which
we utilized Nvivo in order to analyse the data. The aim
was to find out what influenced linkages between firms
to be formed and whether these generally deepened or
widened the longer a company operated in a specific market
and whether there was any positive or negative effect of
these long term relationships with multinationals for locally
operating firms. A comparative case study method was used
by which we selected a number of UK headquartered firms
in the service sector who had undertaken significant FDI
in a number of emerging markets. The focus was primarily
on two Asian markets: China and Korea. There were 8 case
studies in total, 4 for each market. Semi structured personal
interviews were undertaken with elite managers in the UK
headquarters for each firm and then a snowball method
(Hornby and Symon 1994; Patton 1990) was used to identify
the equivalent managers in the subsidiaries in each country
13
38
Fig. 2 Example of the coding
process using nodes in Nvivo
and subsequently suppliers or distributors of the sub-
sidiaries in the host countries were interviewed. In total, 29
interviews were conducted in total, typically 3 or 4 for
each case. All interviews were digitally recorded and subse-
quently transcribed. The use of Nvivo can begin even before
the interviews are transcribed by using the notes or memos
function to immediately record thoughts and observations
about the interview in hand, the following process is typical
(see Fig. 1).
A conceptual framework was derived from existing litera-
ture and these provided the basis for the initial codes. There
were approx. 24 codes in total which in Nvivo are called
nodes. These are the categories under which we sought to
link parts of the text. The first stage of this process was
to try to fit as much of the text as possible into these pre-
defined codes, breaking these down further at a later stage.
Figure 2 shows an example of the coding process in our
linkages project using a selection of nodes which are effec-
tively variables from our conceptual framework. This pic-
ture shows the coding at a later stage when the codes have al-
ready been broken down into “Tree” nodes and “free” nodes,
sometimes called “parent” nodes and “child” nodes. The
sorting of nodes into different levels indicates the relation-
ships between them and although in our project we used
only two different levels, depending on the depth of analysis
needed, the data can be ordered into many different levels of
nodes.
Nvivo was suitable for use on the linkages project for
a number of reasons:
• There was a large amount of data (amounting to approx.
377 double spaced A4 pages for transcripts alone).
Nvivo Solution: – Enabled collation, organising and link-
ing of different data sources in a user-friendly manageable
format.
13
P. N. Ghauri, R. Firth
• There is a lot of technical language involved in a study
of linkages and therefore interviewees used long descrip-
tions and stories to exemplify linkages in their particular
organisation.
Nvivo Solution: – Textual data could be thoroughly
searched and categorised quickly even when larger quota-
tions or explanations were given by managers.
• Interview transcripts had to be combined with informa-
tion from company websites, secondary documentation
given to the interviewers during interviews, audio files,
memos and news articles.
Nvivo Solution: – stores and links together all data
sources, increased comparability of different data sources.
• Different units of analysis used i.e. Headquarter,
subsidiary and local firm.
Nvivo Solution: – Units of analysis can be compared to
back up findings on a particular assertion that can enhance
the reliability.
Displaying findings using Nvivo
One very evident problem in using Nvivo is how to display
the patterns found. Many researchers claim they have used
Nvivo for the analysis but fail to show specifically how
their propositions have been arrived at as a direct result
of the Nvivo analysis. Typically, the modelling tool within
Nvivo can be used for this and the traditional method
of storytelling and using meaningful coded quotations
from transcripts. Nvivo can also be used to increase
reliability when using traditional methods of analysis
such as matrices, tables and pattern matching amongst
The formalization of case study research in international business
others. In the linkages project the first stage of analysing
the data was to do descriptions, storytelling and pick out
important quotations from the interviews using as many
examples as possible. We did this per code, outlining
the findings for each code or node. In a sense this is
a form of template analysis or pattern matching as the
text was compared to a pre-defined pattern which was
our conceptual framework. Following this a series of
Matrices were created in order to compare answers on
each code or node from the headquarters, subsidiaries and
domestic firms. A further attempt at structuring the data
in a more quantitative way was then made as we tried
to give each code/node a number which we subjectively
determined by judging that codes relative importance in
the case as a whole. As a secondary measure we added
up what percentage of the text referred to that particular
code, also to give an indication of importance. However, it
must be noted that this latter measure should not be used
alone because percentage of coverage of the text does not
necessarily reflect importance as there may be other factors
impacting on this such as length of interview as a whole or
simply the talkative nature of the interviewee compared to
another.
Nvivo can also generate a number of reports which give
statistical style data on the coding and organising that has
been done. This was also incorporated into the written anal-
ysis. The final stage in displaying data analysed in Nvivo is
the use of the modelling tool in which we reformulated our
conceptual framework to include concepts proved to be im-
portant. This was also used on a smaller scale in the compar-
ative part of the analysis to show close relationships and ties
between codes. Visualisation of the data as well as descrip-
tion is an important aspect of analysis which is sometimes
overlooked.
Conclusions
The primary aim of this paper has been to relate traditional
approaches to case studies, and in particular to their anal-
ysis to more modern computer aided ways of looking at
them. Based on our experiences of conducting case studies,
it seems that case studies are becoming an increasingly ac-
cepted form of research. We assert that the use of CAQDAS
should also be an accepted and preferable way of looking
at cases. In order for the trend towards using case studies
to continue, the academic community must believe in their
worth and understand the intricate way in which they are
sometimes conducted. For this to occur the conduction and
analysis processes of case studies must be both systematic
and transparent. Only this way will case study research be
truly valued and taken seriously at both at international aca-
demic conferences and in top level journals. Several promi-
39
nent scholars are also calling for case studies to provide us
with a more in-depth understanding and insights into cul-
turally embedded problems of our field. Yet we do not see
case studies widely published in top class journals such as
Journal of International Business Studies, Journal of Mar-
keting or Academy of Management Journal. As researchers,
we would strongly encourage case study researchers to ex-
ercise a little self-criticism and move beyond “just telling
stories’. It is pivotal that case study research transcends the
researchers own orientations, in order to be objective and to
provide a clear picture of phenomena as they actually are
rather than as we see them.
Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank Economic and
Social Research Council (ESRC-UK) for funding the study reported in
this paper.
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