Handout - Training The Trainer

Training for Trainers
lrmei@vsnl.com
L. R. Associates Pvt. Ltd. Management Educators & Organisation Consultants Bldg. G/17A, 2nd Floor, Nootan Nagar, Guru Nanak Road, Bandra (W), Mumbai - 400050. 26442116 / 26451731 Email : Website : www.lrconsultants.com
People transform Organisations, We transform People.
Contents Page No.
The mediocre trainer tells. The good trainer explains. The superior trainer demonstrates. The great trainer inspires ......................................................................................3 Role of Training and Development...................................3 Areas of Training - Knowledge, Skill and Attitude.............5 Principles of Learning ..................................................5 Identifying Training Needs - Training Need Analysis.........8 Designing a Training Program........................................10 Factors to be considered in the Selection of Training Methods.......................................................................12 Methods and Techniques of Training..............................20 Use of Audio Visual Aids................................................28 Evaluation of Training ..................................................29 Conclusion....................................................................35
People Transform Organisations, We Transform People. L. R. Associates Pvt. Ltd. 2
The mediocre trainer tells. The good trainer explains. The superior trainer demonstrates. The great trainer inspires William Arthur Ward
Role of Training and Development

Training is concerned with the acquisition or development of knowledge, skills, techniques, attitudes and experiences which enable an individual to make his most effective contribution to the combined efforts of the team of which he is a member. The objective of training is to prepare the individual to carry out his present job satisfactorily, or to prepare him for greater responsibility. The fundamental aim of training is to help the organisation achieve its purpose by adding value to its key resource - the people it employs. Training means investing in people to enable them to perform better and to empower them to make the best use of their natural abilities. The particular objectives of training are to: Develop the competences of employees and improve their performance; Enable people to grow within the organisation in order that, as far as possible, its future needs for human resources can be met from within; Reduce the learning time for employees starting in new jobs, transfers or promotions, and ensure that they become fully competent as quickly and economically as possible. Benefits of Training Effective training can: Improve individual, team and corporate performance in terms of output, quality, speed and overall productivity; Attract high-quality employees by offering them learning and development opportunities; Increase employees levels of competence and enhance their skills thus enabling them to obtain more job satisfaction, gain higher rewards and progress within the organisation; Increase the commitment of employees by encouraging them to identify with the mission and objectives of the organisation; Help to manage transformation by understanding the basis of change and provide people with the knowledge and skills they need, to adjust to new situations; Facilitate to develop a positive culture in the organisation, one, for example, that is orientated towards performance improvement; Provide higher levels of service to customers. Management Development. Management development on the other hand is a systematic process of growth and development by which the managers develop their abilities to manage. So it is the result of not only participation in formal courses of instruction but also of actual job experience. It is
concerned with improving the performance of the managers by giving them opportunities for growth and development. Management development in an organisation contributes to business success by enabling the managers to meet its present and future needs. It improves their performance, gives them development opportunities, and provides for management succession. Professional development processes may be anticipatory (so that managers can contribute to long-term objectives), reactive (intended to resolve or pre-empt performance difficulties) or motivational (geared to individual career aspirations). Objectives of Management Development Ensures that managers understand what is expected of them. Agrees with the objectives against which their performance will be measured and the level of competence required in their roles. Identifies managers with potential, encourages them to prepare and implement personal development plans. Makes certain that they receive the required development, training and experience to be equipped to face more demanding responsibilities within their own locations and elsewhere in the organization. Provides for management succession, creating a system to keep this under review. Improves the performance of the managers. Increases morale of members of the management group. Enhances versatility of the management group. Keeps executives abreast with the changes and developments in their respective fields. Creates successors who can take over in case of contingencies. Improves thought process and analytical ability. Broadens the outlook of the executive regarding his role, position and responsibilities. Understands the conceptual issues relating to economic, social, and technical areas. Understands the problems of human relations and improves human relation skills. Stimulates creative thinking. Role of the Organisation. The role of the company in management development is to establish the program and the development opportunities for its present and potential managers. Just exposing the employees to lectures, case studies, readings, job rotation, assignments and the like does not guarantee that they will learn. What is more important is the effort of the individuals. Each individual has to contribute to his development, as others can only create opportunities. The saying We can take the horse to the water but we cannot make it drink cannot be forgotten here. The role of the company is to provide conditions that accelerate the growth. And these conditions should be part of the organisational climate itself, in
order to be away from the unrealistic expectation that we can create and develop managers only in classroom.
Areas of Training - Knowledge, Skill and Attitude

Knowledge can be imparted. Trainees are helped to learn, to understand and to remember facts, information and principles. Skill is a physical act or action. Examples are shorthand writing, operating an adding machine, playing a trumpet. Attitudes can be changed to some extent, however not all attitudes can be altered. It has to be decided whether the attitude is based upon superstition, fear, prejudice, ignorance or whether it is the product of the social group to which the individual belongs. If undesirable attitudes based upon ignorance need to be changed then there is a reasonable hope of achieving this in an industrial training situation. In case of attitudes based upon the other elements outlined above, the situation is much more complex. Technique usually involves application in a dynamic situation of both knowledge and skill. It is a way of behaviour or thinking. Driving a car, commanding troops in battle, salesmanship, are examples of techniques. Experience differs from the four previous items that is it cannot be taught in a classroom. It is the result of practicing use of knowledge, skills and techniques over a period of time and often in a number of different situations. One of the training officers many tasks is to arrange the experience of trainees on an organised basis. Frequently this is achieved by means of job rotation and sometimes by exchanges between companies. Relationship between Knowledge and Skill. When the training material is being put in the order in which it will be presented to the trainees, account must be taken of the relationship between knowledge and skill. The trainee is given knowledge to enable him to do his job. As soon as possible after he acquires the necessary knowledge he should have the opportunity to put it to practical use. Practicing the job skill will help him to remember what he has learned. Thus, a manager learning the skill of selection interviewing needs to practice as soon as he has acquired sufficient knowledge. This will reinforce what he has learned.
Principles of Learning
Learning has been described as a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as result of insight, practice or experience. Learning may be simply an addition (new information); it may be a subtraction (unlearning a bad habit); or it may be a modification (adjusting new knowledge to old). Learning as change may be for the better or for the worse: we learn bad habits as well as good ones. Learning is a complicated process. It takes place more readily in some circumstances than in others, and it can to a great extent be influenced. It is a life-long activity; we are never too old to learn, but we are frequently resistant to change. People often talk about
problems as if they safeguarded their position, e.g., There are so many problems I cannot change. What they mean is, do not remove the problems or I might have to change. Learning is change. The learner is a partner with the instructor in the learning process. They are capable of taking responsibility for their own learning and they gain through two way communication. Learning is reflected on their and others experience. Adults learn what they perceive to be useful in their life situations. Their attention spans are a function of their interest in the experience. They are most receptive to instruction that is clearly related to problems they face daily. Learning is best when they are treated with respect. However, adults do not typically see themselves as learners. They learn better in a climate that is informal and personal. Adult learners apply learning that they have been influential in planning. They learn when they feel supported in experimenting with new ideas and skills. Adults are likely to have somewhat fixed points of view that make them closed to new ways of thinking and behaving. They learn to react to the differential status of members of the group. Adults are internally motivated to develop increased effectiveness. They filter their learning through their value systems. Training and Development programs are more likely to be effective when they incorporate the following principles of learning: Motivation to learn is the basic requisite to make training and development programs effective. It comes from the awareness that training fetches some rise in status and pay. Motivation alone is not enough. The individual must also have the ability to learn. Ability varies from individual to individual and these differences must be considered while organizing the training programs. Regardless of individual differences and whether the trainee is learning a new skill or acquiring knowledge of a given topic, he should be given the opportunity to practice what is being taught. Practice is a must after the individual has been successfully trained. Reinforcement may be understood as either, increase in the strength of response or induced repetitions of the behaviour that preceded the reinforcement. Distinction may be made between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement strengthens and increases behaviour by the presentation of desirable consequences. For example, if an employee does something well and is complimented for it by the boss, the probability is that the behaviour will be repeated and strengthened. In negative reinforcement, the individual exhibits the desired behaviour to avoid something unpleasant. For example if an employee who had the habit of coming late to work, the employee might begin to come on time to avoid criticism/ reprimand from his boss.
Knowledge of Results is a necessary condition for learning. Feedback about the performance will enable the learner to know where he or she stands and to initiate corrective action if any deviation from the expected goal has taken place. There are certain tasks for which such feedback is virtually mandatory for learning. Goal Setting can also accelerate learning, particularly when it is accompanied by knowledge of results. Individuals generally perform better and learn more quickly when they have goals, particularly if they are specific and reasonably difficult. Goals that are too difficult or too easy have little motivational value. Further, goals will have better motivational value if the employee has scope for participation in the goal-setting process. Probably one of the most well established principles of learning is that distributed or spaced learning is superior to continuous learning. Schedules of learning involve (i) duration of practice sessions, (ii) duration of rest sessions, and (iii) positioning of rest pauses. All the three must be carefully planned and executed. A definite relationship has been established between learning and meaningfulness of the subject learnt. The learning process is better & faster when the material is more meaningful. Transfer of Learning What is learnt in training must be transferred to the job. Transfer enables to maximize the identical elements between the training situation and the actual job. This may be possible for training skills such as maintaining a cash register, but not for training leadership or conceptual skills. Often what is learnt in a training session faces resistance back at the job. Techniques for overcoming resistance include creating positive expectations, opportunities to implement new behaviour on the job, and ensuring that the behaviour is reinforced when it occurs, by the trainees supervisor. Commitment from top management towards the training program also helps in overcoming resistance to change. Ten Simple Rules of Learning 1. The capacities of learners are important in determining what can be learned and how long it will take. 2. The order of presentation of materials to be learned is very important. 3. Showing errors in how to do something can lead to increase in learning. 4. The rate of forgetting tends to be very rapid immediately after learning. 5. Repetition of identical materials is often as effective in getting things remembered as repeating the same story but with variations. 6. Knowledge of results leads to increases in learning. 7. Learning is aided by active practice rather than passive reception. 8. A message is more easily learned and accepted if it does not interfere with earlier habits.
9. The mere repetition of a situation does not necessarily lead to learning. Two things are necessary - belongingness and satisfaction. 10. Learning something new can interfere with the remembering of something learned earlier.
Identifying Training Needs - Training Need Analysis

Identification of training needs is the first element and a critical one in the training activity. Success of the training function depends greatly on the correct identification of needs. Major sources for identifying Training & Development needs of individuals are: Performance appraisal Career plans and System introduction / improvement. Performance Appraisal: In the performance appraisal system there is scope to identify the difference between the organisations expectations and the individuals performance. Areas relating to knowledge, skill, attitude and behaviour on the job, which need change, can be specifically assessed in the system. The identification comes from the employee himself or out of a discussion between the employee and his superior who prepares the appraisal. Career Plans (Job enrichment/enlargement, transfer, promotion): Based on the advance information made available about changes in content/context of the job of an individual, the training manager organises suitable inputs to prepare the individual for the change. The details of inputs to be given to an individual emerge from discussions between the Training Manager, the concerned employees and his superiors. System Introduction: New systems and procedures, when introduced, call for intervention from the Training & Development function. Implementation of new systems becomes much easier, if all individuals/groups concerned are explained in advance about the change and how to make the best use of the same. There are eleven possible techniques for determining training needs. They are: (a) Observations (f) Questionnaire Surveys (b) Management requests (g) Tests of examinations (c) Interviews (h) Merit or performance ratings (d) Group Conferences (i) Personnel records (e) Job or activity analysis (j) Business and production reports (k) Long-range organisational planning Some people believe that indications of training needs can often be obtained from a study of the sort of things people say at the exit interviews. Such interviews should continue but we must be very careful about accepting all that is said by employees at an exit interview at its face value. The
information which is given at an exit interview is usually highly subjective, often so incomplete as to be worthless and sometimes untrue. Questionnaires are sometimes used to help in the determination of training needs. Questionnaires and opinion surveys can be extremely unreliable and misleading. People often really do not know what they think or believe and there is much evidence to show that even if they know it, they will not always tell you. The reasons are many and complicated. If you want to use questionnaires you are strongly recommended to do some study of the literature available. Tests of various types are often used for this purpose. This is a highly specialized field. Test must be valid, reliable, objective and standardized. It is sad, but true, that many tests are used which fail to meet one or more of these basic requirements. Those who have not been trained in the administration of tests and the interpretation of test results and who cannot get professional advice from someone who has, would be well advised not to use them. Identification of Training Needs Identification of Training Needs
Develop Training Objectives
Measure Training Results
Design Training Curriculum
Conduct Training Programs
Design/Select Training Methods
Design Training Evaluations Methodology

Designing a Training Program

Steps involved in designing a training program: The first step is to use the training strategy (or, usually, a combination of strategies) that the organisation and system have settled on together for roughing out an overall design. The second step is to break the general training objectives into constituent parts. The first rough breakdown is into component knowledge, understanding and skill. The third step is to use specifications of different training methods in order to arrive at the total time and facilities required for meeting an objective. The fourth step is to decide on different packages in which this program could be offered and to ask the organisation to select one. The fifth step in designing a training program is to dovetail detailed training events into training sequences and, finally, into the shape of the total program package. Setting Training Objectives. In formal procedures of instruction, experiences are organized to accomplish specific learning (changes) within a restricted period of time. In this situation it is essential that a teacher clarify precisely what learning and unlearning he wants to facilitate and let these objectives serve as a clear focus for his whole training program. Specifically enumerated objectives (in knowledge, skills and attitudes) should indicate what material must be taught and will also affect the choice of training method. The trainee himself may learn more effectively when he has clearly defined goals toward which to work. A training program should set forth goals or objectives in terms of: The job to be performed; The conditions under which it is to be performed; The level of proficiency required. The more a trainer can arrange the learning situation so as to utilise these principles of learning, the more likely the learner is to learn. Thus, a training program will be judged adequate to the degree that it appears likely to: Provide for the learners active participation; Provide the trainee with knowledge of results about his attempts to improve; Promote a meaningful integration of learning experiences that the trainee can transfer from training to the job; Provide some means for the trainee to be reinforced for appropriate behaviour; Provide for practice and repetition when needed; Motivate the trainee to improve his own performance; Assist the trainee in his willingness to change.
When identifying the knowledge element of a job it is important to take into account the attitude of the employee when he comes to apply that knowledge. For example a program on safety may provide full knowledge of the work hazards and the rules to be observed but if it leaves trainees with the attitude that It will never happen to me, than the program will have failed. Content of the Training Program. A statement of objectives, including the state at which the trainee is to be tested and the standard to be attained. A statement of the material to be learned (the syllabus), broken down into stages, in the order in which it is to be presented to trainees and indicating the skills and knowledge (including attitude) to be learned. Statement of Objectives. The objectives of the program must be clearly set down. This will help ensure that only those items are included which help the trainee to achieve the learning or the standard required. The statement should include the following: For whom the program is written (Training Specification); What the trainee is expected to be able to do at significant stages of the program; The standard of performance to be achieved (e.g. fully experienced worker); How this standard will be tested (e.g. formal written test, on-the-job performance); The situation in which these standard will be tested (e.g. in classroom or at place of work).
Practical Considerations Affecting the Design of Training Programs. Once the objectives have been set the training program must be designed to meet those objectives. It is sometimes possible to provide the necessary facilities to run the desired training program. Where limitations exist the program should first be written to the highest possible standard and then adjusted to meet the practical situation. The most common practical considerations which may limit the training program are cost, urgency, availability of space, availability of instructors and availability of training material. Ordering the Material to be Learned. The material to be learned has been identified during the preliminary analysis and preparation of the syllabus. The next step is to look at the breakdown of skills (what the trainee must be able to do) and knowledge (what the trainee needs to know to be able to do his job) to see in what order they should be arranged to best meet the needs of the trainee (i.e. the logical learning order). The logical learning order means that each item of the program makes sense to the trainee because of what has previously been learned.
Factors to be considered in the Selection of Training Methods

Human Factors. The Trainer: The trainers knowledge, managerial and training experience, and personality are all factors of primary importance. The trainer has to have a clear and significant message to pass, and his personality has to be acceptable to the students or trainees so that effective communication links can be established quickly and easily. If these conditions are fulfilled, a well-chosen and properly used method is likely to ease and stimulate learning, if they are not fulfilled, unfortunately the method may become an end in itself. Trainers are advised on training methods by senior colleagues, in special training methods courses, through manuals, etc. But eventually each trainer has to assume personal responsibility for choosing the best methods for his particular training assignment. He ought to be able, therefore, to make a rational appraisal of his abilities and to try to employ methods likely to enhance - not reduce - the impact he hopes to make. Role playing, for example, is an exercise requiring some knowledge of psychology, a lot of experience with various types of human problems in management and the ability to react quickly in discussions. That is why a trainer who does not possess these qualities, but has an analytical mind and experience in solving business problems, might give preference to the case study method. The Participants and Environment from which they come. Methods of training must respect: The intellectual level and educational background of the participants; The participants age and practical experience; and The social and cultural environment. For example, in training programs intended for supervisors, middle managers or small entrepreneurs who have had only a basic education and who have been away from school for a long time, lectures should be replaced by short talks using visual aids extensively; concrete examples should be given and no high level theories presented; simplified case studies should be used instead of long and complex cases; simple programmed books should be recommended instead of the usual textbooks. In regard to the participants practical experience, a distinction must be made between young people with little or no management experience, who first learn about management in a university or other type of school, and participants with practical experience, either from managerial functions or from specialist work in various functional departments. In the former case, much of the information is new to the students, and it is difficult to link the training process with any previous experience. However, these students are open-minded and often more receptive to new ideas than the latter group. In training people with experience, only additional
knowledge has to be imparted; and it is not only possible but absolutely essential to make an appeal to the participants experience by relating the training to it. However, in this group some of the participants with practical experience may take the attitude of knowing better in advance; if so, the trainers main problem may be how to change their air of self-complacency and make them aware of what they need to learn to do their jobs better. In such cases it is rarely sufficient for the trainers to talk about new methods and techniques of management. Practical assignments, case study discussions or simulation exercises are more likely to help the participants realize that they have gaps in knowledge and skills and that training may be the answer. Objectives of Training. Training needs and objectives of educational training program in management are defined in terms of changes to be effected in knowledge, attitudes and skills - which should afterwards lead to improved managerial action. Various training situations will be concerned with various types and levels of knowledge, attitudes and skills. A preliminary analysis of needs will help to identify what objectives a particular program ought to have. Methods will then be selected with regard to their ability to impart new knowledge, influence attitudes and develop practical skills. If training is intended to improve multiple skills (which is usually the case), a combination of training methods must be used. To determine which methods are most likely to affect the managers attitudes or impact a specific kind of knowledge. Let us take the example of using specialist knowledge and experience in the preparation of management decisions on complex business matters. It is of little use to lecture about the value of specialists to manager who overestimates his own individual judgment and is not willing or perhaps able to use the specialist services which are available to him. Team work in syndicates, participation in business games or practical projects might make such a manager aware of his drawbacks so that he will begin to change his attitudes towards team work and the importance of specialists. His interest in new knowledge and skill will undoubtedly be awakened. On his leadership style, communication abilities, and behaviour in general, a manger may get more direct and stronger feedback from other participants in sensitivity training or as a member of a team working on a group project than in years of work in a managerial position. Knowledge, skills and attitudes are inter-related and this must not be overlooked when setting the objectives of training and choosing training methods. Furthermore, they are related to certain specific management functions or subject areas or, in many cases, to multi-functional situations and inter-disciplinary problems.
Subject Area. Various subject areas (finance, personnel, operations research, general management, etc.) have their own specific features, for example, operations research techniques are based on the extensive use of mathematics and statistics. It is usually taught through a combination of lectures (using audio-visual aids) and exercises during which the technique is practiced. This may be supported by reading assignments. In certain cases lectures may be replaced or supplemented with programmed books. However, the main thing from the management point of view is not to know the technique itself, but to know when and how it can be used. This ability can be developed through practical projects, simulation exercises, business games, case studies, etc. In programs concentrating on the behavioural aspects of management, communication, leadership and motivation, training methods may be selected and combined in ways which give the participants numerous opportunities to analyse human behaviour, and at the same time directly influence the attitudes and behaviour of the participants themselves. These programs use case studies dealing with the human side of the enterprise, business games emphasizing communication and relations between participants, role playing, sensitivity training and various other forms of group discussions, assignments and exercises. It should be noted that it is often possible to choose from several methods, if we want to deal with a particular subject or problem. Thus, the analysis of a balance sheet can be taught through the case study method, a combination of case study with role playing, a lecture, as a classroom exercise or by reading a text or a programmed book on the subject. This is possible because the principal methods are versatile enough to be used in training for a number of different subjects. Lecture, discussion and case studies are used in virtually all subject areas. However, in management education and training the principal problem is not how to deal with specific subject areas and functions. It is much more important to: Explain the relationship between various sides and functions of the enterprise and show the highly complex character of the management process; Help the participants to avoid a one-sided and oversimplified approach to multi-dimensional situations; Promote general management skills, which essentially lie in an interdisciplinary approach to management, and to combine and co-ordinate the various functions of management. Time and Material Factors. Decisions about the choice of training methods are not independent of time, financial resources and other factors. Preparation time (which affects the cost of the training material as well) varies for the different training methods. As a rule, complex case studies
and business games require long and costly preparation, which includes testing with experimental groups, and making necessary revisions. The length of the course predetermines the kinds of methods which can be used. The longer the course, the better are the chances that the trainer will be able to use business games, complex cases and practical projects. The time of day, during training is more important. For example, in the postlunch period (14.00-16.00) it is more desirable to have enjoyable and attractive sessions which require active involvement. The training facilities may be a limiting factor in some institutes, or in courses given outside the institute, e.g. in small towns. Factors such as the number of rooms available for group discussions or syndicates or the accessibility of audio-visual aids should be anticipated and the methods altered in advance. A Systems Concept of Training. The training literature frequently refers to a particular model which is commonly used in training. This model is the traditional model composed of the phases assessment, objective setting, design, implementation and evaluation. The training model is view as an interdependent and interrelated process in which the five phases form sub-processes which are highly interrelated and interdependent on all other sub-processes as well as on the total process. The conception of the training model as an interrelated process leads to a set of consequences quite different from those of the traditional conception. The consequences which result from using it as a process are in general (1) the results of each sub-processes do not become final statements but are continually reworked and reconceived, resulting in (2) increasingly specific questions, answers, and actions in each sub-process which results in (3) a functional utility in terms of training results. The Need for a Pattern. It is important that the subjects covered by the program are developed to a pattern which helps the trainee to learn. Broadly, there are three ways of structuring a training program; the whole of the material to be learned is first covered in broad outline and then each item or subject is dealt with in depth. This is the most common pattern. It is used when there are no special considerations which make an alternative pattern more appropriate. The whole of the material to be learned may be covered several times over, each time at increased depth. (This is appropriate when each complete part is so large or complex that the relationship of one part to another may be lost if each part is dealt with separately in depth). Each item or subject may be presented separately and the parts brought into a whole at the end of the program. (This is suitable only when each item or subject is in itself a complete piece of learning. It is used when it is important for the trainee to discover for himself the relationship between the different items or subjects, e.g.
supervisory training). This understanding of the structure will help them to learn and remember what they have learned. The place where the training is to be carried out. Depending on the type of job for which the trainee is being prepared, there will be elements of the training which are best done off-the-job (either in-company or externally) and some which are best done on-the-job (either supernumerary or as part of the normal labour force). The mixture will depend on the nature of the job, the in-company facilities and the availability of external courses. The choice of where each part of the training is best carried out must be made from the following: In-company, on-the-job ( part of the normal labour force) In-company, supernumerary, In-company, off-the-job, External courses. In-Company, On-The-Job. On-the-job training may be applicable to more complex jobs which can be broken down into a series of simple steps but it is usually difficult in the production situation to keep the steps in logical learning order. In-Company, Supernumerary. This training is suitable when off-the-job training (in-company or external) is to be followed by a period during which the trainee will develop skill at the place of work. Supernumerary training is also suitable when the trainee needs broad experience of several types of work. For example, a management trainee will need knowledge of a number of jobs and the environment in which they are performed. In-Company, Off-The-Job. Off-the-job training is used: To establish the self-confidence of the trainee before he is introduced to the production situation; When tasks which the trainee will face in his job do not occur in any coherent order (i.e. when there is no logical learning order possible at the place of work); When the trainee needs a lot of knowledge to be able to do the job ( it is hard to put over information at the place of production) External Courses. The training facilities of external bodies are used when: The skills and knowledge learned internally need to be supplemented by external courses; The company has no comparable facilities internally to give the training required; The company does not have suitable lectures or instructors available; There are too few trainees to warrant the setting-up of an in-company course;
There is an advantage to be gained by the trainees in mixing with the employees of other companies. A point of difficulty with external course is that they will generally cater for a wide range of trainees from different companies and cannot, therefore, be tailor-made to meet the exact requirement of an individual company. Fitting Together In-Company and External Training. When the training program involves a mixture of in-company and external training it is important that the in-company part is first put on a systematic basis and that the external part is then fitted to the in-company part. Timing The Program. Timing must be realistic and flexible. Realistic because: The trainee needs sufficient time in which to learn and time costs money. Flexible because: Trainees vary in the speed at which they learn; Instructors vary in the speed at which they promote the learning and conditions under which learning takes place vary from day to day ( e.g. temperature, noise level, the mood of instructors and trainees). A Simple procedure. The following simple procedure will help to achieve timing which is both realistic and flexible: The time needed by an average trainee is estimated for each item or subject of the program. These estimated times are built into four-day units. Each four-day unit is made the target for a five-day week. The four-day units are then spread over the five-day week in the way which best suits the subject matter and the trainees. Pace of the Program. The trainees level of ability will to some extent determine the general pace at which skill and knowledge can be fed to them but there are other considerations: The length of time elapsed since the trainees were in a last formal training situation. This may mean a slow start to acclimatize the trainees. The stages at which the rate of learning slows down. The Level of Instruction. A training program which covers the right items or subjects may fail to achieve its objectives because it is pitched at the wrong level. The level of instruction must be matched to the trainees abilities. When the material to be learned is at a very high level - the average trainee will be unable to learn. The above-average trainee may be able to understand the subject matter. He will not suffer a sense of failure, but he will find the job demands less of him than he was led to expect from the training program. He may either suffer a feeling of frustration or expand his responsibility beyond that expected by management.
When the material to be learned is at a very low level - trainees often reject the whole of the program even when some parts are at the right level. The Need For Feedback. To complete even a short training program before checking whether the trainees have acquired the necessary level of knowledge or skill would create a position where any false learning or omissions could not be rectified within the time allocated to the program. At frequent intervals during the program both the trainer and trainee need to know how they are progressing. The trainer needs to know whether: The items to be learned are being learned; There are gaps in his instruction or in the program; Special attention is required to some slow trainees; There are quicker trainees who need extra work to keep them interested. The trainee needs to know whether: He has correctly understood the information he has been given ( knowledge); He can use the information on a job of work (Skill). How to Provide for Feedback. The training sessions which provide most knowledge of progress are those which simulate the work situation e.g., role play, syndicate and group exercises, business games, projects. Whatever the form of the test it must be carefully devised with the following points in mind: The objective of the part of the program being tested; The standard expected of the trainees; The type of trainee; The place at which the test is to be set; The ease with which the test can be marked or judged. Choice of a Training Technique. The choice of training techniques is important to a successful training program. A program which envisages all knowledge being put across in the form of telling and all practice of skill being done at the place of work will not be as successful as one which employs the different available training techniques to advantage. The choice of techniques should be made with the following points in mind: The end result to be achieved The person who is to give the particular session The type of trainee The time of day The technique used for other items of the program Tips of Lesson Preparation and Presentation
Consider your overall objective. What is the objective of this particular lesson in relation to the total course? What do you want the group to do better or to do differently, or what do you want them to know or understand as a result of your instruction? In other words, what do you want their terminal behaviour to be? Consider the group. How much do they already know about the subject? What is their general attitude toward the subject likely to be? What is their intellectual level? How fast will they be able to work? Is the group homogenous from this point of view? Does the group have any particular learning difficulties that must be taken into account? What is the size of the group? Consider the Time Available. How much time do you have to prepare? What is the total time available for the lesson (including time for out-of-class reading and/or problem-solving)? What time of the day or evening is the lesson to be given? Consider the Resources Available. Is the necessary equipment available for any special demonstrations? Is there time to obtain it and set it up? Is time available for the class to do preparatory reading? Is a guest speaker, resource person, special film or any other assistance required for the lesson? Have prior arrangements been made to have any of these available? Plan and Schedule the Subject Matter. Most instructors have at their disposal only a limited time in which to give their lesson, therefore it is always advisable to grade the subject matter carefully so as to ensure that the more essential ingredients of the lesson are put over and understood within the time allocated for instruction. Develop the Lesson Material. Prepare suitable exercises, demonstrations, sample problems or illustrations (including visual aid displays) as appropriate, to reinforce the lesson. Review films or other supplementary material for suitability. Prepare discussion questions and test questions if necessary. Prepare handouts, plan chalkboard notes. etc. Prepare a Lesson Plan. See that the order of presentation is logical from the groups point of view. Proceed from the known to the unknown, from the simple to the complex and from the particular to the general. Note down in the plan where you will use prepared exercises or special demonstration (including visual aids) or a discussion or question period. Estimate the length of time to be used for each section of the lesson. Classroom Arrangements. Arrive in advance to check the physical arrangements in the classroom
Introduction. Start the lesson punctually. Put the group at ease. Announce the subject of the lesson briefly and concisely. Relate the lesson to previous instruction and to the program as a whole. Try to get the interest of the group, and motivate them to do what they want to learn. A handout is a must, if the trainer wants the participants to remember what he said. Body of the Lesson. Use your lesson plan throughout. Follow a logical sequence. Use questions and answers to check understanding. Keep track of the time; leave time for note-taking or other administrative matters. Recapitulation. Review briefly the ground you have covered; memory is helped by repetition. Use questions reveal misunderstanding and clear them up. Deal tactfully with incorrect answers. Test. Make sure that questions, problems or exercises selected for testing purposes adequately cover the material which has been taught. Make sure that questions are not ambiguous. Go over the areas of weakness revealed by the test. The trainees should have a reasonable chance of answering the questions or completing the task in the time available.
Methods and Techniques of Training

Training techniques represent the medium of imparting skills and knowledge to employees. They are the means applied in training methods. Among the most commonly used techniques are lectures, films, audio cassettes, case studies, role plays and simulations. Important techniques of training viz. lectures, audio-visuals, on-the-job training, programmed instruction, computer-aided instruction, simulation and sensitivity training have been elaborated below. On-the-job methods refer to methods that are applied at the work place, while the employee is actually working. Off-the-job methods are used away from the work place. Lecture Method: A verbal presentation of information by an instructor to a large audience is commonly known as a lecture. The lecturer is presumed to possess a considerable depth of knowledge of the subject at hand. A virtue of this method is that it can be used for very large groups, and hence the cost per trainee is low. Audio-Visuals: Television slides, overheads, video-tapes and films comprise the audio - visuals. These can be used to provide wide range of realistic examples of job conditions and situations in a condensed period of time. On-the-Job Training (OJT): Majority of industrial training is of the OJT type. OJT is conducted at the work site and in the context of the job. Often, it is informal, as when an experienced worker shows a trainee how to perform
the job tasks. OJT is the most effective method as the trainee learns by experience and becomes more competent. Further, this method is least expensive since no formal training is organised. Programmed Instruction: This is a technique where training is offered without the intervention of a trainer. Information is provided to the trainee in blocks, either in book form or through a training machine. After reading each block of material, the learner must answer a question about it. Feedback in the form of correct answers is provided after each response. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI): This is an extension of programmed instruction. The speed, memory and data manipulation capabilities of the computer permit greater utilization of basic programmed instruction concepts. Simulation: A simulator is any kind of equipment or technique that duplicates as nearly as possible the actual conditions encountered on the job. Simulation is an attempt to create a realistic decision-making environment for the trainee. Simulations present likely problem situations and decision alternatives to the trainee. The results of those decisions are reported back to the trainee with an explanation of what would have happened had they actually been made in the workplace. The trainee learns from this feedback and improves his subsequent simulation and workplace decisions. Case Study is a written description of an actual situation in business which provokes the reader to decide what is going on, what the situation really is or what the problems are and what can and should be done. Taken from the actual experiences of organisations, these cases represent attempts to describe, as accurately as possible, real problems that managers have faced. Trainees study the cases to determine problems, analyse causes, develop alternative solutions, select the best one, and implement it. Case study can provide simulating discussions among participants, as well as excellent opportunities for individuals to defend their analytical and judgmental abilities. Role Playing generally focuses on emotional (mainly human relations) issues rather than actual ones. The essence of role playing is to create a realistic situation, as in the case study, and then have the trainees assume the parts of specific personalities in the situation. Role playing helps promote interpersonal relations. Attitude change is another result of role playing. Case study and role playing are used in management development programs. Sensitivity Training: This type of training includes a small number of trainees, usually fewer than 12 in a group. They meet with a passive trainer and gain insight into their own and others behaviour. Meeting have no
agenda, are held away from workplaces and questions deal with the here and now of the group process. Discussions focus on why participants behave as they do, how they perceive one another, and the feelings and emotions generated in the interaction process. The objectives of sensitivity training are to provide the participants with increased awareness of their own behaviour and how others perceive them; greater sensitivity to the behaviour of others, and increased understanding of group processes. Specific results sought include increased ability to empathise with others, improved listening skills, greater openness, and increased tolerance of individual differences accompanied by better conflict resolution skills. Sensitivity training can go by a variety of names - laboratory training, encounter groups, or T-group (training groups). The Lecture Method, The Case Study Method, Role Playing and Games being the most common have been elaborated below. The Lecture Method. The use of lecturing depends on the subject matter, the training philosophy of the instructor or training centre, and the over-all learning situation. Formal lecturing has been used largely to build up basic theoretical knowledge which must be gained before practice or participative training sessions will not be of any use. If there are large numbers of people to be trained, scarce training resources, or few hours available for instruction, lecturing may be the only alternative. A certain amount of informal lecturing is inherent in the conduct of any course, to set out the course objectives, motivate trainees, provide explanation and analysis relevant to study exercises. Nevertheless, the lecture method has its limitations. Since it does not demand the active involvement of participants, it is largely unsuited to the training of skills, which require practice. It is also of limited value in promoting behavioural or attitudinal changes, which is a large part of management development. It is very difficult to convince anyone by merely talking at them; attitudes are changed best when people convince themselves. Participative methods are better for such purposes. Apart from the fact that sixty minutes of unrelieved talking is not easily assimilated or remembered, the major disadvantage of the lecture comes from the fact that it is a one-way communication. The listeners remain passive, for the most part. Unless the speaker is sensitive to his audience, he has no way of knowing whether or not they are taking in what he is saying. He has little opportunity to clarify meanings, to check on whether or not the trainees really understand what is being presented, or to handle the wide diversity of abilities and attitudes which they represent.
Basic steps in improving the instructional value of the lecture. Planning the Lecture. Before starting to prepare your lecture, you must be able to answer four basic questions: Who is your audience? - Who What is the purpose of your talk? - Why What is the time available? - How Long What is the subject matter? - What The Audience. Is their attitude likely to be friendly? Curious? Indifferent? Hostile (or skeptical)? Know the characteristics of your audience: their background, likes, dislikes, cultural features, level and nature of education. Are they used to listening to lectures? How fast will they be able to take in what you say? This may also involve their knowledge of languages. What does your audience know about the subject? What can you assume that they know before you start the lecture? It may be helpful to start with a general discussion or ask questions to get opinions. This approach will give you some idea about the knowledge of the group and allow you to make some last minute adjustments if necessary. Purpose of Talk. What do you want the audience to do or understand better as a result of your talk? Your approach will certainly vary depending on whether you wish to: Give general information on, or an appreciation of, a subject Gain acceptance for a new point of view Change basic attitudes Give detailed information Train a particular skill With a clearly-defined purpose in mind, it will be easier to select appropriate material and to decide on the most effective way to present it. Time Available. What is the total time available? How much of it will be taken up by formalities? How much time will you leave for questions and discussion? A good instructor respects the clock by narrowing down or adjusting his lecture to suit the time available. A sag-point in the audiences interest occurs after about twenty minutes. A trainer should thus plan his talk and deliver so that interest is reawakened and passive listeners are reactivated from time to time, by the use of interesting examples, humor, rhetorical questions, and audience participation through discussion or question period. etc.
Subject Matter. Poor choice of subject or lack of sufficient knowledge about it may mean death for a lecture. It is important to speak from your own knowledge and experience, but at the same time your topic and approach must be relevant to the needs and interests of the audience. Preparing The Lecture. Prepare the notes from which you will speak. Whatever type you use - cards, paper sheets - they should be easily readable and sequentially numbered to avoid possible confusion. Plan and prepare visual aids. Various training aids may be employed to make the lecture more interesting and more easily assimilated by the listeners by engaging their sense of sight. The fact of having to make them often forces the lecturer to clarify and organize his thoughts. Rehearse. Rehearsing the lecture is an essential step, even for most experienced lecturers. The speaker has an opportunity to check his speed and his delivery of it. This may reveal points at which he is unintentionally unclear, transitions that are made too abruptly for his listeners to follow, and other errors that can creep into even the best planned lecture. Try out your visual aids; finalize plans for their arrangement, ensuring that they are readable and clearly visible in the training room. The chief value of the rehearsal is in familiarizing the speaker with his speech. Even experienced lecturers suffer from stage fright on occasions. One or two dry runs through a lecture can build a speakers confidence. Deliver the Lecture. Make sure that you arrive at the appointed place a few minutes ahead of time so that you can check the physical arrangements which have been made. Such as layout of the chairs and tables, lectern, training aids, provision of chalk and eraser. Covering the Material. Start punctually and speak from your notes if necessary. Read a phrase, pause and look at the audience. Do not read all your lecture or you will have no audience left by the time you finish. Posture. If you have a choice, speak from a position that is comfortable for you but appropriate to the situation. Position should also be convenient to manipulate most visual aids. Some speakers prefer to use a lectern because it holds notes at standing height. Appearance. Speakers should make sure that there is nothing about their personal appearance which is out of harmony with the occasion or which is likely to irritate the audience or distract their attention. Clothes should be neat and suitable for the occasion. One should look confident and friendly (even if nervous) as audiences are very susceptible to first impressions. Manner. Any kind of leadership - talking before a group, organizing a discussion - requires a certain confidence and dignity to gain and hold the attention of the group. Be courteous. Careless choice of language or humor
or a thoughtless gesture may create barriers to communication which will be difficult to overcome later. Be Sincere. Audience is quick to judge speakers - they are not misled by cleverness and they dont like insincerity. Say what you mean and say it as if you meant it. Be yourself - dont try to imitate anyone else. Be enthusiastic, let your talk reveal and convince the audience of your own interest in the subject. Gesture. Any actions and gestures must be natural and spontaneous; if they are forced then it is best to do without them. Gestures must be purposeful and not just flapping of the hands. Mannerisms - jiggling coins, playing with the chalk, walking about the platform for no apparent reason should be avoided, as they are distracting and sometimes extremely annoying. Try to avoid leaning on the table or the lectern or putting your hands in your pockets. Avoid smoking before your lecture. Voice. The tone of the voice can be altered to convey confidence, emotion, emphasis and indignation. Pace and volume should be varied occasionally to avoid monotony. Rehearsal helps; it takes away some of the strangeness and novelty of the actual lecture. Vocabulary. It is best to use everyday language, avoiding slang, which could be misunderstood, preferring short, familiar words and keeping sentences short. Be very careful with funny stories - especially if you are not a born story teller, or if the audience is unknown to you. Choose stories that are relevant to the point you are trying to make. The Case Study Method. One of the fundamental tasks of a manager is to make and to implement decisions. These decisions are, for the most part, based on analysis of such facts and other information as may be available. Rarely, however, can the manager have access to unlimited information and he often has to make decisions on incomplete information and under conditions of uncertainty. One of the foremost tasks of any effective management education, therefore, must be to improve the ability to mangers and next in line managers to take wise decisions and make plans for their successful implementation. In essence, the case method in management education aims at developing skills in discovering and defining the vital questions that need to be answered and then to learn how to set about finding the answers. Almost inevitably the businessman is compelled to decide on a course of action before he can obtain all the facts he would like to have. The case study technique is based on the belief that the trainee can best attain managerial understanding and competence through the study, contemplation and discussion of actual situations. The rigorous analysis required, especially in the longer cases, is said to develop habits of logical thinking and searching for as complete information as possible before reaching conclusions.
Experience in arguing a viewpoint before ones peers also develops ability to communicate clearly. Role Playing. Role playing is a training technique in which participants assume an identity other than their own, to cope with real or hypothetical problems in human relations and other areas. In playing their roles, participants undertake to act out behaviour patterns they believe are characteristic of those roles in specific social situations. For example, two trainees might act out an interview, one taking the role of manager, the other of a subordinate, in which the manager is responsible for evaluating the job performance of the subordinate. Major variables, thus, include the role itself; the role requirements, that is the specific behaviour patterns the player builds into the role; the social situation presented to the person playing the role; and the participants own personality. Major Aims. Role playing allows a player to practice reacting in conflict and other stressful situations. Simulation of reality, in this way, eliminates many of the risks and accountability inherent in real life while retaining may other aspects of the interaction. In other words, role playing permits experimentation with different ways of behaving in a given situation. Roles can be selected which are in contrast to the real-life situations of the player so as to provide vicarious experience and widen the insight of the trainee into the real meaning and possible implication of the behaviour of other persons with whom he comes into contact. The social situations which are presented to the participant playing a given role can be varied, to exploit a wide range of reactions which the trainee may believe to be appropriate to the role. Since the role-playing exercise permits practice in reaching to conflict situations without the risks normally inherent in real organisational life, mistakes can be tolerated. Design and Methodology. Either of two approaches is generally used: Structured Role Playing: A leader selects both the situation and the role to be enacted, and specifies the goals of the activity. This type of pre-planned role playing provides, in some cases, very elaborate written materials that describe the roles and situation, and elicit complex responses from the observers. In more simple cases, if, for example, the goal for the group is to study different leadership patterns, the trainer might assume the role of the leader in the role-play, and orally assign the other roles. A variation of this approach consists of having the role playing planned in advance by members of the group itself rather than by the leader. This would be appropriate when trying to communicate information, setting and studying a social problem, or interpreting a report. The simulated situation is presented to the group first, followed by the enactment. The leader or group planning the exercise may determine the degree of spontaneity desired and adjust how much the players should or should not be told in advance.
Spontaneous Role Playing: This approach relies on the problem situation arising from a group discussion, without advance planning by the group or leader. In this instance, the enactment itself serves as the briefing to the group on the problem and situation. Both structured and spontaneous role playing relate to learning through (a) doing, (b) imitation, (c) observation and feedback, and (d) analysis. Role playing represents a form of experiential learning. It is a training technique in which participants, grouped into teams, consider a sequence of problems and organize themselves to make decisions. It is a form of simulation, which may be defined as a sequential decision-making exercise structured around a hypothetical model of an organisations operations, in which participants assume roles in managing the simulated operations. Its most crucial aspect is the attempt to reproduce the social psychological and economic dynamics of organisational behaviour in an artificial setting. Using a set of relationships built into a skeletal model of an organisation, the decisions which are made by the participants are processed to produce a series of hypothetical actions in the form of performance reports. Games. Games can be incorporated into training courses in many ways. They can be used at the beginning of training courses as an orientation device. They can be used more than once, perhaps before and after a particular management principle or technique has been discussed. However, for greater effectiveness, games should be used only with a clear understanding of the objectives to be attained. Major Aims. The purpose of management games is to increase a persons understanding of: (1) Specific organisational problems (marketing, production, etc); (2) the inter-relatedness of the functions and parts of an organisation and its relation to its environment; (3) the problems of organisation policy and decision making; (4) the problems of working in a team. Design and Methodology. Games may be extremely simple or complex and of considerable depth. Most games, notably at the functional and sub-functional levels, are designed for each participant to represent an individual decision-making unit. In other games, group decision making is the rule. The number of teams in a game is largely predetermined by its purpose. Manual games are generally restricted to a dozen teams or less. The maximum number of members per team depends largely on the complexity of the game and the time available for an effective organisation effort and intra-team communication in decision making. Four to seven members is the usual size of teams though some games have teams as large as fifteen members. The number of decision activities in a game run should be great enough to permit the teams to establish a working organisation, to become involved in
planning and to see the results. The time available for making decisions within each period of play during a game run is normally related to the complexity of the game. In practice, one finds in use periods ranging from a few minutes to two hours or more. At other times, the games are played to provide quite deliberately too little time for participants to analyse the situation and to assess the information available to them before reaching the next decision. This can produce a situation of strain and tension between members of the group which not only adds to the general excitement of the session, but produces what in some quarters is regarded as an approximation of the actual strain which is involved in the real world in making administrative decisions. Post-play evaluation sessions are important, and continuous review of decisions is usually a component of the game. In addition, provision may be made for periodic review sessions involving comparison with other teams as a part of the game.
Use of Audio Visual Aids

Research and experience have shown that audio-visual techniques can significantly increase and reinforce learning. Not only do they add interest to a presentation, but by engaging more than one of the senses, they also facilitate listening and remembering. In the teaching of abstract concepts or unfamiliar subjects, visualization can be essential to understanding. Visual aids will not automatically increase training effectiveness however; they must be carefully designed to support a lesson and to suit a particular audience and situation. The planning and preparation of such aids requires time, thought and imagination, in: Selecting the points to be visualized; Translating ideas into suitably visual forms; Choosing the most appropriate medium; Designing layout and choosing colour; Making the aid; Evaluating its effectiveness and revising for future use. Deciding which device to use. Proper use of visual aids requires a considerable investment of time and thought. It is better not to use any device unless you are prepared to give the time and attention that is required in designing your talk and the visuals which are to be used, and adequate rehearsal and other preparation required to use the visuals properly. No one device is the best answer to all visual aid situations. In choosing the best device for use in a particular presentation, the following are among the factors which must be considered: Circumstances Subject Cost
Availability
Devices Available. Chalkboard Flip Chart or Newsprint Pad Plastic Writing Board or White board Magnetic Board Flannel Board Overhead Projector
Designing the Visuals. Designing visuals is a good thing because many talks are too complex or are organized in a confusing way, and the process of developing visuals will improve many talks. To start designing visuals go through your talk sentence by sentence, idea by idea, and decide what needs to be visualized and what can be visualized, and then start thinking of ways and means. The things that can be visualized include ideas, concepts, relationships, processes. Visuals can be used: To bring out a series of facts and the conclusion to which they lead; To bring out points which need to be emphasized; To attract attention through unusual devices or colour; To present complex processes (industrial, material, chemicals); To introduce new and unfamiliar objects and concepts; To show relationships which exist among facts or objects; To show in outline form the growth of a complex idea, or the treatment of a subject so as to enable people to see readily which are the major and which are the subordinate points. Methodology. Use pictures wherever possible - supplemented as necessary by words and figures. Use words (singly or in phrases) as a second choice. Use the image area as a graph: to present statistics and statistical processes; to present mathematics. Use the image area as a form: to present accounting reports, statistical tabulations, and similar matters. Use unusual devices: lines, arrows, elastic, movable ribbons, multiplelayer images. Use colour as often as possible (see section below on uses of colour) for coding, stressing key facts, etc. Use your imagination!
Evaluation of Training
The last stage in the training and development process is the evaluation of results. Training and development requires a huge economical investment thus it is necessary to judge how far the program has been useful. Evaluation helps to determine the results of the training and development program. Need for Evaluation. The main objective of evaluating the training program is to determine if it has corrected performance deficiencies. A second reason of evaluation is to ensure that any changes in the trainees capability are due to the training program and not due to any other reason. Training programs should be evaluated to determine their cost effectiveness. Evaluation also is useful to provide explanation incase of program failure. Finally, credibility of training and development is greatly enhanced when it is proved that the organisation has benefited tangibly from it.
Principles of Evaluation. Evaluation of the training program must be based on the following principles: Evaluation specialist must be clear about the goals and purposes of evaluation. It must be continuous and specific. Evaluation must provide the means and focus for trainers to be able to appraise themselves, their practices, and their products. It must be based on objective methods and standards. Realistic target dates must be set for each phase of the evaluation process. A sense of urgency must be developed but deadlines that are unreasonably high will result in poor evaluation. Why Evaluate? Evaluation has two purposes. First, it can be used for assessing training effectiveness. Secondly, it can itself be used as a training aid. The primary purpose of evaluation is to improve training by discovering which training processes are successful in achieving their objectives (to sort out the good training from the bad). Many trainers hope to obtain completely objective information on the results of training. In practice, this is usually impossible, since any evaluation exercise affects the nature of the situation studies. For example, if we ask trainees for information about their reactions to training, we change the nature of their reactions. If we set trainees with an examination at the end of a course, we affect the nature of their learning.
This leads us to the second purpose of evaluation. Since evaluation affects learning, it can be put to use as a training aid (an aid to learning). Its effects are likely to be beneficial, since it is a primary principle of the psychology of learning that knowledge of results facilitates good learning. Evaluation can help trainees to learn more effectively. Techniques of Evaluation. Several techniques of evaluation are used in organisations. One approach towards evaluation is to use experimental and control groups. Each group is randomly selected; one to receive training (experimental) and the other not to receive training (control), random selection helps to assure the formation of groups quite similar to each other. Measures are taken of the relevant indicators of success (e.g. words typed per minute, quality pieces produced per hour) before and after training for both groups. If the gains demonstrated by the experimental group are better than those of the control group, the training program is labeled as successful. Another method of evaluation is to pass out a questionnaire to the trainees after the completion of the program to obtain their opinions about the programs worth. Their opinions could also be obtained through interviews. A variation of this method is to measure the knowledge/skills that employees possess at the commencement and completion of training. If the measurement reveals that the results after training are satisfactory, then the training may be taken as successful. Levels of Evaluation The process which occurs as a result of a successful training program can be divided into four levels. Evaluation can be carried out at any of these levels. 1. The Reaction level. Trainees react to the training (form opinions and attitudes about the trainer, the method of presentation, the usefulness and interest of the subject matter, their own enjoyment and involvement, etc.) 2. The Learning Level. Trainees learn (acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes about the subject matter of the training, which they are capable of translating into behaviour within the training situation). 3. The Job Behaviour Level. Trainees apply this learning in the form of changed behaviour back on the job. 4. The Functioning Level (Efficiency and Costs). This changed job behaviour affects the functioning of the firm (or the behaviour of individuals other than the trainees). These changes can be measured by a variety of indices, many of which can be expressed in terms of costs. Evaluation at the reactions level provides: A short-term subjective assessment of the trainees reactions to the course; An indication of those parts of the course which need immediate alterations;
Evaluation at learning level obtains information on the amount of learning that trainees acquire during the training program - measures increased knowledge. Sometimes referred to as the level of immediate outcomes. How: usually through examination or testing systems. Benefits: enables trainer to establish base data; provides trainee with knowledge of results which helps him to identify his own area of need. Drawbacks: measurement of increased knowledge alone is unsuitable does not indicate managers ability to use or apply it to his work. Evaluation at job behaviour level discovers whether or not trainees have applied their learning in the form of changed behaviour on the job measures effectiveness of training programs in terms of on-the-job behaviour. Sometimes referred to as the level of intermediate outcomes. How: depending on complexity of job - systematic appraisal on a before-and-after basis, trainers observations through involvement in job situation. Benefits: indicates whether or not training program was effective; gets top and senior management involved. Drawbacks: more difficult to evaluate than reactions and learning levels; time-consuming for the trainer. Evaluation at functioning level measures the effects of the trainees job behaviour on the productivity of efficiency of the trainees department or on the morale of his subordinates. Sometimes referred to as the level of longterm or ultimate outcomes. How: reduce turnover, reduce costs, reduction in grievances, increase in quality and quantity of production. Benefits: evaluates training program directly in terms of results desired. Drawbacks: difficult to know how much of the improvement can be directly attributed to a specific training program - depends partly on how specific the objectives of the training are. These four levels can be seen as a chain of cause and effect. The chain can be broken at any of its links: a trainee may react correctly but fail to learn; or he may learn, but fail to apply his learning on the job; or he may change his job behaviour, but this may have no effect on the functioning of the firms. Thus, ideally we should evaluate at every level. If we ignore the more distant levels, we will only discover the more superficial change. If we ignore the immediate levels (reactions and learning), we are in danger of being unable to explain any changes that we discover, because we have not followed through every link in the chain. (For instance, we might discover the trainees job behaviour had deteriorated after the training; but unless we had evaluated at the reactions and learning levels, we would not know why this had happened and so would not be able to improve the training). In many cases, however, it may be impractical or undesirable to evaluate at every level, e.g. For simple forms of training with clearly defined objectives (e.g. training an operator to work a machine, where the skill components of the job have been
precisely defined) it is possible to evaluate directly at the job behaviour and functioning levels. For very complex form of training, with wide or ill-defined objectives (e.g. many forms of supervisory and management training) it may be impossible to evaluate at the more distant levels. For instance, we may be training supervisors to improve their communication with their subordinates (Job Behaviour Level) but we may have no idea how to measure the effect of these changes on the functioning of the firm. Or we may know too little about the trainees job content to be able to evaluate job behaviour, and we may therefore have to concentrate on the Reactions and Learning Levels, and to set objectives at these levels only.
Objective Setting and Evaluation. The choice of evaluation criteria depends on the objectives of the training. Therefore, post-training evaluation is intimately connected with the pre-training investigation of training needs and the establishment of training objectives. The more precise the objectives, the more precisely can training be evaluated. The level at which training is evaluated should be the level at which the objectives of training are set. When to Evaluate? Evaluation data (at any - the four levels) can be obtained during training, immediately after training, or at a specified time (or times) after the end of training. In each case, it should if possible be compared with information on the before-training situation. Quantified or Un-quantified? Evaluation data can be either quantified (measured, systematic, numerical) or un-quantified (descriptive, unsystematic, verbal). The two types of data have complementary advantages and disadvantages. Because of its narrowness and specificity, quantified data should never be taken at its face value, but should be interpreted in the light of un-quantified data. Techniques of Evaluation. There is a wide range of possible techniques at each level of evaluation. The selection of the correct technique (or combination of techniques) for a particular situation depends on the nature of the training objectives; the design of training and the training methods; the relationship between trainers, trainees and their superiors; the finance available; and other factors. Evaluation should be tailor-made to fit the needs of the situation. All evaluation techniques (with the exception of some at the functioning level) are variations on the two themes of watching and asking (observation and questionnaire/interview). What makes a successful instructor? The following bullets simply point out what are considered the basic minimum requirements for a successful instructor. Some instructors can meet all these requirements and many more. On the other hand, it is doubtful whether a man can perform successfully as an instructor unless and until he can meet the minimum specification set out below. He must: Want to instruct.
Know how to instruct. Know how people learn. Have the right personality. Be able to communicate. Be flexible.
Conclusion
The trainer can make his training programs effective and successful by keeping the following in mind: Specific training objectives should be outlined on the basis of the type of performance required to achieve organizational goals and objectives. Attempt should be made to determine if the trainee has the intelligence, maturity, and motivation to successfully complete the training program. The trainee should be motivated to see the need for training by making him aware of the personal benefits he can achieve through better performance. The training program should be planned so that it is related to the trainees previous experiences and background. Attempts should be made to create organisational conditions that are conductive to a good learning environment. It should be made clear why changes are needed. A combination of training methods should be selected so that variety is permitted and as many of the senses as possible are utilized. Flexibility should be allowed in judging the rates of progress in the training program. Personal involvement or active participation of the trainee should be got in the training program. He should be provided with opportunity to practice the newly needed behaviour norms.

Handout - Training The Trainer

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Training for Trainers

People transform Organisations, We transform People.

Training for Trainers

Contents Page No.

People Transform Organisations, We Transform People. L. R. Associates Pvt. Ltd. 2

Training for Trainers

Role of Training and Development

Training for Trainers

Training for Trainers

Areas of Training - Knowledge, Skill and Attitude

Training for Trainers

Training for Trainers

Training for Trainers

Identifying Training Needs - Training Need Analysis

Training for Trainers

Develop Training Objectives

Measure Training Results

Design Training Curriculum

Conduct Training Programs

Design/Select Training Methods

Design Training Evaluations Methodology

Training for Trainers

Designing a Training Program

Training for Trainers

Training for Trainers

Factors to be considered in the Selection of Training Methods

Training for Trainers

Training for Trainers

Training for Trainers

Training for Trainers

Training for Trainers

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Training for Trainers

Training for Trainers

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Training for Trainers

Methods and Techniques of Training

Training for Trainers

Training for Trainers

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Training for Trainers

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Training for Trainers

Training for Trainers

Training for Trainers

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Training for Trainers

Training for Trainers

Use of Audio Visual Aids

Training for Trainers

Training for Trainers

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Training for Trainers

Training for Trainers

Training for Trainers

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